Journal of Vocational Education & Training Technical colleges in ...

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Technical colleges in South Africa: planning for the future Jacky Lumby

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University of Leicester , United Kingdom Published online: 19 Dec 2006.

To cite this article: Jacky Lumby (2000) Technical colleges in South Africa: planning for the future, Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 52:1, 101-118, DOI: 10.1080/13636820000200109 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13636820000200109

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Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Volume 52, Number 1, 2000

Technical Colleges in South Africa: planning for the future

Downloaded by [72.252.114.127] at 06:52 22 March 2014

JACKY LUMBY University of Leicester, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT Technical education has a critical role to play in building the economic prosperity and social stability of South Africa, by offering second chance education and training in the craft, technical and business skills so gravely needed by the economy. A national survey and interviews with two principals provided evidence of the environment in which colleges are planning for the future, how they undertake the planning process, what strategies are in use and the difficulties faced. Despite severe shortages or damaging uncertainty about resource levels, the majority of colleges have a belief in their future and are striving to increase the quality of the curriculum by a democratic planning process. The use of assets and strategies to increase productivity is as yet underdeveloped, but many colleges have a guiding vision and are achieving progress despite the turbulent environment.

Introduction South Africa faces a period of fundamental change when it will be struggling to achieve economic prosperity and social well being with inherited circumstances that present problems of a unique nature and magnitude. Education is envisioned as having a critical role to play: Our vision is of a South Africa in which all its people have equal access to lifelong education and training opportunities, which will contribute towards improving their quality of life and building a peaceful, prosperous and democratic society. (Department of Education, 1996, p. 9) The educational base to achieve this vision is currently grossly inadequate. The general level of achievement in schooling of the black and Indian population is poor, as indicated by the percentage of the adult population achieving matriculation:

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Whites 61% African 8 % (sic) Indian 27 % (Krige & Scott, 1995, p. 54) As Krige & Scott (1995) note in their overview of education in the province of Kwazulu Natal, this situation indicates a strong need for the provision of second chance opportunities. In the face of overwhelming social and economic problems, Dovey suggests that:


The response of all serious thinkers in the South African context is that South Africa has to become a learning nation. It has no option if the people are to recover their dignity and full human status after the tragedy of apartheid. (Dovey, 1996, p. 358) Reconstruction is being led at national level, with the establishment of a National Qualifications Framework, a move to outcomes-based education in all phases of education, and a policy for further education and training laying the foundation stones of future post-compulsory education and training. There is recognition that further education has a particular role to play in reconstruction, in offering the second chance so desperately needed by large numbers of the population, and in training the craftspeople, technicians and entrepreneurs who will be critical to economic development. Colleges face daunting obstacles in fulfilling this role. As Lewin (1993) asserts, ‘vocational education is expensive’, and the state may be unable to provide the resources needed to develop the required quantity and quality of provision: In many developing countries, the state faces a major dilemma in post-school vocational training. On the one hand, it is under pressure to expand publicly funded vocational training since local industry and the trainees themselves are unwilling or unable to bear the costs. On the other, the state is itself unable to ensure the quality of even the small provision for which it is currently responsible, let alone anything approaching universal entitlement to vocational training. (King, 1993, p. 205) In this environment much of the challenge of trying to meet needs within limited resources falls to colleges themselves and makes demands on the strategic planning process, that is how the college plans to position itself in relation to the environment. This article explores the process of technical colleges’ strategic planning within the turbulent environment of South Africa from the perspective of the colleges themselves, a ‘bottomup’ individual college view, rather than a ‘top-down’ national policy perspective. It reports on how planning is being experienced, its successes and problems. Finally, some indications are offered of the strategies which are emerging to respond to the needs of individuals, employers and the nation.

