Journalof Modern Education Review

Journal of Modern Education Review Volume 4, Number 10, October 2014

Editorial Board Members: Dr. David Horrigan (Switzerland) Dr. Lisa Winstead (USA) Dr. Julia Horváth (Hungary) Prof. Dr. Diana S. Perdue (USA) Dr. Natalya (Natasha) Delcoure (USA) Prof. Hashem A. Kilani (Oman) Prof. Hyun-Jun Joo (Korea) Dr. Tuija Vänttinen (Finland) Dr. Ferry Jie (Australia) Dr. Natalia Alexandra Humphreys (USA) Dr. Alevriadou Anastasia (Greece) Prof. Andrea Kárpáti (Hungary) Dr. Adrien Bisel (Switzerland) Dr. Carl Kalani Beyer (USA) Prof. Adisa Delic (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Dr. Nancy Maynes (Canada)

Prof. Alexandru Acsinte (Romania) Dr. Alan Seidman (USA) Dr. Larson S. W. M. Ng (USA) Dr. Edward Shizha (Canada) Prof. Dr. Ali Murat SÜNBÜL (Turkey) Prof. Jerzy Kosiewicz (Poland) Dr. Elizabeth Speakman (USA) Dr. Vilmos Vass (Hungary) Dr. Daryl Watkins (USA) Prof. I. K. Dabipi (USA) Prof. Dr. Janna Glozman (Russia) Prof. Pasquale Giustiniani (Italy) Prof. Dr. Daniel Memmert (Germany) Prof. Boonrawd Chotivachira (Thailand) Prof. Dr. Maizam Alias (Malaysia)

Copyright and Permission: Copyright©2014 by Journal of Modern Education Review, Academic Star Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. Academic Star Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author.

Subscription Information: Price: US$420/year (print) Those who want to subscribe to our journal can contact: [email protected].

Peer Review Policy: Journal of Modern Education Review (ISSN 2155-7993) is a refereed journal. All research articles in this journal undergo rigorous peer review, based on initial editor screening and anonymous refereeing by at least two anonymous referees. The review process usually takes 4–6 weeks. Papers are accepted for publication subject to no substantive, stylistic editing. The editor reserves the right to make any necessary changes in the papers, or request the author to do so, or reject the paper submitted.

Contact Information: Manuscripts can be submitted to: [email protected], [email protected] or [email protected]. Instructions for Authors and Submission Online System are available at our website: http://www.academicstar.us/onlineupload.asp?shaction=show.

Address: 228 East 45th Street, Ground Floor, #CN00000267, New York, NY 10017 Tel: 347-566-2153, 347-230-6798 Fax: 646-619-4168, 347-426-1986 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Journal of Modern Education Review Volume 4, Number 10, October 2014

Contents Social Science Education 737

Best Practices for Teaching International Students Cheryl McFadden

742

An Examination of the Levels and Differences in Organizational Commitment of Full and Part Time Community College Faculty Duane Akroyd, Deborah Engle

750

Leadership of the Portuguese Community Schools in the East Coast of the United States and the Public Policies of Education: A Multiple Case Study António Maria Veloso Bento

758

Citizenship, Tolerance and Humanism: Achievements and Safeguards — A Case of Young People’s Interpretations of Being A Citizen of A Particular State, Lithuania Vaiva Zuzevičiūtė, Evelina Viduolienė, Beata Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, Anna M. Zalewska

767

Education: A Culture-Acquirement Beyond Textbook-Study Sinan Çaya

776

Theory and Practice in Foreign Language Teaching — Past and Present Ellie Boyadzhieva

789

Chinese as Second Language Learners’ Beliefs about Vocabulary Acquisition Shuyi Yang

802

Motivating Secondary School Students to Learn Languages with Relevant Media — PopuLLar Figen Yılmaz, Meral Şeker

