Journal of Sciences Effect of Different Planting Methods on Soil ...

Volume 6 No.10, October 2016

ISSN 2224-3577

International Journal of Science and Technology

©2016 IJST. All rights reserved http://www.ejournalofsciences.org

Effect of Different Planting Methods on Soil Moisture Content and Yield of Paddy Rice Under Rain-fed Condition in Wa West District of Upper West Region of Ghana Shaibu Abdul-Ganiyu1, Ishikawa Hirohiko2, Thomas Apusiga Adongo1, Gordana Kranjac-Berisavljevic1 1

University for Development Studies, Faculty of Agriculture, Tamale, Ghana 2 Kyoto University

ABSTRACT Rain-fed farming systems dominate Ghanaian agriculture, especially regarding the cultivation of major staples, such as maize, yam, cassava and rice. In this environment, farmers depend strongly on seasonal rains and every alteration in precipitation distribution affects their very livelihood. Recent threats of climate change aggravate the already delicate balance of food production and security. The research therefore determined the effect different planting method on soil moisture and yield of rainfed lowland rice production in Wa West District. Experimental plots were laid out in randomized complete design with four replicates and four treatments, comprising different planting methods: T1 (Transplanting); T2 (Dibbling); T3 (Drilling) and T4 (Broadcasting). The size of each plot was 9 m x 9 m (49 m2) surrounded by bunds with bund height of 10 cm, bottom width of 10 cm and top with of 5 cm. The space between plots was 1m. Soil moisture content was monitored using Tensiometers and Time Domain Reflectrometer, while Minolta Chlorophyll Meter SPAD-502 was used to determine the amount of chlorophyll present in the leaves. Crop parameters monitored were plant height number of leaves, days to 50 % flowering and maturity, LAI, HI, chlorophyll content, grain and biomass yields. The effect of different planting methods on rice growth parameters such as plant height, maximum tiller count, LAI, days to 50 % and maturity were significantly different for transplanting, drilling, dibbling and broadcasting in the wet season rice production for the On-Farm experiment. With respect to yield components and yield, grain yield, HI and above ground biomass were significantly different for all the planting methods with dibbling giving the highest yield whiles drilling the lowest. The results from the experiments therefore suggested that, under rainfed condition dibbling is the best planting method for rice production as it promotes growth characteristics leading to high grain and biomass yields as well as harvest index. Maximum soil and air temperatures were within the optimum range for rain-fed rice production in the District. Even though rainfall amount was low, the soil moisture content was at either field capacity or near saturation with some occasional floods throughout the various growth stages giving out only small amount of water to deep percolation, as such the total crop evapotranspiration was within the water requirement for rice production in the 2015 raining season. Since dibbling yielded highest as compared to the rest of the treatments rice famers should be advised to adopt that planting method to maximise yield. Farmers should be advised to start planting of rice in July to escape the effect of drought on crop establishment and growth due to low rainfall amount and high amount of dry-spell in May-June. Keywords: Broadcasting, drilling, dibbling, lowland, rice, rainfed

1. INTRODUCTION Rice is a semi-aquatic annual grass plant and is the most important cereal crop in the developing world. Ninety percent (90%) of all rice is grown and consumed in Asia [3]; [21]. Rice feeds more than half the people in the world [8] but not well and may not do so for much longer. As the population rises, so does the demand for rice. Yet, yields of the crop are levelling out. How the current level of annual rice production of around 545 million tons can be increased to about 700 million tons to feed an additional 650 million rice eaters by 2025 using less water and less land is indeed the great challenge in Asia [8]. A study showed that most Asian countries will not be able to feed their projected populations without irreversibly degrading their land resources, even with high levels of management inputs [4].