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TECHNICAL COLLEGES IN SOUTH AFRICA


Research Methodology Familiarisation visits were undertaken to South Africa in 1997 and in 1998. During the first quarter of 1998 a survey of technical colleges in South Africa was implemented, the sample being those technical colleges defined as state-aided educational institutions listed by the South African Human Sciences Research Council as colleges offering pre- and postmatriculation vocational and professional courses at below degree level (Human Sciences Research Council [HSRC], 1995). Information was requested of the principal or acting principal on how colleges managed their planning, and the strategies that had been implemented to cope with growing demand and limited resource. There were 34 returns from the 79 colleges contacted, a response rate of 43%. It emerged that colleges laboured under extreme pressure and those that did make returns appeared to be motivated by a desire to make their situation better known. Given the chaotic situation in which many colleges were working, the response rate of just under half of all colleges is striking. However, the reasons for non-response may include the unreliable postal service, and the fact that colleges were too hard pressed, or less interested in or committed to long term planning. Consequently, results must be taken as indicative and providing some insight into the ways colleges are approaching strategic planning. Additionally, interviews were undertaken with the convenience sample of the principal of Msunduzi College, Pietermartizburg and the acting principal of Durban Technical College, to provide an opportunity for further exploration of the themes that had emerged from the survey. The Planning Environment Government Intervention Wallace (1992) identified key factors likely to cause problems in planning in situations of multiple innovations. Colleges were asked to rate the degree of difficulty caused to their planning by each factor. They were also invited to comment on any further components of the environment causing problems. The degree of difficulty experienced is indicated in Figure 1. The greatest difficulty was apparently being caused by government and regional policy changes. The relationship between national and regional government is set out in the Department of Education’s Corporate Plan for 1996–1999 (Department of Education, 1996): The national Department of Education has the responsibility to make a definite impact on education in the country as a whole. It does so in part by preparing the general policy of the government on education. Policy must underlie the preparation of the norms and standards in education for which the Department is 103

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responsible, and the Department’s advice on budget allocations for all education services, national and provincial. Relations with provincial departments of education must be guided by the national policy on education within which the provincial departments develop their own policies, set their own priorities and implementation programmes. (Department of Education, 1996, p. 7)

115mm

Figure 1. Degree of difficulty caused in planning by identified factors.

Despite the intended coherence of national and regional policies, and its anticipated positive impact on education, the colleges were experiencing very negative results. The situation seems common in sub-Saharan Africa: The efforts of governments and funding agencies have been so fragmented that sustained institutional development has been inhibited; multiple and sometimes conflicting policies and procedures have often consumed a disproportionate share of

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managerial time and attention. (World Bank, 1988, p. 81, quoted in Humphreys & Oxtoby, 1995, p. 275) College managers were clearly frustrated by a failure to set out clear and long-term regional and national plans, and by the frequent changes in direction. Comments from the survey included: Long term planning is basically impossible with an Education Department that is not capable of setting out the rules of the game clearly. Long term planning is very important to the college. Because of the uncertainty in our education system it is not possible to plan effectively. We try to survive from year to year. Currently we survive and try to do the best we can with our limited resources. Government must wake up!!! Ironically, the national and regional governments, which should have been a source of support to colleges, were, in fact, the greatest source of disruption and frustration.


Resource Availability Technical colleges in South Africa are funded by the provincial education departments or the national Education Department, the former relating to state-aided colleges and the latter, state colleges. Colleges also receive fees from learners paid by the individual or their employer, and donations from business and industry. In the case of the two state-aided case study colleges, government funding is for salaries, based on a staff allocation, and for rates. All other expenses, such as electricity, water and equipment, must be covered by income raised through fees or donations. However, Durban Technical College, when approached by industry representatives to provide practical draughtsmanship training, did persuade the Department of Education to equip a room with drawing boards. Clearly, in exceptional circumstances, additional state funds may be made available. At Durban Technical College, a typical fee per subject would be 130–150 rand, a four-subject package costing 520 rand. In the case of Msunduzi College, the operating budget is 2 million rand, the majority of which comes from student fees. The survey of colleges showed a variety of situations, ranging from the relatively buoyant, as in the case of Msunduzi College, to the financially insecure. A lack of resources was identified as a source of difficulty in planning, in two respects. First, state funds were limited for some colleges and non-existent for others. Secondly, staffing levels were controlled at a regional level and were very uncertain. One college commented laconically that it had received ‘no funds from the Department since 1995’. The lack of resources attracted more additional

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comment than any other difficulty. The Acting Principal of Durban Technical College described the planning problem succinctly: If you’ve got no real funds where are you going to go? Both he and the Principal of Msunduzi College explained that any real increase in funds was entirely dependant on the ability to raise student fees and both had done so in 1997/98, by 3 and 9%, respectively. However, the ability to raise funds from student fees and donations did at least give some room for manoeuvre. The issues in relation to staffing were reflected as much more intransigent. In a move to underpin affirmative action, national policy established generous severance packages, hoping to use the resulting vacancies as a way of redressing the persisting racial division of staff within schools and colleges. Although the intention may be understandable, the results have created great difficulties:


The problem with staffing has been going on conservatively for at least three years. Someone had a bright idea to offer severance packages and they made it very attractive for those people that were in their latter days. That’s all very fine but you must have other people coming in at the other end to replace them and it left a void. (Acting Principal, Durban Technical College) In fact, in many colleges people have not been appointed as replacements, causing severe understaffing. As one college explained: Our staff structure should be 60 but we have been operating for the past four years with about 45. One college had lost its entire senior management team through severance packages. Where appointments had been made, affirmative action has dismayed some: Union’s impact on legislation has led to misplaced regulations, all based on politics (affirmative action) instead of common educational values. As the World Bank (1988) points out ‘there have been difficulties in adapting modern forms of organisation to the values and patterns of allegiance in many African cultures’. The desire to appoint from a specific racial group, whether on the grounds of affirmative action or on the grounds of group loyalty, is not understood and/or supported by all. The weighting attached to race in appointments is seen as appropriate by those supporting affirmative action or who subscribe to racial allegiance values, and inappropriate by those who believe other criteria concerning experience and ability should prevail. Colleges therefore face a double indemnity of coping with long-term vacancies or with replacements which may be made on a basis that managers find difficult to support. The former was indicated as the greater problem, leading to colleges feeling

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restrained in their planning as they grappled with the uncertainty of how many staff they might have in the future.


Information Availability Internal and external information on which to base plans was seen as in short supply. Figure 1 indicates that although this was not causing difficulty to the degree that government policies were, it was nevertheless a limiting factor. At a national level, examining the effectiveness and efficiency of colleges is problematic, as no national statistics are available on student employment destinations. Therefore, although the achievement of students is generally very good, with high pass rates, relating this to their ultimate destination is not possible (Explanatory letter from the Committee of Technical College Principals). Outputs can therefore only be measured along one dimension, that of summative assessment of course work and end of trimester/semester written examinations. Within the colleges, statistics on destination are not generally collected. At Durban Technical College, the feeling was that there was a mismatch between students graduating and employment opportunities, with insufficient jobs available. In the principal’s view, statistics showed the college to be the top college in South Africa for examination results for three consecutive terms. However, resources prevented them gathering information on employment and therefore making judgements on the efficiency of producing the numbers of qualified students in question: I must admit, I would like to know from a survey of this particular college, though we haven’t the manpower to do it, how many people leaving the college become employed. That’s something I would really like to answer but resources don’t allow us to do it. (Acting Principal, Durban Technical College) The Principal of Msunduzi College felt that links with industry required far more attention: I feel there is a very sad discrepancy between what is required by industry and what is happening in the institutions. Technical colleges are closer to the market than many other institutions. ... Our courses, particularly business studies at the moment, are trying to look very closely at what’s happening out there relevant for the industry. I feel there needs to be a closer liaison between industry and education authorities and the people who draw up the courses and perhaps the institutions which are able to steer their courses within the framework of the curriculum towards what is actually needed. Most colleges did not have a system in place to gather and analyse internal and external information to underpin long-term planning, though 107

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there were isolated examples of more positive experience. One college cited its success as: correct forecasting prior to democracy and readiness for total swing in student demographics i.e. from 30 per cent black students to 85 per cent in 2 years. Of the surveyed colleges, 73% indicated that they thought that long-term planning was vital. Twelve per cent attached some importance. Only 15% felt it was not important. However, the context in which the colleges were using strategic planning emerged as one where the policies and incompetence of central and regional governments created daunting barriers, where staffing and funds were often not only severely restricted, but even more damagingly, uncertain. Within this macro-environment, colleges struggled internally to create resources to analyse the local environment, assessing needs and the best way to meet them. Colleges had persisted in their planning, despite a feeling that the task was almost impossible in the prevailing conditions.