Science, Engineering, Technology and Art Education 809

Case Study on a Smart Class-Based Class: Focusing on a Cyber University Class Mi-Ja Shim

815

Methodological Strategies of Using Educational Multimedia Website in Teaching Arts Courses Lyudmila Gavrilova

822

The Role of the Open Educational Videos as Support and Evidence of Learning: Project TALK — Targeting Achievements-Linking Knowledge Fernando Jorge Mortera Gutierrez, José Arturo Villarreal Guzmán

830

Adoption of Information and Communications Technology: An Evidence of Teacher Education Institutions in Davao City Eddelyn D. Gupeteo

837

Network Life: The Identity of Adolescent High School Students Gladys Hernández Romero, Rosario Cruz Solís

846

Health Care, Care Provider and Client Satisfaction: Transforming Health Care Delivery System for Improved Health Care Seeking Behaviour Francisca Chika Anyanwu, Sylvester Reuben Okeke

854

Dokuz Eylul University Graduate School of Health Sciences: Does It Meet The Basic Standards of ORPHEUS/AMSE/WFME? A Self-Evaluation Tuğba Yardimci, Canan Demir Barutcu, Gül Güner Akdoğan, İbrahim Astarcıoğlu

Journal of Modern Education Review, ISSN 2155-7993, USA October 2014, Volume 4, No. 10, pp. 737-741 Doi: 10.15341/jmer(2155-7993)/10.04.2014/001  Academic Star Publishing Company, 2014 http://www.academicstar.us

Best Practices for Teaching International Students Cheryl McFadden  (Department of Higher, Adult, and Counselor Education, College of Education, East Carolina University, USA)

Abstract: Wǒ bù míngbái is a common phrase among Chinese international students enrolled in U.S. institutions. This phrase, “I don’t understand” is not limited to Chinese students but is often expressed by many other international students as they strive to succeed in courses overseas. A record high number of international students, 764,495, attended U.S. universities in 2011-2012 and this number has consistently increased since 2003-2004 (Chow & Bhandari, 2012). Are U.S. faculty prepared to teach these the ever-diversifying student body of our American institutions? Are there cultural differences among international students that faculty need to address when engaging in course design and delivery? This article seeks to address the best practices for teaching international students. Key words: international students, course design and delivery, learning by doing, workforce skills

1. Introduction and Background to the Study Wǒ bù míngbái is a common phrase among Chinese international students enrolled in U.S. institutions. This phrase, “I don’t understand,” is not limited to Chinese students but is often expressed by many other international students as they strive to succeed in courses overseas. A record high number of international students, 764,495, attended U.S. universities in 2011-2012 and this number has consistently increased since 2003-2004 (Chow & Bhandari, 2012). The literature is replete with numerous studies espousing the benefits (both cultural and economic) ofinternational recruitment at U.S. institutions [including this author who has published several studies on thisvery topic (McFadden, Maahs-Fladung, & Mallett, 2013; 2012; Mallett & McFadden, 2009, 2009a)]. But the question remains, are U.S. faculty prepared to teach these the ever-diversifying student body of our American institutions? Are there cultural differences among international students that faculty need to address when engaging in course design and delivery? This article seeks to address the best practices for teaching international students. Before the best practices for teaching international students can be described, it is necessary to provide a brief review of literature in the area of adult learning. The purpose of the literature review is to provide the reader with the framework for these the suggested practices. This literature is by no means exhaustive as new studies on how to teach adult learners, whether they are English language learners or native English speakers, continue to emerge. Tinto (2003) states that a disconnect occurs when learning is passive. By passive, he is referring to the

Cheryl McFadden, Ed.D., Associate Professor, Department of Higher, Adult, and Counselor Education, College of Education, East Carolina University; research areas/interests: teaching and learning, international students, leadership styles and behaviors. E-mail: [email protected]. 737