Rice production in West Africa, which includes many of the poorest countries in the world, lags well behind demand and no country in West Africa is self-sufficient. Per capita consumption of rice (Oryza spp. L.) in Ghana increased from 17.5 kg per annum between 1999 and 2001 to 22.6 kg per annum between 2002 and 2004. By 2011, it had reached 38 kg per annum and projected to reach 63 kg per annum by 2015. This increase has transformed rice into Ghana’s most important cereal food crop after maize [9]. Rice is considered to be the second most important grain food staple in Ghana, next to maize [22]. Rice is also the first imported cereal in the country accounting for 58 % of cereal imports [7] accounting for 5 % of total agricultural imports in Ghana over the period 2005-2009. It should be noted that rice is only one of the sources of carbohydrates available in Ghana. Root crops such as cassava, yam, cocoyam as well as plantains and maize are also relevant food crops in terms of domestic production. Rice is the 5th most important source of energy in the diet accounting for 9 % of total caloric intake [13].


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According to [26], the role of rice as a staple in many areas means that poor households will face higher costs unless rice can be produced more efficiently without simply increasing input levels. But supply response has been limited: large-scale rice 'projects' have almost uniformly failed and most agencies have concluded that increased productivity will only be delivered through disseminating new technologies in collaboration with farmers. Without more effective knowledge transfer the development of rice varieties of doubtful value to poor farmers will continue, with the consequence that adoption rates will remain low and supply correspondingly flat, thereby fulfilling FAO projections. In 1989, the International Rice Research Institute [16], based in the Philippines, 1989, defined three major rice environments, as follows: Irrigated rice: grown in areas with assured irrigation for one or more crops each year, with some areas served only by supplementary irrigation in the wet season Rain-fed lowland rice: grown in bunded fields where the water depth does not exceed 50cm for more than 10 consecutive days and the fields are inundated for at least part of the season. Such fields have no access to an irrigation system, but may have on-farm rainwater conservation facilities.

According to [18], cereal production is an important component of farming systems in the Upper West region. Important among these are sorghum, millet and, to a lesser extent, rice. Farmers in the Upper West region grow rice under very trying conditions because of the unreliable climate, diseases and pests. The adverse climatic conditions are coupled with scarce resources at the disposal of farmers, which makes input acquisition a chronic problem. Farmers therefore mostly rely on traditional rice varieties, suited to growing in unfavourable conditions. The most common method of planting rice in the Upper West Region is by digging holes in the ground with the aid of a hand hoe at the start of the main rains. Dry rice seeds, held in a calabash specially made for the purpose, are then dropped in small quantities into the holes and covered up. This is different from broadcasting, which is used in the waste floodplains of the White Volta, where the bulk of rice production in northern Ghana is carried out [18]. This research evaluated yield and soil moisture conditions response to different planting methods of rice in the lowland areas of Upper West Regions so as to enable farmers make an informed decision regarding effective and efficient rice planting.

Upland rice: grown in rain-fed unbunded fields with naturally well drained soils and no surface water accumulation.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

In Ghana, Irrigated rice yields vary from 3.5 to 7 t/ha [11]. Nevertheless, the 4.6 t/ha average irrigated rice yield sharply contrasts with the 1.0-1.5 t/ha under uncontrolled water conditions. The mean yield of sawah rice without fertilizer application is estimated between 2 and 2.5 t/ha. Irrigated rice production is insignificant in the Upper West Region in general and particularly in the study area (Wa West District). Rice production is carried out mostly in lowlands and valley bottoms. The majority of rice farmers prepare their rice fields manually, using hand hoes, while very few capable farmers employ tractor and animal power during land preparation. The reasons given for manual land preparation include high cost and unavailability of tractor services. According to [2], the average rice yield in the region is 1.6 t/ha.

Wa West District is one of the nine districts that make up the Upper West Region. It was created in 2004, with Wechiau as the District Capital. The District is located in the Western part of the Upper West Region, approximately between longitudes 40ºN and 45ºN and latitudes 9ºW and 32ºW. The district has five Area Councils, namely Dorimon, Ga, Gurungu, Vieri, and Wechiau with approximately 208 communities including Baleofili where the experiment was conducted in 2015. It shares borders to the south with Northern Region, NorthWest by Nadowli District, East by Wa Municipal and to the West by The Republic of Burkina Faso. Figure 1 presents the sketch of Wa West District [22].