The Process of Planning In a survey of further education colleges in England, the Further Education Development Agency identified that failure to use strategic planning to best effect ‘cannot only be ascribed to unpredictable external factors’ Further Education Development Association, 1995, p. xii). They concluded that the way planning was undertaken also had an impact on the quality of plans and their implementation. To explore the process of planning in South Africa, the colleges surveyed were asked to indicate the time scale to which they were working, the existence or otherwise of formal planning documents, who was involved in planning and the process used. Over half of the colleges (58%) had no formal planning document. Given the importance that 78% of colleges attached to long-term planning, the lack of emphasis on formal recording of plans is surprising. It was also evident that colleges planned to a short timescale as in Figure 2. Over half the colleges (56%) planned only in the short term for 3 years or less. Only 20% had both short-term operational and long-term strategic plans. The combination of the absence of a formal planning document and short time scales may evidence colleges’ response to the difficult environment in which they work where, as one college commented, ‘long-term planning is basically impossible’. They may consequently be reluctant to commit themselves to a long-term view and detailed objectives, both of which are vulnerable to constant change. Colleges indicated those involved internally in planning: The senior management team 94% The governing body 68% 108


Teaching staff 65% Regional administration staff 8.8% Others (college council, students, administrative and ground staff). The involvement of the senior management team is almost universal. However governors and staff were both excluded in approximately a third of colleges. Analysing the description of the process provided by colleges, it would seem that there is a wide variety of method, but planning is usually not seen as the sole province of senior staff.


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Figure 2. Colleges’ planning timescale.

Lumby (1999) identified a wide range of approaches to strategic planning in colleges in England. The comments from colleges in South Africa indicated a similar breadth. Some had adopted a top down process. Examples of how this process of planning was enacted included: meeting of executive workshop of management; at management meetings once a month and conveying the outcomes at governing body meetings once every 2 months. However, there were also examples of a bottom up approach. One college described the sequence of the planning process as: Each school/division within college does its own planning (i.e. senior staff and heads of division). Senior management and principal co-ordinate. Academic Council: all stakeholders (industry/commerce). College Council (final approval). A second college painted a similar picture: Input from lowest rank, through academic council and financial committee to College Council.

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The principal of Msunduzi College was able to illustrate the process in more detail:


The staff, non academic staff and students all sit on the Council and we have a very good working relationship. I don’t think we battle to reach decisions. We have a mission statement which we try and look at as often as possible and we try and work towards that right from the sweepers through to the principal and the Chamber of the Council. I like to think that everybody thinks about that often and tries to work together, so all of the Council meetings go very smoothly. Sometimes things are discussed and I don’t think anything is railroaded. It gets fair discussion and then we make a decision and then those that disagree will support us. It’s very democratic. The Corporate Plan of the national Department of Education (1996) is strongly committed to a participative planning process and valuing the input of all parties. This commitment to a fundamentally democratic approach appears to be replicated in the approach of the majority of colleges. The one exception to the inclusive approach is the involvement of regional administration. Less than 10% of colleges indicated that they involved regional officials and only one of the colleges mentioned their involvement in its comments. Given the degree of difficulty being caused by regional policies it would seem that the improvement of relationships between individual colleges and regional administration is imperative. Colleges did not seem optimistic that this could be achieved in the short term. Some colleges had delegated the planning task to a special group, either a specially convened ‘special task team’ or a permanent ‘planning committee’. Some involved the wider community using: ‘think tanks’ with industry, management and a consultant; inclusive, consultative buzz groups. The overall picture was of a diversity of practice founded largely on an intention to be inclusive as far as was feasible. The actual planning techniques were also diverse. Analysis of strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities was the most frequently mentioned technique, but colleges were also using: needs analysis; planning workshops; scenario planning; PEST (political, economic, social and technical environment analysis); awaydays; breakaway weekends.

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For some colleges, planning was an ongoing process, discussed at meetings on a monthly or weekly basis. For others planning was more infrequent, on an annual or biannual cycle. The current most widely promoted model of strategic planning asserts that the involvement of all stakeholders is imperative to create ownership, thereby increasing the chances of the successful implementation of plans (Fullan, 1994; FEDA, 1995). The determination to adopt an inclusive approach has a particular resonance within the context of South Africa. Despite the very turbulent environment, with a high degree of uncertainty, approximately two-thirds of colleges are attempting to achieve their long-term planning by means which are open to the college community and, to a lesser extent, the wider community. The Content of Plans


