Journal of Vocational Education & Training A ...

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A contemporary review of tourism degrees in the United Kingdom a

Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel

a

a

University of Plymouth , United Kingdom Published online: 20 Dec 2006.

To cite this article: Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel (2001) A contemporary review of tourism degrees in the United Kingdom, Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 53:4, 501-522, DOI: 10.1080/13636820100200174 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13636820100200174

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Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Volume 53, Number 4, 2001

A Contemporary Review of Tourism Degrees in the United Kingdom

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GRAHAM BUSBY & DANIELA FIEDEL University of Plymouth, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT This study examines the provision of United Kingdom undergraduate degree courses in tourism. A review of the literature revealed a number of issues impacting upon the content and structure of undergraduate degree courses. In order to investigate the vocational focus of such courses, content analysis of the undergraduate prospectuses of the degree courses with tourism in their title was undertaken in order to reveal the subject orientation and to identify the validity of Silver and Brennan’s typology of course–employment relationships. The findings show that there are many issues of concern with regard to the content and delivery of programmes, as well as the development of tourism as an area of study. Moreover, the content analysis results reveal that, indeed, the vast majority of courses have a pronounced vocational focus.

Introduction In the United Kingdom, tourism undergraduate provision has been developing against a background of steady growth in the service sector, a significant increase in the recognition and importance of tourism, and an appreciation that a vocationally trained workforce is a key element in maintaining competitive advantage. Higher education institutions (HEIs) have been keen to offer such courses because they attract significant numbers of applicants and are relatively cheap to resource (Busby, 2001); the first degrees were launched in 1986, increased by more than tenfold between then and 1991 (Cooper et al, 1994) and, according to the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service’s web-site, there are 80 institutions offering degrees with ‘tourism’ in their title for entry in 2001. Interestingly, whilst four ‘old’ (pre-1992) universities offered tourism degrees for entry in 1999 (Busby, 2001), this has risen to eight for 2001 entry. This article reviews the literature and issues pertaining to tourism

501


degrees and then sets this in the context of a content analysis of institutional prospectuses. In 1995, the National Liaison Group for Higher Education in Tourism (NLG) initiated a survey after having undertaken an earlier survey, Profile of Tourism Studies degree Courses in the United Kingdom: 1993 (Middleton & Ladkin, 1996). The 1993 study was, itself, a logical successor of the first study of its kind undertaken in 1991/92 in connection with the former Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA) Review of Tourism Studies Degrees (CNAA, 1993). The issue of academic rigour is one of the concerns which has been raised and, according to Airey (1997), there is some suspicion that the rapid growth in courses has been in the form of popular programmes that may not only lack rigour, but are often considered superficial and unchallenging. Consequently, the effective design of teaching and learning is important in ensuring rigour and, not surprisingly, HM Inspectorate (1992) has commented on ‘well-designed programmes, which are vocationally relevant, provide a good balance of theory and practice and offer the students adequate academic challenge’ (Airey, 1999).


Course Content The content of tourism courses is a constant subject for debate. Middleton & Ladkin (1996) have commented that a key issue for tourism studies over the next few years ‘is likely to focus on how far the subject cannot only retain but also develop its coherence against powerful pressures for diversification and fragmentation’. One particular pressure stems from the recent growth in interest in the subject by academics from a range of disciplines and backgrounds. In a new area of study, in which the boundaries and content have not had sufficient time to become established, there has been a tendency for academics to come forward with their own definitions, concepts and approaches (Airey, 1997). Cooper et al (1992) and Wells (1996), for instance, state that a tourism programme usually takes the character of the particular expertise of its faculty, whilst Koh (1994) comments that many tourism curricula were, in fact, designed by educators with little or no representation from the industry. This may create considerable difficulties if, as the CNAA (1993) puts it, ‘tourism is simply allowed to mean what academics want it to mean’. The absence of a clear common agreement about the meaning of tourism may lead to confusion on the part of applicants for courses, students and potential employers (Cook & Yale, 1992) and it is within this context that Koh (1994) insists ‘if tourism hopes to gain professional recognition, curriculum diversity cannot be allowed to continue as professionalism demands standardisation’. More importantly, without an agreed common core or body of knowledge, opportunities for tourism to continue its 502

A REVIEW OF TOURISM DEGREES

development as a robust and coherent area of study would be limited (Airey, 1997).