Best Practices for Teaching International Students

familiar “sage on the stage” approach to pedagogy where the students listen passively as the instructor imparts knowledge about a particular topic. In this venue, students generally accept the information submissively without critique or application. This mode of teaching, although unpopular among students (Pharr, Arnold, Prince, Brown, McFadden, & Maahs-Fladung (2012), is still the most preferred method of teaching as evidenced by student opinion surveys (Carlson, 2005). Kimber, Ho, and Hong (2010) found that undergraduate students in Hong Kong were motivated by courses that were relevant and interesting, included learning activities and assessment, taught for understanding, and involved close relationships with both the teacher and other students. In their research among international students from the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, Gillett and Baskerville (2012) purport that students only preferred lectures if the instructor was “an expert, maybe funny, told stories, left the script, but was knowledgeable and conveyed the big picture” (p. 165). The students did not like PowerPoint presentations, which have become commonplace in lectures these days (Gillett & Baskerville, 2012). The students instead preferred individual, problem solving learning and learning by praxis. What is interesting to note is that, on the whole, the Asian students did not like social group learning (Gillett & Baskerville, 2012), which indicates a preference ostensibly cultural in its origins. This finding raises the question as to whether social group learning should be avoided in teaching international students –an inquiry which seems to contradict Tinto’s (2003) research on adult learning. Cultural differences may supersede the theories and principles of learning for English speaking adults. Tinto (2003) recommends a restructuring of learning to include creating an environment where students are connected to each other and the institution. Tinto (2003) asserts that “Learning is better together” because students become a resource for each other (p. 2). Demaris and Kritsonis (2008) state that when students are engaged with other students, they have a common purpose. Learning becomes meaningful and relevant to real life experiences. Price (2005) expands the relationship concept to suggest that instructors created small learning cohorts within the class. These learning communities improve employability because they “foster workforce skills” (Dodge & Kendall, 2004, p. 150). Most workplace environments require employees to collaborate with each other on various projects. Stefanou and Salisbury-Glennon (2001) assert that learning communities foster problem solving, motivation and self-regulation, important workforce skills. Kemp’s (2010) research suggests that an active learning community within a blended classroom environment (face-to-face and online interaction) improves workforce skills and knowledge among undergraduate international students. Students “create, share, and build knowledge together” (Kemp, 2010, p. 62). Since many courses today are delivered using a blended approach, it is important to examine the literature on online learning. Hughes’ (2009) research on the use of online resources for study purposes viewed international students “through a information literacy lens as information-using learners” (p. 126). Hughes purports that online learning is an integral part of the whole learning experience and should not be viewed simply as discreet skills necessary for completing coursework. Her study recommends an “inclusive informed learning approach that responds holistically to identified strengths and challenges of international students” (Hughes, 2009, p. 144). Informational literacy education should be integrated into the course rather than taught as isolated skills. Cross-disciplinary collaboration between academics and support personnel is necessary with this approach. International students would then be better able to use online resources, engage in scholarly practices, and find themselves more equipped to tackle challenges faced in the classroom environment. The role of support personnel is crucial to both the academic success and the emotional wellbeing of international students. Curtin, Stewart, and Ostrove (2013) examined advisor support, sense of belonging, and 738