The actual content of plans was explored. The percentage of colleges including particular elements in their plans is indicated below: Courses which are to be offered 97% Finance 94% The changing needs of employers 91% The numbers and sources of potential students 85% Staff development 85% Improving quality 85% Factors in the external environment likely to have an impact on the college 79% Accommodation 64% The bureaucratic elements of the courses to be offered and finance are almost universally included. The needs of employers also receive much attention, surprisingly more than that of the students themselves. This latter may be due to the fact that colleges are often over-subscribed, particularly given staff shortages, and identifying markets and their needs may therefore not be seen as a high priority. Factors in the external environment likely to impact on colleges are ignored by one in five. Accommodation is also given relatively less attention. In the entire survey, accommodation was only commented on twice. Given the need for a greater emphasis on practical training, rather than theoretical training, in sub-Saharan Africa (Humphreys & Oxotby, 1995), it is surprising that so many colleges gave little attention to the issue of accommodation, particularly that to support practical skills training. However, the absence of attention may relate to the fact that colleges have little hope of developing accommodation. As one college explained: The space allocated for us is so small that future growth is almost impossible. We do not have sports fields nor any available piece of ground to add more buildings. 111

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This does not explain why planning to make the best use of existing accommodation is not undertaken by a third of colleges. Interpreting the figures above, it would seem that for a minority of colleges, planning is restricted to a product-driven statement of provision to be offered and the expected finance to underpin it. The majority are approaching the task with a more market driven perspective, looking to relevant external environment factors, identifying students and their needs, and striving to develop the curriculum. However, given that over half do not record their plans formally, the process may be more ad hoc and less systematic than it could be. Strategies for Development


The universal financial constraint in education (Hough, 1994) has led to a greater emphasis on remoulding the curriculum to ensure the best possible use of scarce resources. Gray & Warrender note: a growing world-wide interest in greater educational productivity has shifted the focus away from curriculum development per se and towards the more effective delivery of existing curricula, through both quantitative and qualitative improvements. (Gray & Warrender, 1993, p. 380) Colleges in South Africa face the challenge of increasing ‘educational productivity’ with the additional burden of supporting learners, who through the disempowerment of apartheid: are severely under-developed and lacking the frames of reference (such as knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and self-confidence) which are essential to effective and efficient learning. (Dovey, 1996, p. 354) The strains on the system are evidenced by examples of inappropriate class sizes: Some of our classes now are sitting at seventy, some of them are 50 and the average is 37. If some of our advanced classes are sitting at 15–20, then other classes have to carry that load and they have to adapt their teaching/lecturing methods to suit. (Principal, Msunduzi College) For example if you get a junior lecturer and a senior lecturer you can perhaps put 100 students in the room and the senior lecturer can give the lecture and the junior could learn from him, but unfortunately, due to our cut in staff numbers because of the severance package our numbers of students are increasing and our numbers of staff are decreasing, so it’s actually critical. (Acting Principal, Durban Technical College)

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In both these colleges, managers and lecturers were trying very hard to adapt their teaching methods and carry the load of insufficient staffing without detriment to the students. The overall impression from the survey was that the problems of insufficient resources and consequent changes in the curriculum were very widespread. Gray & Warrender (1993) identify a number of efficiency strategies for better use of staff and space in developing countries. The extent to which these strategies are in use is shown in Table I. Considered this action (%)

Have taken this action (%)

Improved staff:student ratios (more students to each member of staff)

3

88

Larger classes

6

85

3

6

More efficient use of teacher time on activities geared directly to teaching

12

62

12

15

Centralised allocation of rooms to ensure the most intensive use of facilities

9

62

3

26

More rigorous maintenance and repair procedures

3

53

15

29

Enterprise activities to generate income

15

47

12

26

Curriculum analysis to minimise expensive equipment needs

12

44

12

32

Longer teaching hours

29

38

15

18

Substituting technicians and assistant instructors for lecturers

6

26

12

56

Materials recycling systems

6

20

3

70

Longer working days, including double shifts

20

26

9

44

More emphasis on work-based learning and uses of employers equipment

20

20

35

24

Year round opening of the

38

18

9

35

This action is planned (%)

Have not considered this action (%) 9

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Jacky Lumby college Remuneration packages designed to provide incentives to cut costs or raise productivity

32

0

15

53


Table I. Table of actions considered/implemented to improve resource management.