The Development of a Core Curriculum In recognition of these difficulties, an important development in tourism education in the 1990s has been the attention given to establishing a common core. Initially, in the United Kingdom, the content of the first tourism courses was strongly influenced by the contents of an early and influential book by Burkart & Medlik (1974; Airey & Johnson, 1999). Since then, there have been two distinct developments in the movement towards a core curriculum for tourism. First, there has been an attempt at the codification of the content. In 1981, the United Kingdom Tourism Society set out its own body of knowledge. These headings were further developed by Middleton in a report prepared for the CNAA (1993), and refined and published in a discussion document by the NLG (Holloway, 1995). As Airey & Johnson (1999) have very comprehensively detailed the suggested core curriculum, emanating from three separate initiatives, this will not be discussed here; however, it is salient to note that the NLG core body of knowledge was neither meant to be prescriptive in that all courses have to include these headings nor restrictive in that courses cannot contain other topics. Many tourism educators deny the practicality or desirability of a core curriculum (Swarbrooke, 1995; Cooper et al, 1996). Whilst some argue that diversity is the key to the future, others believe a core curriculum allows comparison, and could provide a means of recognition and reference to academics from other disciplines, employers and prospective students about what the subject comprises. Baum (1997), for instance, criticises a common core on the grounds that it would not only weaken the development of tourism as an area of study by reducing variety, hindering flexibility and stifling innovation, but also infringe upon a course’s ability to meet the employment requirements of a diverse industry. Moreover, Tribe’s (1999) view, shared by Gunn (1998), that tourism cannot be regarded as a discipline, led him to comment that the NLG core articulates key aspects of a vocational tourism curriculum yet omits the ethical elements of tourism and disciplinary, non-business approaches, thereby neglecting a significant area of the possible curriculum for tourism. Tribe (1997) suggests that the study of tourism comprises two distinct fields. Whilst one part seems to be crystallising around the interdisciplinary business approach, providing coherence and structure, the other, non-business field, including areas such as social and environmental impacts, does not have a unifying framework other than being linked with tourism.

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On the other hand, Jaspers (1987), as well as Middleton & Airey (1997), argue that it is the diversity of tourism that makes it important to define a common ground, and context if the subject is to develop coherently and gain academic credibility. They make the case that a common core implies agreement on the subject’s foundations, capable of development and refinement as new knowledge emerges. Wells (1996) comments that a ‘minimum core curriculum’ is the key to legitimacy and integrity with regard to the tourism curriculum.


The Quality Assurance Agency’s Benchmarks Recent developments have shed a new light on the debate about the core curriculum. The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA), an independent body providing a unified quality assurance service to higher education institutions, has been given a major role in future quality assurance arrangements by the recommendations of the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (NCIHE; Dearing Report, 1997; QAA, 1999). The QAA has drawn up Unit 25 benchmark statements for degree programmes in Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism (Hayes, 1999; QAA, 2000a); a draft benchmark statement for those subject areas was published, in January 2000, as a result of five subject associations working together. These are the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences, the Council for Hospitality Management Education, the Leisure Studies Association, the National Liaison Group for Higher Education in Tourism and the United Kingdom Standing Conference for Leisure, Recreation and Sport. The aim, according to Clare (1998), is to alleviate recent concerns about variations in academic standards by enabling institutions to compare their standards in a more systematic way. Moreover, the development of subject-based benchmarked academic standards endeavours to inform the public at large about the nature of higher education awards, and to guide intending students, employers and others about the range of provision and the standards that might be expected of graduates in subject/discipline areas (QAA, 1998, 2000b; Hayes, 1999, personal communication). In addition, benchmarked standards provide institutions with a framework for developing and specifying the intended learning outcomes of programmes, and assist QAA reviewers with a point of reference for judging the appropriateness of standards. The benchmarking has developed a set of generic statements that can be applied to all graduates from programmes of study relevant to Unit 25. Moreover, in recognition of the distinctive nature of each of the subject areas within the Unit, sets of subject-specific guidelines have been developed to maintain discrete features (QAA, 2000a). However, Harris (2000) in the foreword to the draft document emphasises that the benchmark group has taken care to avoid prescribing a national 504