academic self-concept among international and domestic graduate students. Currently, there are 461,000 international graduate students in the US (Council for Graduate Schools, 2012). Curtin et al. (2012) reported that international students valued “research-related and other academic experiences” more than social experiences (p. 108). This was not the case with the domestic students. Paradoxically, Trice (2006) found that international students who socialize more with Americans were better acculturated to the US, socialized more with other international students, and were more involved in campus activities. Curtin et al. (2012) also reported that advisor support was important to the international students. Not surprisingly, Cheng, Myles, and Curtis (2004) report that writing tasks and speaking were most difficult for the graduate international students. Although the students had developed strategies such as practicing their class presentations and using the language and structure from textbooks and journals to help with the writing, they still felt that their writing and language skills needed improvement. Cheng et al. suggests that international students would benefit from oral presentations and writing workshops as a means of having conversations with native English speakers and becoming more acclimated to the university and local community. International students would benefit from participating in a pre-enrollment course with content-based instruction (Cargill, 1996). Freeman (2003) suggests offering language support in a noncredit course parallel to content courses. Similarly to the findings of Curtin et al. (2007), collaboration between academics and support personnel was also suggested to enhance academic success. There appears to be some dichotomies in the research presented. The literature on adult learning recommends the use of social groups to promote academic success (Tinto, 2003; Trice, 2006; Demaris& Kristsonis, 2008; Price, 2005; Stefanou & Salisbury-Glennon, 2001; Kemp, 2010). In contrast, the literature specifically on international students (Gillett & Baskerville, 2012; Curtin et al. 2007; Cheng et al. 2004) reports that international students do not value social group learning. Trice’s (2004) research espouses the benefit to international students when they engage in more social interactions with native English speakers; they are more acculturated to the US. This social isolationism is a common theme in the literature on international graduate students, particularly doctoral students (Erichsen & Bollinger, 2011; Trice& Yoo, 2007). The question remains as whether this is a cultural influence that should be respected, or should international students be encouraged to interact with the native English speakers. There are many established practices for teaching international students. What is interesting to note, is that these aforesaid practices are also viable approaches to teaching all adult learners regardless of their county of origin. Below are several best practices that may benefit international students in your classroom.  Develop activities that encourage problem solving and learning by doing.  If the method is lecture, the instructor should be “an expert, maybe funny, told stories, left the script, but was knowledgeable and conveyed the big picture” (Gillett & Baskerville, 2012, p. 165).  Use minimally power point presentations.  Incorporate workforce skills into the course.  Informational literacy education should be integrated into the course rather than taught as discreet skills.  Oral presentations and writing workshops should be offered to students.  Develop a pre-enrollment course with content-based instruction.  Develop language support noncredit courses parallel to content courses  Develop cross-disciplinary relationships between academics and support personnel.  Develop strong advisory programs. The question concerning the use of social learning with international students might be addressed by 739