2.1 Description of the Study Area


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Figure 1: The sketch of Wa West District (MoFA, 2015)

The study area at Baleofili is also part of the adopted sites for the ongoing research on climate and ecosystem changes in northern Ghana titled “Enhancing Resilience to Climate and Ecosystem Changes in Semi-Arid Africa: An Integrated Approach (CECAR Africa)”.The district lies in the Savanna high plains, which are generally undulating with an average height of between 180 m and 300 m above sea level. The rolling nature of the landscape is good for agriculture and other physical developments. The main drainage system is the Black Volta River and its tributaries. Most of the tributaries and streams are seasonal.There are two main soil types, the most extensive being the ground water lateritic soil. There are also the Savanna orchrosols found along the Black Volta. The Wa West District enjoys two marked weather seasons. The rainy season begins in May and ends in September and the dry season begins in October and ends in April. The mean annual rainfall figures vary between 840 mm and 1400 mm. A very important feature of rainfall in the district is that it is erratic and torrential in nature.The soil moisture is adequate for the cultivation of crops such as guinea corn, millet, maize, yam, groundnuts, soyabeans and cowpea. The unreliable nature of rainfall in the district affects plant growth negatively resulting in poor harvest from year to year. Temperatures for the year are ranging between 22.5ºC to 45ºC, lower between December and January, and high between March and April. Average monthly maximum temperature is 33ºC whereas the daily highest is 35ºC. The vegetation of the Wa West District is of the Guinea Savanna grassland type. The predominant trees in the district are Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa), dawadawa (Parkia biglobosa), Kapok (Ceiba pentandra), Baobab (Adansonia dipitata), mahogany (Khaya

snegalensis), cashew (Anacardium occidentale), mangoes (Mangifera indica), Akee apple (Blighia sapida), Guava (Psidium guajava),Teak (Tectona grandis), Neem (Azadirachta indica). The 2000 National Population and Housing census results put the Wa West District population at 69,170. This is about 6.20% of the Upper West Region’s total population of 576,583. The population comprises 33,547 males and 35,623 females representing 48.50% and 51.50% respectively and the sex ratio is 94 males to 100 females [14]. There is intense pressure on the natural resource particularly land for agricultural production as well as socio-economic facilities. The growth rate of the district is estimated to be 1.7%. The economy in the district is basically rural in nature involving over 90% of the population who are subsistent farmers. The farming system in the district is dictated by the agro-ecological conditions; largely by the rainfall pattern which is uni-modal. Two clearly defined farm types recognized in the district are compound and bush farms. Compound farms surround the settlements and are put under intensive cultivation on annual basis. Land preparation is by hand hoeing and in few cases, draught animals and tractors are used. Fertility management of the soil lies in the use of household refuse, crop residue and animal dung. Crops planted are mostly maize, sorghum groundnut cowpea and vegetables. Crop such as tobacco may also be planted but on a very small scale.

2.2 Methodology Laboratory analysis: Composite soil samples (0–15 and 15–30-cm depths) were collected after land clearing to


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analyse for texture, pH (H2 O), Organic Carbon content and Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). Data on Soil physical properties such as field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) moisture contents, bulk density (BD) and relative saturation were measured using gravimetric methods. Soil water infiltration was determined using Dicagon infiltrometer.

Experimental Layout: The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with four replicates as presented in Figure 2. Four (4) treatments consisting of Transplanting of rice seedlings, (T1), Dry seed broadcasting, (T2), Sowing of dry seed by drilling, (T 3) and Sowing of dry seed by dibbling, (T 4) were laid on sixteen plots. The treatments were distributed randomly and independently in each block using Draw lots method.