curriculum. Rather, it has developed a series of statements which provides a set of guidelines to support course teams in curriculum development, inform students about the nature of programmes and guide subject reviewers in their work. The benchmark strives to provide sufficient flexibility in order to facilitate the design and provision of programmes of study and to ‘avoid stifling curricular diversity’ (Clare, 1998; QAA, 2000a). The QAA’s learning outcomes for tourism concentrate on the following four key areas: the concepts and characteristics of tourism; the products, structure of and interactions in the industry; the role of tourism in the communities and environments that it affects; the nature and characteristics of tourists.


The strength of this approach being, according to Tribe (1999), that these outcomes would constitute a more balanced curriculum avoiding the narrow confines of vocationalism by giving due weight to disciplinary knowledge, communities and environments. The Non-tourism Specific Skills and Knowledge of a Graduate While there is concern for employment directly into tourism as well as the annual output of graduates exceeding the number of employment opportunities available (Airey, 1999; Middleton, 1997), tourism courses appear to be successful in preparing students more generally for employment. The idea of ‘transferable skills’ has been developed as a response to both the danger of oversupply of graduates and the desire of some graduates to seek employment in other industries. Transferable skills, as their name suggests, are concerned with the development of those abilities that can be applied in other industries. Although the purpose of tourism education is not to provide precise skills and knowledge, often better provided ‘on the job’, it should assist in developing the ability to think and to learn and, as part of this, transferable knowledge and skills appropriate for a range of employment opportunities are highly important (Airey, 1999). In fact, many tourism employers stress that key criteria for selecting graduates are general intellect and personality rather than degree subject (Watson, 1992; Busby et al, 1997; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997). Swarbrooke (1995) emphasises the importance of including modules or parts of modules that assist students in developing their personal skills such as communication, social and information technology skills. It is within the context of the new benchmarks that the QAA (2000a) points out that, although each institution will remain free to decide on the content, nature and organisation of its degree programmes, and its 505


constituent models, curriculum designers are expected to ensure that a certain generic knowledge base, as well as intellectual skills such as critical assessment, evaluation of evidence and the description and analysis of information underpin all programmes. Furthermore, the development of key skills is to include, amongst others, problem-solving, interactive and group skills.


The Impact of Changes in the Tourism Industry While tourism programmes have grown in size and number over the past three decades, the tourism industry has expanded rapidly and changed substantially over the same period of time. This has resulted in a strong argument for incorporating recent changes and developments experienced by the tourism industry in the study of tourism. Buhalis (1998), for instance, argues that the issues of sustainability, global concentration – especially in the light of such developments as Airtours’ acquisition of TSI, the world’s largest cruise distributor which also owns several online travel brands (Page et al, 2001) – and information technology, as well as trends in demand should be addressed in all modules taught in order to prepare graduates for the major trends emerging in the market place. Increasingly, traditional economics, marketing and management modules provide insufficient skills for tourism graduates; emphasising the importance of resource management, as well as the significance of industry trends will assist future professionals in developing their skills thereby achieving competitive advantage (Buhalis, 1998; Gamble, 1992). Within this context, Yale & Cook (1995) state that, given a changing world and an evolving industry, tourism educators must step back and evaluate the existing curriculum in relation to the future needs of their ‘customers’ – students and their likely employers in the industry. Also, Brunt (1999, personal communication) emphasises that in order to foster students’ awareness of the industry, courses and staff need to continually update and be sensitive to new issues and legislation, while Swarbrooke (1994) stresses that changes in the tourism market, particularly the development of new tourism products, require reassessment of the future role of tourism education. Similarly, given the fact that tourism programmes typically feature curricula focused on those skills perceived to be indispensable for professional success, the skills necessary for any profession will alter with changing conditions in specific industries and need to be revised accordingly (Yale & Cook, 1995).