Larger classes and higher staff:student ratios are the most frequently used strategy. Approximately two-thirds of colleges had also given some consideration to the more productive use of staff, ensuring that their time was spent on teaching activities. The emphasis remained on staff’s professional commitment to their role, with very few colleges offering incentives for productivity or cost cutting. Only a quarter of colleges had substituted technicians and instructors for lecturers. The majority of lecturers were not being asked to teach for longer hours as yet, but if the figure for the action planned is taken into account, the pattern is shifting with more than half of the colleges intending to ask staff to work more hours. Non-curriculum-related activities to increase resources were less in evidence. For example, the figures above indicate that only half of the colleges are using enterprise activities to raise funds. This is in contrast with many other countries where such activities are an important source of funds (Gomes, 1991; Fouts & Chan, 1997; Lumby & Li, 1998). The underuse of assets in the opening of colleges is even more striking, with only a quarter of colleges open all year round or planning to do so. The picture indicated in Table I is that colleges have been fairly conservative as yet in their response to resource constraints, responding mainly by increasing class sizes and lengthening teaching hours. It is indicated that a minority are planning more fundamental changes to develop the management of their assets. Greater use of employers’ equipment is indicated as particularly likely to increase in the near future. The desire to both decrease unit costs and to better meet student needs is evidenced in the curriculum changes signalled by colleges. Initiatives in progress included: more practical/workshops/laboratory activity at college — towards accredited practical courses; rationalisation of uneconomic courses/subjects; create learning facilities apart from lecturer/learner contact area; rental of local industrial training facilities/skills training facilities for training purposes; running self-supporting classes; cutting down contact hours with students in theoretical subjects; correspondence programmes; distance education with minimal contact hours; 114


cutting costs regarding courses (only courses which are really a success are offered). Those colleges which offered additional comments indicated that their planning was equally focused on raising funds and the most productive management of assets. The larger picture of all the colleges included in Table I gave a less dynamic impression of being focused on a narrower range of strategies. It would seem that a minority of colleges are trail blazing in experimenting with a range of initiatives to achieve greater productivity and respond to resource constraints.


Opportunities and Threats Colleges were asked what factors they saw as most critical to their future success. The factor cited by the largest number of colleges (31%) was their ability to stay close to the market, to understand the needs of industry and their students. Issues of curriculum quality were closely linked. Twelve colleges mentioned curriculum factors such as updating staff and equipment, good results and more practical skills training as being critical. As one college expressed it succinctly, ‘the quality and relevance of the vocational education programmes that we offer’ was the factor most likely to lead to success. The responsibility of staff to achieve this was seen as very important. Despite the context of turbulence, there was optimism that staff had the potential to make a real difference. Twenty-seven per cent of colleges commented on the contribution of staff as of major significance. One college gave as the most important factor in assuring future success: All the staff doing their work to the best of their ability. That’s all. The rest will come by itself. A significant number of colleges (21%) saw the availability of more resources as highly important to future success. Though there is no doubt that resource constraint may confine the achievement of plans, overall the comments were positive in attributing potential success to factors over which colleges have control, the ability to sense and respond to their market with high quality vocational education. Asked about the factors that threatened future success, 40% of colleges indicated problems with resource levels. This related both to state funding and students’ ability to pay their fees. The resource constraint was exacerbated by the perceived inefficient bureaucracy of government, so that resource was not only insufficient, but also uncertain. The disposition of staff and students was also restricting for a small number of colleges, with attitudes described as ranging from apathy to politically driven aggressive demands. The ‘different ways of thinking of different cultures’ was causing conflict in some colleges.

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Militant activity, and the government’s inability or unwillingness to deal with the consequent discipline issues, were demoralising some managers. The balance of opportunities and threats was finely weighed with the determination to respond to industry and the nation’s needs, and belief in the importance of this task hampered by the frustration of the uncertainty of the wider context. Despite the difficulties, an overview of the data discussed in this article would suggest that at least some colleges have a vision of a buoyant future where they will work within the restraints to make an important contribution to the development of individuals and the state: To me there’s a lot of potential. To me the building should be alive. Every night of the week the lights should be burning with the activity going on because we’ve got the infrastructure, we’ve got the teaching staff, we’ve got the know how and knowing in my heart that education is very, very important. (Acting Principal, Durban Technical College)