T1: Transplanting T2:Dibbling

T3: Drilling

T

T

T4:Broadcasting U12

MicroLysimeter T Rain gauge T T

Soil Temperature Plot T1: 20 cm Plot T2: 20 cm Plot T3: 20 cm Plot T4: 20 cm Tensio-meter

Figure 2: Experimental Lay out in Randomized Complete Block Design

Rice Variety and Planting method: The variety of rice that was used for the experiments was Jasmine 85 (Gbewaa rice) with 115 days growing period. The land was ploughed, harrowed, levelled and demarcated into Plots of 9 m x 9 m (49 m2) per treatment surrounded by bunds. Bund height was 10 cm, bottom width 10 cm and top with 5 cm and they were well compacted to reduce seepage. Seedlings were transplanted at 22 days after nursing. Sowing and Transplanting were done manually at a spacing of 20 cm × 20 cm and one seedling per stand. Sowing was done 25th July, 2015 while harvesting was on 23rd November, 2015, at which time the paddy rice grain had about 14-15 % moisture content. Fertilization: Mineral fertilizer at the rates (120-60-60 kg/ha) were applied using both compound fertilizer (1515-15) as source of N, P and K and urea as N sources. Compound fertilizer (15-15-15) was applied as basal fertilizer at the rate of (60-60-60 kg/ha), that is 2 kg/plot a week after transplanting to the rice crop. At maximum tillering stage, (30-0-0 kg/ha) of fertiliszer was applied (320 g/plot) using urea as N sources. The remaining 30 kg N (320 g/plot) was applied as topdressing at panicle initiation stage. Each time, fertilizer was applied by dibbling and burying the fertilizer doze in between four

(4) hills. Weeding was done manually by hand picking two weeks after transplanting/sowing and as and when weeds reappeared. Weeding was done four times altogether before the crop matured for harvesting. Instrumentation: Each of the treatments had tensiometer installed within the plot to monitor moisture status up to 20 cm depth of the root zone. TDR equipment with 20cm long probe was used to monitor volumetric soil moisture content in all the plots every 21 days after sowing. Minolta Chlorophyll Meter SPAD-502 was used to determine the amount of chlorophyll present in the leaves. Soil temperature logger with four probes was also calibrated and installed to measure root zone soil temperature variation at 20 cm depth, as shown in the layout. Rain gauge with data logger was calibrated and installed to measure the rainfall within the vicinity of the experiment.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1 Soil Chemical Properties of the Experimental Site The soils of the major rice growing areas of Wa West District are low in organic carbon (100 mg/kg) and phosphorus (> 10 mg/kg), as can be seen in Table 1. According to [11] rice thrives in sandy loam with high amount of clay or clay loam soils that has high water holding capacity, with

a pH of 5.7-7.5 and 800-1000 mm of rainfall evenly distributed throughout the growing season for good yield. This indicates that the pH of the soil in the Wa West District is within the recommended range.

Table 1: Soil Chemical Properties of the Wa West Experimental Area Location

Depth (cm)

pH H2o

% OC

% N

P (mg/kg)

K (mg/kg)

Ca (Cmol+/kg)

Mg (Cmol+/kg)

CEC (Cmol+/kg)

Upstream

0-15

6.84

0.39

0.04

10.88

154.92

1.63

0.72

3.14

Upstream

15-30

7.33

0.29

0.03

8.61

139.76

1.42

0.67

2.81

Downstream

0-15

6.05

1.64

0.16

15.08

256.87

1.36

0.94

3.61

Downstream

15-30

7.29

0.49

0.05

12.59

179.24

1.39

0.63

2.94

6.88

0.70

0.07

11.79

182.7

1.45

0.74

3.13

Average

( Source: Field Experiment, 2015) However, according to [1], the preferred soils for rice cultivation are fertile land with good water retention capacity; clayed soils are most desirable. This suggests that the downstream soils are more suitable for lowland rice cultivation due to their higher water holding capacity. The average infiltration capacity of the lowland soils at the experimental site was 5.05 mm/h and varied from 1.87 mm/h to 8.3 mm/h, indicating that the soils belong to hydrologic soil group B [24]. B - Soils have moderate infiltration rates if thoroughly wetted and consisting chiefly of moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well drained soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse textures. These soils have a moderate rate of water transmission (0.38 to 0.76 cm/h).