506



Higher Education and Tourism Industry Links A major theme in education in the United Kingdom over the past decade has been calls for a closer partnership between education and industry. Educational institutions have been encouraged to work more closely with industry in a variety of ways, for instance by having industry representatives on course planning groups, as external examiners, in the management of work placements and using ‘live’ projects from industry as student projects or case studies (Airey, 1995; Swarbrooke, 1995). However, despite a move to work more closely together to represent a collective interest and to exchange ideas and information, it might be argued that the emphasis in many such partnerships has been more on the industry’s influence on education than vice-versa. Moreover, Botterill (1996) points out that relationships between any sector of industry and higher education institutions seeking to educate students for and about the industry, are bound to generate a tension of interests. Haywood & Maki (1992), as well as Young (1990), for instance, recognise gaps in communication due to poor levels of collaboration, lack of involvement of educators in the industry and the industry’s role in education being poorly defined. Young (1990) even goes on to say that industry apathy may be recognised as a major obstacle to closer links between industry and academics. These underlying conflicts and issues cloud the view of industry needs for education in tourism and its benefits (Swarbrooke, 1994; Cooper & Shepherd, 1997). Nevertheless, according to Cooper (1997), there is a vast range of possible teaching-learning methods available and tourism is particularly well suited to these techniques that expose the student to the complexity and inter-relationships of the sector. Case studies, visits, guest speakers and practical, in-company training are examples of these approaches and it is within this context, that Laws (1997) describes frequent contact with management in the industry as essential to ensure that the approach taken to tourism teaching remains up-to-date. Other possible areas of cooperation include staff exchange and collaboration, industry advisory panels, graduate recruitment, research and consultancy, as well as student projects (Botterill, 1996). Most importantly, with the strongest support coming from universities and colleges that emphasise vocational higher education, the study of tourism often requires periods of work placements. These are widely recognised as playing a valuable role in tourism courses promoting good relations between universities and employers and assisting in securing future employment (Busby et al, 1997; Cave, 1997; Cooper, 1997; Middleton & Ladkin, 1996). Moreover, Cross (1998), citing Laws (1998) emphasises placements as a method of learning through experience. In addition, research by Busby (2002), over the last 5 years,

507


shows that students gain in self-confidence and acquire more enthusiasm for their subjects during the placement. Generally, Cooper et al (1994) believe that what is needed is ‘vision, commitment and mutual respect on both the part of industry and education. If education is to underpin a profitable tourism industry, where the key position of human resource development is recognised, then stronger partnerships, better communication and a joint drive for quality tourism education, training and products is required’. Some of the potential advantages for academia and the industry from closer links are given in Table I. Education

Industry


to improve tourism education’s credibility in the eyes of the tourism industry to meet industry needs to improve employment opportunities for graduates to gain industry input into course development to develop a teaching resource base to enable academics to keep upto-date with industry developments

to exercise some supervision over the industry relevance of courses as a means of continuing industry development and change for recruitment purposes to sustain the success of the industry access to academic research

Table I. The potential advantages for education and the industry resulting from close links. Adapted from Young (1991).

Methodology The Undergraduate Prospectus Content Analysis This entailed a content analysis of the prospectus entries for all the known United Kingdom undergraduate degree courses that include ‘tourism’ in their title in order to assess the extent to which they might be considered vocational and to assess the validity of Silver & Brennan’s (1988) typology of course-employment relationships. Before proceeding to document the approach taken to the analysis, it is essential to provide an outline of this typology; it is based on the view that vocationalism in higher education varies considerably in terms of directness and specificity. In this context, the authors identify the uses of degree qualifications to regulate employment, reflecting declining determinacy in the employment outcomes of a course. Table II illustrates the uses of degree qualifications according to Silver & Brennan (1988). 508



(i) A specified degree as sole regulator

(a) Output matches employer demand: entry to specific field of employment regulated by specified degree qualification; numbers in training controlled effectively; specified degree necessary/sufficient to gain entry (b) Imbalance between output and demand: entry requires specific degree qualification; numbers in training not controlled effectively hence shortage or oversupply possible; possession of degree necessary but may not be sufficient to gain entry