implementing these types of activities and assignments gradually into the course. As students become more proficient in their language skills, social learning opportunities could be increased. International students face many challenges as they enter higher education settings in the U.S. Understanding both their intellectual and emotional needs is the first step in helping them make successful transitions. Collaboration among institutional entities and communication with the students are key elements in ensuring their fulfillment. References Cargill M. (1996). “An integrated bridging program for international postgraduate students”, Higher Education Research and Development, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 177-188. Carson A. (2005). “Using problem based learning to teach thermodynamics: The good, the bad, and the ugly”, Paper 2005-2092 presented at the ASEE Annual Conference, Portland, OR. Cheng L., Myles J. and Curtis A. (2004). “Targeting language support for non-native English-Speaking graduate students at a Canadian university”, TESL Canada Journal/Revue TESL Du Canada, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 50-71. Chow P. and Bhandari R. (Eds.) (2012). Open Doors 2011: Report on International Educational Exchange, New York, NY: Institute on International Education. Council for Graduate Schools (2012). “Graduate schools report slight growth in new students for fall 2012”, available online at: http://www.cgsnet.org/sites/default/files/E_and_D_2012_press_release_FINAL.pdf. Curtin N., Stewart A. J. and Ostrove J. M. (2013). “Fostering academic self concept: Advisor support and sense of belonging among international and domestic graduate students”, American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp. 108-137. Demaris M. C. and Kritsonis W. A. (2008). “The classroom: exploring its effects on student persistence and satisfaction”, Focus on Colleges, Universities and Schools, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 1-9. Dodge L. and Kendall M. E. (2004, Fall). “Learning communities”, College Teaching, Vol. 52, No. 4, pp. 150-155. Erichsen E. and Bolliger D. (2011). “Towards understanding international graduate student isolation in traditional and online environments”, Educational Technology Research and Development, Vol. 59, pp. 309-326. Freeman J. (2003). “The science of conversation: Training in dialogue for NNS in engineering”, IEEE Transactional on Professional Communication, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 57-167. Gillett S. A. and Baskerville R. (2010). “Student learning preferences: International students in comparative perspective”, International Journal of Learning, Vol. 18, No. 11, pp. 155-175. Hughes H. (2012). “International students using online resources to learn: Complex experiences and learning needs”, Journal of Higher and Further Education, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 126-146. Kemp L. (2010). “Teaching & learning for international students in a ‘learning community’: Creating, sharing and building knowledge”, InSight: A Journal of Scholarly Teaching, Vol. 5, pp. 63–74. Kimber D., Ho A. and Hong C. X. (2010). “Characterizing a teaching and learning environment capable of motivating student learning”, Learning Environments Research, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 43–57. Mallett W. and McFadden C. (2009, Summer). “International student college choice factors”, Academic Exchange Quarterly, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 161-166. Mallett W. and McFadden C. (2009a). “Recruitment practices and college choice factors that influence international undergraduate enrollment”, Global Education Journal, No. 2, pp. 132–141. McFadden C., Maahs-Fladung C. and Mallett W. (2013). “Implications of recruiting international students to the University of North Carolina system”, in: V. Wang (Ed.), International Education and the Next-Generation Workforce: Competition in the Global Economy, Hersey, PA: IGI Global, pp. 139–153. McFadden C., Maahs-Fladung C. and Mallett W. (2012). “Recruiting international students to your campus”, Journal of International Students, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 157–183. Price D. (2005). “Learning communities and student success in postsecondary education: A background paper”, Manpower Demonstration Research. Corporation. Available online at: http://www.mdrc.org/publications/418/abstract.html. Tinto V. (2003). “Learning better together: The impact of learning communities on student success”, in: Promoting Student Success in College: Higher Education Monograph Series, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, pp. 1–8, retrieved October 10, 2013,

740

Best Practices for Teaching International Students available online at: http://faculty.soe.syr.edu/vtinto/Files /Learning%20Better%20Together.pdf. Trice A. G. (2004). “Mixing it up: International graduate students’ social interactions with American students”, Journal of College Student Development, Vol. 45, No. 6, pp. 671–687. Trice A. G. (2007). “Faculty perspectives regarding graduate international students’ isolation from host national students”, International Education Journal, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 108–117. Trice A. G. and Yoo J. E. (2007). “International graduate students’ perceptions of Their academic experience”, Journal of Research in International Education, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 41–66. Stefanou C. R. and Salisbury-Glennon J. D. (2001). “Developing motivation and cognitive learning strategies through an undergraduate learning community”, Learning Environments Research, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 77-97.

741

Journal of Modern Education Review, ISSN 2155-7993, USA October 2014, Volume 4, No. 10, pp. 742–749 Doi: 10.15341/jmer(2155-7993)/10.04.2014/002  Academic Star Publishing Company, 2014 http://www.academicstar.us

An Examination of the Levels and Differences in Organizational Commitment of Full and Part Time Community College Faculty Duane Akroyd1, Deborah Engle2 (1. College of Education, North Carolina State University, USA; 2. School of Medicine, Duke University, USA)

Abstract: Despite the wide spread employment of part-time faculty in community colleges, there is little known about the commitment levels of these faculty, or how it compares to their full-time counterparts. The purpose of this study was to determine if the levels of affective, continuance, and normative commitment for full-time faculty differed significantly from part-time faculty in North Carolina community colleges. Analysis of variance (ANOVA), found that mean scores of affective, and normative commitment were significantly higher for full-time faculty than part-time faculty. Key words: faculty, community college, organizational commitment, part time faculty