3.2 Soil Physical Properties at the Experimental Site The low land soils in Wa West District are the Savanna orchrosols type, found along the Black Volta. These soil types occupy a toposquence, and vary from shallow and gravelly soils on undulating terrains to deep, greyish brown alluvial clay bottomlands. These soils have tremendous potentialities under irrigation for large-scale arable crop production. As seen in Table 2, the texture of the soils sampled at Baleofili varied between sandy loam at the upstream to clay loam at the downstream of the valley. The clay loam soils indicates high water holding capacity for both field capacity, permanent wilting point and saturation soil moisture content as compared to the upstream, soils (loamy sand to sandy loam soils).

Table 2: Soil Physical Properties of the Experimental Site Location

Depth (cm)

% sand

% Silt

% Clay

Type Soil

Upstream

0-15

75.2

23.9

0.9

Upstream

15-30

73.2

19.9

Downstream

0-15

35.2

Downstream

15-30

Average

of

FC (%)

PWP (%)

RS (%)

SHC (cm/h)

BD (g/cm3)

9.5

1.8

42.7

11.4

1.5

6.9

Loamy sand Sandy loam

12.5

4.8

41.6

6.5

1.6

35.9

28.9

Clay loam

32.5

18.5

46.4

0.7

1.4

41.2

29.9

28.9

Clay loam

30.5

17.9

42.9

0.5

1.5

56.2

27.4

16.4

Sandy loam

21.3

10.8

43.4

4.8

1.5

FC: Field Capacity; PWP: Permanent wilting point; RS: Relative saturation; SHC Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity; BD: Bulk density (Field Experiment, 2015)


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3.3 Climatic Condition at the Project Site and their Effects on Rain-fed Rice Production The climatic regime of UWR is semi-arid with mean annual rainfall of 1043.4 mm. The effective rain falls in a seven-month season, from April to October as seen in Figure 3. It is widely believed throughout the region, by administrators as much as farmers, that the overall quantity of rain falling in the region is declining and that the distribution is more unfavourable than before. Analysis of rainfall and temperature data from 1960 to 2011 indicates that effective rainfall starts to fall in April and continuous to increase, till it peaks in August when the maximum rainfall occurs, but begins to recede from September through to October and eventually ends in November or December. Water requirements of rice are

much higher than the other cereals and it is a function of cultivar, growth stage, growth duration, soil texture, field management and weather conditions. It takes about 5,000 l of freshwater to produce 1 kg of rice [17]. To conserve water in rain-fed paddy fields, farmers construct bunds to prevent run-off and prepare their fields by repeated ploughing and harrowing of saturated soil, a process referred to as ‘puddling’, to create a layer with high resistance to percolation. Both monthly maximum and minimum air temperatures begin to decrease from April to October and then begin to increase after October through to March, when they reach the annual peak, as seen in Figure 3. Both maximum and minimum temperatures are within the range favourable for lowland rice production.

70 60

200

50

150

40

100

30 20

50

10

0

0 Jan

Feb

Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Calender Month Rainfall (mm)

Max T (oC)

Oct

Temperature (OC)

Rainfall Amount (mm)

250

Nov Dec Min T (oC)

Figure 3: Rain fall, maximum and minimum temperatures in the Upper West Region (1960-2011) Table 3 presents the rainfall amount and soil temperature for the 2015 wet season (July to October) in Wa West District. In view of the climate change, the right time for rice cultivation is from mid-July, when steady rainfall is resulting in soil moisture content being brought close to saturation. From Table 3, rainfall amounts progressively increase from July till they start to recede in October. This is the period with positive water balance, as rainfall amount usually exceeds reference evapotranspiration.

From the Table 3, it could be realised that the average soil temperature at 20 cm root zone depth was within the range suitable for rice production. Soil temperature reduces as rainfall increases, thus making the environment conducive for effective rice growth and development.