(ii) A specified degree as partial regulator

(a) Output matches employer demand: entry can be achieved by various routes, some of which require specified degree qualification; numbers in training controlled effectively; though not necessary, specified degree is sufficient (b) Imbalance between output and demand: if numbers in training not controlled effectively, possession of degree neither necessary nor sufficient to gain entry

(iii) An unspecified degree

(a) In graduate labour market: unspecified degree is requirement for entry; as numbers cannot be controlled, possession of degree necessary but not sufficient to gain entry (b) In non-graduate labour market: degree qualification not required; it might be of considerable ‘market value’ in securing employment but market is not ‘fixed’ in favour of graduates

Table II. Uses of degree qualifications to regulate employment. Adapted from Silver & Brennan (1988).

Therefore, although vocational objectives are typified in all categories, courses in (i) and (ii) seek to prepare students for specific employment, while courses in (iii) are concerned with more general and transferable knowledge and skills. In addition, higher education’s contribution to training for employment will vary in scope and significance and in the employer recognition attached to it. Silver & Brennan (1988) distinguish between: Complete: initial occupational preparation completed. The graduate is fully qualified to ‘practise’.

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Part complete: initial occupational preparation partly completed. Further training is required, but graduate may be exempt from full training programme. Necessary base: a necessary educational base for training. Subsequent training assumes the base of a specified degree. Optional base: an optional educational base for training. Employment relevance is claimed, but subsequent training does not presuppose it. Non-relevant: No explicit employment relevance is claimed.


Moreover, underlying the regulation of entry and occupational training is a consideration of the employment outcomes from a course. A course’s relationship to employment may be specific or diffuse and will vary in the nature and degree of selection and training undertaken. Table III provides a brief description of the resulting degree types. Type A

Graduates have no difficulties in securing jobs for which they have been prepared in higher education, they present the only source of manpower to the employer Employers may be highly involved in course design and operation Many courses of this type contain substantial periods of work experience Academic staff teaching on such courses have substantial ‘professional’ experience The student’s occupational choice has taken place before entry to higher education; there is a high level of commitment to the vocational objectives of the course Example: medicine, pharmacy

Type B

These courses share the initial occupational preparation of graduates either with postgraduate education or in-company training schemes The degree is not a licence to practise Not all of the teaching staff are professionally qualified There may be less emphasis on work experience Employers are less involved and prescriptive about the content of courses Example: engineering

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Type C

Many teachers are not professionally qualified/experienced and relate primarily to academic research rather than professional work culture Students’ motivations vary and students are likely to develop in different directions Often, graduates are retained in higher education, taking research degrees Employer interest in and professional regulation of the curriculum is minimal as higher education primarily performs a selection rather than training function Example: psychology

Type D

These courses share most characteristics of those in type A, however, selection and training are shared with other entry routes (e.g. non-graduate entry, professional training) and some of these may be associated with and/or monopolised by leading employers As courses have no monopoly over selection, employers may be less interested and involved in course design Example: education, physiotherapy

Type E

Courses of this type represent decreasing ‘value’ to students They provide a route to a specific job but training is not complete and there are other, possibly more desirable, routes to the same occupation Employer involvement in and professional control over course design are variable Example: accountancy, law

Type F

These courses are likely to be associated with expanding occupations undergoing rapid professionalisation There may be no ‘professionally’ qualified teachers and professional considerations are not significant in the design and delivery of the course The professional field and academic area share a common subject matter yet perspectives are likely to differ Courses are attractive to students with weak vocational interests as they commit them to little but provide useful information on which to base subsequent career decisions Example: social science

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Graham Busby & Daniela Fiedel Type G

Curricula are devised in relation to perceived employment needs Although graduates enter an open employment market, such courses aim to equip the student to compete in that market, transmitting knowledge and developing skills that are transferable Students often select these courses out of general, ill-defined vocational concerns It has been suggested that where employers are able to recruit in an open market, they are more interested in individual attributes than type of course Graduates are not tied to market demand in a specific field but are equipped, in terms of knowledge, skills and disposition, to be mobile in various employment contexts Example: business studies, computing, public administration

Type H

Graduates from these courses may possess many characteristics which are of value to employers yet curricula are not designed primarily in relation to employment needs Students are not attracted to this type of course from vocational motivations Expansion of higher education has outpaced growth in this market and an unknown number of graduates compete for jobs in an open (non-graduate) labour market Transition from higher education to employment may be difficult Example: humanities, pure science

Table III. Silver & Brennan (1988) degree types. Adapted from Silver & Brennan (1988).