1. Introduction The nascent dependence on part-time employees in organizations represents a relatively recent trend across the modern landscape of the American workforce. As a result, the relationship between organizations and employees is shifting. Over the past 50 years, there have been a multitude of definitions of organizational commitment arise from the literature. This variety is derived from the various scholarly conceptualizations of organizational commitment (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). According to Meyer and Allen (1997), “common to all conceptualizations of commitment is the notion that commitment binds an individual to an organization” (p. 13). Community college faculty organizational dependence on part-time employees is especially apparent in higher education. Across the United States, the number of part-time faculty members has increased by 79% between 1981 and 1999 (Walsh, 2002). In North Carolina community colleges, the total number of part-time faculty swelled from 9,093 in the year 2000 to 14,375 in 2006, representing greater than a 50% increase in just six years (North Carolina Community College System, 2006). Wallin (2004) suggests these dramatic increases in the employment of part-time faculty are significantly due to the economic recession during this period and concurrent large enrollment of students in college. Wallin (2004) cites Rifkin’s (2000) work when she states:“because [part-timers] are usually employed elsewhere, they may not have the commitment to the college that is more typical of full-time faculty” (p. 380).

Duane Akroyd, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Leadership, Policy, Adult and Higher Education, College of Education, North Carolina State University; research areas/interests: community colleges, health professions. E-mail: [email protected]. Deborah Engle, Ed.D., Assistant Professor, Director of Assessment and Evaluation, School of Medicine, Duke University; research areas/interests: medical education, assessment. E-mail: [email protected]. 742

An Examination of the Levels and Differences in Organizational Commitment of Full and Part Time Community College Faculty

2. Problem Provasnik and Planty (2008) report for the National Center for Education Statistics that over two-thirds of community college faculty across the United States were employed part-time (over 240,000 faculty), while one-third of community college faculty were employed full-time. These national statistics mirror the faculty employment data for North Carolina. In North Carolina, 70% of the state’s community college faculty are part-time, while 30% are full-time employees (North Carolina Community College System, 2006). Cohen and Brawer (2003) contend that the explanation for this substantial reliance on part-time faculty is that they cost less; they may have special capabilities not available among the full-time instructors; and they can be employed, dismissed, and reemployed as necessary (p. 85). Frequently, part-time faculty are teaching the same courses and content as their full-time counterparts, while enduring financial inequities in salary, benefits, and professional development (Wallin,2005).As community colleges’ dependence on part-time faculty continues, it becomes apparent that these employees are critical to the success of these institutions (Wallin, 2005). Despite this criticality, part-time faculty are “treated as disposable commodities, an expendable contingent work force” (Wallin, 2005, p. 13), are viewed as “indentured servitude” (Yoshioka, 2007, p. 41), and metaphorically linked to “migrant workers to the farms” (Cohen & Brawer, 2003, p. 86). In light of these circumstances, the debate continues whether community colleges and faculty are, or should be, mutually committed. Analyzing levels of organizational commitment and understanding how it is developed for individual employees is therefore a timely and important endeavor for this group. Over the past 25 years, researchers have observed limitations of this early model of organizational commitment and have argued that it did not fully explain how an individual becomes committed to an organization (Mayer & Schoorman, 1998). Most notably, Meyer and Allen (1990) re-conceptualized organizational commitment as a multi-dimensional construct consisting of three components: affective, continuance, and normative commitment. Affective commitment is an employee’s emotional attachment to his/her organization — the employee remains working at the organization because he/she wants to. Continuance commitment is exhibited when an employee stays at an organization, not because he/she wants to remain there, but because she/he is aware of the costs associated with leaving. Normative commitment is when an employee remains at an organization out of a sense of obligation to stay there. Meyer and Allen’s (1991) newer conceptualization of organizational commitment as a three-component model has become a widely-accepted theoretical framework in commitment research (Meyer, Becker, Vandenberghe, 2004). There seem to be two divergent perspectives about commitment among part-time faculty that exist in the literature. One perspective is that part-time faculty is not as committed to their organizations as their full-time counterparts; the other is that they are just as committed as the full-timers. Clearly, more research is needed to clarify the levels of organizational commitment for both part-time and full-time faculty employees at community colleges.