Table 3: Rainfall Amount and Soil Temperature during the Cropping Period (July-November 2015) for Wa West District Rainfall (mm)

Average Soil Temperature (OC) at 20cm Depth

Jul

159.8

28.6

Aug

190.2

28.0

Sept

214.6

27.2

Oct

64.8

29.5

Nov

0

30.14

Month

(Source: Field Experiment, 2015)


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3.4 Soil Moisture Pattern in the Experimental Site

Volumetric Soil Moisture Content (%)

Figure 4 and Table 4 present the soil moisture pattern of the lowland soil from planting to the maturity of the paddy rice. As seen from Figure 4, the moisture content from the date of planting till eighty four (84) days after sowing (DAS) varied between field capacity and saturation and this period was between July and September, when the rainfall amounts were high. However, after flowering or heading there was slight reduction in rainfall in October, which affected the soil moisture content at maturity, as can be seen in Figure 4 and Table 4. The key differences between rice and other cereals include shoot and root

anatomy, water loss patterns, and growth responses to soil water status drier than saturation [19]. Rice is extremely sensitive to water shortage. When the soil water content drops below saturation, growth and yield formation are affected, mainly through reduced leaf surface area, photosynthesis rate, and sink size [5]; [28]. Leaf area expansion is reduced as soon as the soil dries below saturation in most cultivars, and when only about 30% of the available soil water has been extracted in cultivars with aerobic adaptation [20]; [27]. Stomatal closure begins at higher leaf water potential than in other crops, and transpiration declines gradually starting at about 0.75 MPa [10].

180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Transplanting (T1) Dibbling (T2) Drilling (T3) Broadcasting (T4)

Planting 32.5 33.5 31.1 30.3

21 DAP 38.07 37.72 34.06 38.22

42 DAP 37.74 37.58 32.44 34.73

63 DAP 39.19 37.77 36.25 39.27

84 DAP 38.5 35.6 29.7 34.8

Maturity 16.4 18.4 16.5 14.3

Figure 4: Soil Moisture pattern of the soils at 20 cm root zone depth after planting to maturity (Source: Field Experiment, 2015)

Lowland rice is extremely sensitive to water shortage and many effects occur when soil water contents drop below saturation. According [15], soil tension values of 0–10 kPa indicate Saturation (0 kPa) to near saturation whiles that of 10–30 kPa indicate Field capacity. Drought may also affect nutrient-use efficiency by the crop since water flow is the essential means of nutrient transport.

How yield is finally affected by drought depends on its timing, severity, duration, and frequency of occurrence. The most sensitive stage of rice to drought is during flowering [6]. As seen in Table 4, in the case of the Baleofili rice experiment, the drought effects occurred after flowering towards maturity and affected the yield of some of the treatments, especially the transplanted rice.


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Table 4: Soil Tension (kpa) at 20 cm Depth of soil Treatment

Soil Tension (kpa) at 21 DAP




Transplanting (T1)

2

5

0

0

Soil Tension (kpa) at Maturity 50

Dibbling

(T2)

2

4

0

0

21

Drilling

(T3)

2

6

0

0

26

Broadcasting (T4)

0

7

0

5

74

(Source: Field Experiment, 2015) transplanting methods shows significant differences when compared with the rest of the treatments for the three stages of growth of the rice crop, at 42 and 84 days (after flowering) after transplanting (DAT), with LSD values of 7.0 and 10.7, respectively. This could be attributed to the one week delay in the establishment by the transplanted rice. However, at 63 DAP, both transplanted and dibbled rice plants showed significantly low values of plant height as compared with broadcasted and drilled rice plants with LSD value of 8.6.

3.5 Rice Plant Growth Response to planting Method Plant Height at Various Growth Stages Figure 5 presents the effects of different planting methods on plant height. The effect of the different planting methods on plant height at forty two (42) and sixty three (63) DAP, representing the vegetative stage as well as the eighty four (84) DAP, that is the reproductive stage were significantly different in the wet season rice production, as shown in Figure 5. As can be seen in the Figure 5,

140

Plant Height (cm)

120

105

118.6

115.4

113.6

100 80 60

68.8

59.4

83.9

75.6

68 52.5

49.3

51.8

40

42 DAP

63 DAP 84 DAP

20 0 Transplanting (T1)