Content Analysis Despite Berg’s (1998) reasoning that content analysis may be used effectively in qualitative analysis with counts of textual elements merely providing a means for identifying, organising, indexing and retrieving data, many researchers consider it an essentially quantitative process (Abercrombie et al, 1988, cited in Bell, 1993; Berelson, 1952, cited in Berg, 1998; Silverman, 1997). Broadly defined, content analysis describes any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics in a given set of communications through the classification and evaluation of selected words, themes, concepts or icons (Carney, 1972; Krippendorff, 1980; Wheeler, 1989). Content analysis, which has been applied successfully in hospitality research (Manickas & Shea, 1997; Bowen & Sparks, 1998), was also the method chosen by Airey & Johnson (1999) for their study of the content of tourism degree courses in 1997 and due acknowledgement is made to the latter research.

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Having decided on an approach using Silver & Brennan’s typology, this pointed to a somewhat ‘modified’ process of analysis, since not only would the analysis yield counts of textual elements, but it would also assign each entry to one of the Silver & Brennan types A–H. A search of all undergraduate tourism degree courses in the United Kingdom was performed by means of the UCAS Undergraduate Course Search (using the version updated on 30 March 2000), available on the Internet. The search yielded an initial 578 listed courses offered by 73 institutions across the United Kingdom. Each of these institutions was contacted and an undergraduate prospectus requested. On closer examination of all 73 prospectuses it became clear, however, that only a certain number of descriptive course entries would lend themselves to full investigation; 112 entries provided by 66 institutions remained.


Classification of Content Abercrombie et al (1988) cited in Bell (1993), as well as Moser & Kalton (1971), ascertain that content analysis involves the classification of contents in such a way as to bring out their basic structure. The objective analysis of messages conveyed in a given set of data is accomplished by means of explicit rules or criteria of selection, which must be established before the analytical process (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996). These should reflect all relevant aspects of the messages, be sufficiently exhaustive to account for each variation of message content, and must be rigidly and consistently applied so that other researchers or readers, looking at the same messages, would obtain the same or comparable results (Krippendorff, 1980; Berg, 1998). Since the objective was to examine the extent to which the tourism courses offered by institutions of higher education might conform to Silver & Brennan’s (1988) course types, the researchers sought to identify references to elements within the text that would allow inferences to be made about the type of course-employment relationships provided. Several types of units were utilised; Berg (1998) identifies seven elements in written messages that can be counted: words or terms, themes, characters, paragraphs, items, concepts and semantics pointing out that in many instances, research requires the use of a combination of several content analytic elements. Care was taken to count each occurrence only once, the first time it appeared in the text. Moreover, a reference to a specific course module was only recorded if it appeared in the main descriptive text (i.e. not listed in an overview of modules). Words were the smallest element used in the analysis and use of simple word counts was made on a number of occasions. Moreover, themes, in their simplest form a simple sentence or string of words with subject and predicate, as well as concepts (words grouped together into conceptual clusters or ideas) allowed for a more sophisticated count. 513


Analysis of the Data All 112 descriptive entries were subject to a content analysis based upon the terms and analytical framework described above. Here, a certain degree of interpretation was necessary as university prospectuses are to some extent publicity material, the style of each varies and in some cases the information is written in imprecise terms. Moreover, course descriptions are composed by a variety of different people such as marketing departments, programme leaders and others. However, notwithstanding these difficulties, the material they contained was regarded as sufficient to provide an overall flavour of the work that a given institution carries out. Frequencies of mentions were recorded, as well as percentages calculated and Silver & Brennan types assigned in the process. The frequency results are presented in Table IV.