Conclusions The majority of colleges recognise that long-term planning is of importance, even in times of great turbulence. To meet the needs of the very many people in South Africa denied educational opportunity in the past and struggling to achieve it in the present, planning must encompass a local and a national perspective. Humphreys & Oxtoby (1995), speaking of the situation in Africa, argue that the conditions in which vocational education: is most likely to yield a satisfactory return (are) when jobs are available in the country concerned, when the output from technical and vocational education consists of people with the sort of skills needed to fill these jobs, when the technical and vocational education itself is of high quality, when it is effectively managed and when it is delivered at the lowest cost consistent with the need for acceptable standards of provision. (Humphreys & Oxtoby, 1995, p. 275) In South Africa the evidence discussed in this article suggests that, though planning at a local level strives to be responsive to local need, links with the macro-level of planning are inadequate and this is a matter for urgent attention. At regional level, a clear commitment to offer colleges a specific level of resource, even if the latter is severely restricted, would liberate colleges from the burden of uncertainty of what funds and staff will be in place. Additionally, some regional coordination of information gathering and analysis to establish the needs of the economy and of industry would be an important contribution to colleges’ ability to assess their market and be responsive. 116


Colleges are attempting to meet the other conditions described by Humphreys & Oxtoby (1995), that is, a relevant and high quality curriculum and a lowering of unit costs, but are perhaps in the early stages of addressing these issues within a new democracy. There may be a need to be more innovative in using the full range of assets over which they have control. Buildings are still underused in most cases, and staff used in traditional, demarcated roles. Non-teaching staff and resourcebased learning may have a larger role to play in the future. The vision provided by the acting principal of Durban Technical College of a college alight with activity during the day and evening all year round, using the full potential of all staff, has yet to be fulfilled in the majority of colleges. Frustration and dismay have been evident, but also a commitment to ensuring that vocational education takes its place in South Africa, as an essential component in achieving democracy and redressing the tragedy of wasted human potential under Apartheid. Colleges have expressed a determination to survive, and to continue to improve in order to fulfil the remit of further education, offering life enhancing opportunities to individuals and contributing to local and national economic prosperity.


Acknowledgements Thanks are due to the British Council for providing financial assistance, to the college staff and principals who gave of their time, and also to Professor Michael Thurlow of Natal University for his generous help. Correspondence Jacky Lumby, Educational Management Development Unit, School of Education, University of Leicester, University Centre, Barrack Road, Northampton NN2 6AF, United Kingdom ([email protected]). References Department of Education (1996) Corporate Plan 1996–1999. Pretoria: Department of Education. Dovey, K. (1996) Becoming a ‘Learning Nation’: what are South Africa’s chances? International Journal of Lifelong Education, 15, September – October, pp. 353–369. Further Education Development Agency (1995) Implementing College Strategic Plans. London: FEDA. Fouts, J. T. & Chan, J. C. K. (1997) The Development of Work-study and School Enterprises in China’s Schools, Curriculum Studies, 29, pp. 34–46. Fullan, M. (1994) Change Forces. London: Falmer. Gomes, C. A. (1991) Vocational Education Financing: an example of participation by employers in Brazil, Prospects, XXI, pp. 457–465.

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Jacky Lumby Gray, L. & Warrender, A. (1993) Cost-effective Technical Education in Developing Countries, Coombe Lodge Report, 23, pp. 359–424. Hough, J. R. (1994) Educational Cost-benefit Analysis, Education Economics, 2, pp. 93–128. Human Sciences Research Council (1995) Training Opportunities at Technical Colleges. Pretoria: HSRC. Humphreys, M. & Oxtoby, R. (1995) Improving Technical Education in Egypt: management development, international assistance and cultural values, Vocational Aspect of Education, 47, pp. 273–287. King, K. (1993) Technical and Vocational Education and Training in an International Context, Vocational Aspect of Education, 45, pp. 201–216. Krige, D. & Scott, D. (1995) An Overview of Education in Kwazulu Natal, Provincial Overview Series, Vol. 5. Durban: Education Foundation. Lewin, K. (1993) Investing in Technical and Vocational Education: a review of the evidence, Vocational Aspect of Education, 45, pp. 217–227. Lumby, J. & Li, Y. (1998) Managing Vocational Education in China, Compare, 28, pp. 197–206.


Lumby, J. (1999) Strategic Planning in Further Education: the business of values, Educational Management and Administration, 27, pp. 71–83. Wallace, M. (1992) Flexible Planning: a key to the management of multiple innovations, in N. Bennet, M. Crawford & C. Riches (Eds) Managing Change in Education. London: Paul Chapman. World Bank (1988) Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington: World Bank.

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