Dibbling

(T2)

Drilling

(T3)

Broadcasting (T4)

Treatment

Figure 5: Plant height of the various treatments for the number of days after planting (Source: Field Experiment, 2015)

Leaf Area Index (LAI) at Various Growth Stages Figure 6 presents the effects of different planting methods on LAI. The effect of the different planting methods on LAI at forty two (42) and sixty three (63) DAP, representing the vegetative stage, as well as the eighty four (84) DAP, that is, the reproductive stage were significantly different in the wet season rice production as shown in Figure 6. As can be seen in the Figure 6,

transplanting and broadcasting shows significantly low LAI when compared with the rest of the treatment at forty two (42) at LSD of 0.63; however, at 63 DAP (maximum tillering stage) and 84 days (after flowering) both transplanting and dibbling showed significantly low LAI, with LSD values of 1.48 and 0.79, respectively. The low values for the transplanted rice could be attributed to the one week delay in the plant establishment. However, at 63 and 84 DAP both transplanted and dibbled rice plants


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showed significantly low values of LAI as compared with broadcasted and drilled rice plants due differences in plant population attributable to plant spacing (20 cm x 20cm). [20] and [27] indicated that leaf and canopy expansion are reduced soon after the soil dries below saturation for most rice cultivars; even in upland cultivars, expansion begins

to be inhibited when only a small fraction of the total available water (TAW) has been depleted. [25] indicated that the reduction in leaf area (by reduced leaf expansion, rolling, and senescence) results in reduced light interception, which reduces total crop photosynthesis and hence total biomass production.

Leaf Area Index (LAI)

7 5.72

6

5.19

5

4

3.02 2.89

3

3.41

3.81 2.85

2.98

42 DAP 63 DAP

1.87

2 1

3.92

3.69

84 DAP

0.6

0 Transplanting (T1)

Dibbling

(T2) Drilling Treatment

(T3)

Broadcasting (T4)

Figure 6: LAI of the various treatments versus the number of days after planting (DAP) (Field Experiment, 2015) Tiller Count at Various Growth Stages

Number of Tillers

Figure 7 presents the effects of different planting methods on number of tillers. The effect of the different planting methods on number of tillers at forty two (42) and sixty three (63) DAP, representing the vegetative stage, as well as the eighty four (84) DAP, at the reproductive stage, were significantly different in the wet season rice production, as shown in Figure 7. Transplanting and broadcasting shows significantly higher number of tillers

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

when compared with the rest of the treatment at forty two (42) at LSD of 2.98; however, at 63 DAP (maximum tiller) and 84 days (at flowering) both transplanting and dibbling showed significantly high number of tillers with LSD values of 2.36 and 3.34, respectively. The high values of number of tillers for the transplanted and dibbled rice at 63 and 84 DAP could be attributed production of more effective tillers due to favourable plant spacing (20 cm x 20cm) as compared to broadcasting and drilling.

15.73 15.71 12.98 13.46 10.88

10.73 9.04

9.48

9.02 7.35

42 DAP

7.29

5.88

63 DAP 84 DAP

Transplanting (T1)

Dibbling

(T2) Drilling Treatment

(T3)

Broadcasting (T4)

Figure 7: Tiller Count of the various treatments versus the number of days after planting (DAP) (Source: Field Experiment, 2015)


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1000 grain weight. The effect of the different planting methods on these parameters was not significantly different, as shown in Table 5.