Reference to

Percentage % (n=112)

Frequency

10

11

3

3

1

1

23

26

20

22

9

10

5

6

‘Vocational’ Issues Vocational orientation/vocationally oriented Vocational Vocational skills/knowledge Vocational elements/aspects Vocational degree Vocational qualifications

6 4 3 3 2 1

7 5 4 3 2 1

‘Professionalism’ Professionalism/professional/profession

12

13

6

7

5

6

Employer/Industry Needs Industry/employers require well-qualified personnel Lack of suitably qualified candidates/skills shortage Demand for multi-skilled professionals Course Preparation for Career/Employment Aims/is designed to prepare/equip for career in the industry Designed to provide the knowledge and skills necessary to secure employment Allows the student to focus on/specialise in themes relevant to career intentions/aspirations Aims to meet the needs of the industry

Employment on Graduation High proportion of students secures employment on graduation/good employment rate Gives named examples of past students/ employment

514



Career/Job Prospects Lists range of opportunities available Career/Job/Employment opportunities/prospects Opportunities in other sectors/industries (e.g. service, management) Overseas opportunities/opportunities abroad Private/public sector employment European opportunities A variety of jobs/roles/careers A range of/variety of organisations

39 34 22

44 38 25

21 21 10 6 4

24 23 11 7 5

Employment/Industry Links Links with the industry Employer links

12 3

13 3

The Tourism Industry/Sector Rapidly growing/expanding/growth industry Large/largest in the world (Economically) important/significant Global/world-wide/international Dynamic Diverse/multi-faceted

32 16 12 11 7 3

36 18 13 12 8 4

General Course Focus Broad foundation/approach/wide range of topics International/global perspective/context/focus Basic/sound understanding of the industry Specialist areas/scope for specialisation Awareness of current issues/current concern European context

26 15 15 13 7 3

29 17 17 15 8 3

‘Business’ Issues Business Business areas/subjects Business practices/principles/techniques Business education/studies/knowledge Business perspective/approach/context

24 6 5 5 2

21 7 6 6 2

‘Management’ Issues Management/manage Managerial practice/perspective/responsibility Managerial position/job

38 4 3

42 5 3

14

16

14

16

12 3

13 3

Practical Focus Integration of theory with practice/theory to practice Practical emphasis/experience/knowledge/ background Application/applied/apply Real life/real world business problems/solutions

515



Work Placement/Experience 12 months From 1-7 months Work/industrial placement/experience/sandwich programme Placement abroad is compulsory Placement taken during vacation Multiple placements Placement may lead to job offer/ student’s return Placement helps identify student’s chosen career Knowledge and Skills Foreign language skills Marketing Finance/financial management/accounting Critical analysis/analytical skills Human resource management/managing people Transferable skills Management/managerial skills IT skills Planning Business skills Communication Economics Independent thinking/working/independence in learning Problem-solving Teamworking Critical evaluation/evaluation skills Personal skills Decision-making/judgement Interpersonal skills Language to enhance student’s career prospects Practical skills Technical skills Intellectual skills Presentation skills Research Information/data collection/processing Market place skills Time management Academic Staff Qualification Staff with relevant/commercial experience Table IV. Content analysis results.