Chlorophyll Content, Fertile Spikelet per Panicle and 1000 Grain Weight Table 5 presents the effects of different planting methods on chlorophyll content, fertile spikelet per panicle and

Table 5: Chlorophyll Content, Fertile Spikelet per Panicle and 1000 Grain Weight Treatment Transplanting (T1) Dibbling (T2)

Chlorophyll (SPAD Unit) 36.88 34.95

Fertile Spikelet per panicle (%) 89.20 87.20

1000 grain (g) 27.92 28.13

85.00 87.20 87.20 6.52 0.57

28.88 28.11 28.26 2.30 0.79

Drilling (T3) 35.50 Broadcasting (T4) 33.83 Mean 35.29 LSD 2.50 F pr. 0.11 The 50 % Flowering and Maturity Period Table 6 presents the effects of different planting methods on 50 % flowering and days to maturity parameters. The effect of the different planting methods on 50 % flowering and days to maturity were significantly different in the wet season rice production as shown in Table 6. As can be seen in the Table 6, transplanting and dibbling showed

significantly high number of days for 50 % flowering and days to maturity with LSD of 1.2 days for both; however both transplanting and dibbling showed delay in maturing, as they produced more new tillers which took time to reproduce as compared to broadcasting and drilling resulting in their early maturity.

Table 6: The 50 % Flowering and Maturity period Treatment Transplanting (T1) Dibbling (T2)

50% Flowering (Days) 85.75b 81.00b

Maturity Period (Days) 115.75b 111.00b

78.00a 78.00a 80.69 1.20 0.001

108.00a 108.00a 110.69 1.20 0.001

Drilling (T3) Broadcasting (T4) Mean LSD F pr. (Source: Field Experiment, 2015) Rice Yield Response to the Different Planting Methods Table 7 presents the effects of different planting methods on grain yield, above ground biomass and harvest index. The average yields for grain, above ground biomass and harvest index were respectively 10.93 t/ha, 18.33 t/ha and 59.72 %. As can be seen in the Table, dibbling, broadcasting and transplanting, respectively, showed significantly higher yield when compared with drilling which yielded the lowest at LSD of 1.73 t/ha. Lowland rice with uncontrolled flooding has average yields of around 1.5 t/ha, most likely as the result of occasional water deficit, as well as deprivation of oxygen supply when flooded excessively [13].

The above ground biomass for dibbling, broadcasting and transplanting, respectively, showed significantly high values compared with drilling, which yielded the lowest biomass of 15.73t/ha at LSD value of 3.09 t/ha. With respect to harvest index, both transplanting and dibbling showed significantly higher values of HI, as compared to drilling and broadcasting, with LSD values of 5.59%. HI varies with cultivar, location, season and growth conditions. HI of modern, short-duration tropical cultivars is about 0.45 to 0.5 (45– 50 %) in the dry season and 0.35 to 0.4 in the wet season. The HI of many long-duration cultivars used in rain-fed lowlands is about 0.35. HI of modern hybrid rice in China range from 0.4 to 0.5. With drought, HI decreases and can reach close to zero in extreme situations [23].


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Table 7: Paddy Yield, above ground biomass and Harvest Index Treatment Transplanting (T1) Dibbling (T2)

Grain Yield (t/ha) 10.24b 13.63a

Drilling (T3) Broadcasting (T4) Mean LSD F pr. (Source: Field Experiment, 2015)

08.83a 10.95b 10.93 1.73 0.001

4. CONCLUSIONS The effect of different planting methods on rice growth parameters such as plant height, maximum tiller count, LAI, days to 50 % and maturity were significantly different for transplanting, drilling, dibbling and broadcasting in the wet season rice production for the onfarm experiment results at Baleofili in Wa West District of Upper West Region. With respect to yield components and yield, grain yield, HI and above ground biomass these were all significantly different for all the planting methods, with dibbling giving the highest yield, whiles drilling was the lowest. The results from the experiments therefore suggested that, under rain-fed condition dibbling is the best planting method for rice production as it promotes growth characteristics leading to high grain and biomass yields as well as harvest index.

Acknowledgment This research was carried out by the Enhancing Resilience to Climate and Ecosystem Changes in Semi- arid Africa: An Integrated Approach (CECAR-Africa) Project, FY2011-2016, with financial support from the Japan Science Technology Agency (JST) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), as part of SATREPS (Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development).

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Above ground Biomass (t/ha) 16.37a 21.52b

Harvest Index (%) 62.79b 63.92b

15.73a 19.72b 18.33 3.09 0.006

56.62a 55.56a 59.72 5.59 0.017

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