516

23 9 9

26 10 10

5 4 3 2 1

6 5 3 2 1

40 20 18 15 14 13 13 12 12 11 11 10 7

45 22 20 17 16 15 15 13 13 12 12 11 8

6 6 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 1 1

7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 1 1

4

4



Discussion of Findings Findings from the content analysis clearly show the extent to which vocational, career and industry issues stand out as key elements stressed in the material given to prospective students. In fact, dominated by vocational concerns, the results presented reinforce the findings of Airey & Johnson’s (1999) study, which also demonstrates the predominance of vocationalism in degrees. With reference to employer or industry needs, several prospectus entries pointed out the industry’s need for well-qualified staff and it is within this context that 23% of entries expressed the course’s aim in preparing students for employment in the industry, while 20% claimed that the course provided the knowledge and skills needed for future employment. Some universities specifically mentioned that there was scope for specialism in view of the student’s career choice. Specific reference to vocational issues occurred on some occasions, with vocational orientation being most frequently cited, however, reference to the idea of ‘professionalism’ was made in 12% of cases. While some universities stressed the good or very good employment rates of their graduates, others gave specific examples of past students’ employment and 39% listed the general range of opportunities available. A significant 34% referred to career or employment prospects, and frequent mention was made of overseas and European opportunities, as well as opportunities in the private and public sector. An institution’s links with the industry were frequently mentioned and, generally, the fact that tourism is a large, rapidly expanding and economically significant industry received a lot of attention, particularly in view of the opportunities available. With regard to a course’s focus, a broad foundation was the main aim yet an international focus on a par with a sound understanding of the industry was also mentioned; also scope for specialisation was provided in certain modules and there was an aim to create awareness of current issues. Generally, ‘business’ and ‘management’ issues were to the fore and the integration of theory with practice, pointed out as a key driver for vocational programmes by the QAA (2000a), was frequently mentioned. Work placements in the industry appeared to be integral to courses in a majority of institutions. The sandwich element assumes considerable importance with 23% per cent providing 1-year placements, while others provide placements ranging from 1 to 7 months. In some institutions placements abroad are compulsory. These are usually those courses that have a particularly international focus and/or require the student to apply a language. The development of various transferable skills, ranging from presentation to teamwork and IT skills, received wide attention. The idea to include transferable skills in the curriculum so that students are prepared for other careers if they choose not – or are unable – to enter

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the tourism industry is important. A university can improve the graduate’s chance of finding and succeeding in employment when it offers more than the development of disciplinary knowledge i.e. learner autonomy, skills and knowledge (Walker, 1994). One particularly noticeable trend in tourism degree courses is the inclusion of foreign languages as compulsory or optional units. Other business/management issues frequently mentioned were those of marketing and finance. Some also pointed out relevant qualifications and experience of teaching staff. Overall, the vast majority of the prospectuses examined expressed a considerable concern for vocationalism, reflected in the fact that, in the second part of the study, 105 of Silver & Brennan’s ‘type Gs’ were assigned. Moreover, with regard to the second part of the content analysis, many undergraduate degree tourism courses seem to occupy the position of an open market and employment relevant base, while operating at the diffuse end of educational–employment relationships. Their awards are not used systematically by employers to regulate recruitment and, although employment relevance is claimed for the curriculum, subsequent professional training does not presuppose it. However, a minority of courses examined in this study did not seem to have this vocational focus, reflected in the fact that five type Hs and two type Fs were assigned. To conclude, it appeared that whatever the curriculum balance, the overall aim, whether or not the vocabulary of vocationalism was used, was invariably in tune with statements that the course was designed to provide an education in a vocational context, enabling graduates to succeed in a dynamic business environment. Conclusions Given the rapid expansion of tourism degrees at undergraduate level, the aim of this study was to examine the different aspects of current provision; it has become clear that tourism educators and the industry are concerned about meeting the various challenges of the future. Provision of undergraduate tourism education can be regarded as extensive in the United Kingdom; however, given the rapidly changing nature of tourism, generally, universities face a number of challenges with regard to the content, structure and delivery of tourism programmes. The debate concerning a core curriculum has been active for a number of years now and, to some extent, is addressed by the QAA’s benchmark statements; the tourism-specific learning outcomes satisfy many aspects of the proposed core curricula. Finally, the study further sought to identify the extent to which the Silver & Brennan typology of course–employment relationships was valid. It was found that the majority of courses offered are highly vocational in focus and that, in addition, tourism graduates should be well equipped 518


with a range of transferable skills to succeed in other industries. The range of links with industry is possibly wider than anticipated, from guest speakers to year-long sandwich placements; the latter certainly provide organisations with the opportunity to review potential employees postgraduation and bring them into contact with new ideas and, even, solutions to problems (Busby et al, 1997). Some institutions participate in the scheme run by Travel and Tourism Intelligence (formerly part of the Economist Intelligence Unit), whereby the best research dissertation from each university goes forward for consideration in the well-funded national prize and publication in a journal (Travel and Tourism Analyst) read by practitioners. It is not surprising, therefore, that such a high proportion of tourism degrees conform to Silver & Brennan’s type G category. Correspondence Graham Busby, Department of Land Use and Rural Management, University of Plymouth, Newton Abbot TQ12 6NQ, United Kingdom ([email protected]).


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