3. Theoretical Framework The theory framing this study derives from Meyer and Allen’s (1997) research on commitment. They propose that individuals become committed to an organization for any of three psychological reasons labeled as affective, continuance, and normative. Affective commitment is viewed as an individual’s “emotional attachment to,

743


identification with, and involvement with the organization” (Meyer & Allen, 1997, p. 11). For continuance commitment, an employee chooses to stay with an organization due to an awareness of the costs associated with leaving it. In normative commitment, an individual continues employment due to a sense of obligation. Each of these three components of organizational commitment may be experienced simultaneously and at different levels by all individuals in an organization (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Over the past 25 years, researchers have observed limitations of early models and measures of organizational commitment and have argued they it did not fully explain an individual’s commitment to an organization (Mayer & Schoorman, 1998). Most notably, Meyer and Allen (1990) re-conceptualized organizational commitment as a multi-dimensional construct consisting of three components: affective, continuance, and normative commitment and it has become a widely-accepted theoretical framework in commitment research (Meyer, Becker, Vandenberghe, 2004).

4. Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the levels of organizational commitment of full-time North Carolina community college faculty compared their part-time counter-parts. More specifically we wanted to determine if the levels of affective, continuance, and normative commitment for full-time faculty differed significantly from full part-time faculty in North Carolina community colleges?

5. Research Design This study was across-sectional examination of faculty in their work setting and employed an explanatory non-experimental research design (Johnson, 2001). It utilized quantitative survey methods with appropriate sampling procedures in order to make inferences about all full-time and part-time community college faculty in North Carolina by using a smaller, representative sample of the population.

6. Sample The sample was drawn from the 58 community colleges across North Carolina that employ approximately 6,244 full-time faculty (North Carolina Community College System, 2007) and 14,375 part-time faculty (North Carolina Community College System, 2006). During the 13-month data collection period, 26 colleges accepted the invitation to participate. Upon conclusion of the data collection period (web based survey gathered from colleges list of faculty email addresses), full-time faculty submitted 645 surveys and part- time faculty submitted 168 surveys.

7. Instrumentation 7.1 Organizational Commitment To measure affective, continuance and normative commitment the scale developed by Meyer and Allen (1993) was used to measure this multi-dimensional construct. It consisted of a 6 Likert-type questions for each of the three types of commitment mentioned above (scale: 1 = Strongly disagree through 7 = Strongly agree). The mean of all six questions for each type of commitment (affective, continuance and normative) was used as the measure of employee commitment in the organization.

744


7.2 Validity and Reliability Confirmatory factor analyses (Dunham, Grube & Castenada, 1994; Hackett, Bycio & Hausdorf, 1994) established that each of the commitment scales (ACS, CCS, and NCS) measures distinct components of commitment (Meyer et al., 2002). Gormley (2005) conducted a principal components analysis of Meyer and Allen’s Multidimensional Organizational Commitment Questionnaire based on the responses of 316 nursing faculty. The results of her analysis indicated a three factor solution, accounting for 100% of the total variance among the commitment items. Gormley’s (2005) study provides additional evidence of validity for each of the commitment factors.

8. Results Affective commitment was the highest for both groups and full-time faculty show higher levels of commitment for each of the three types than part-time faculty. The trend is especially apparent for normative commitment, where the mean difference was 0.93 and the effect statistic is the greatest (see Table 1). While there is a significant difference in affective commitment between groups, the magnitude of the difference is medium to small when effect size considered (d = 0.19) (Cohen, 1988). For continuance commitment, the difference between full-time and part-time employment status approaches significance (p < .05), however, the magnitude of the difference is small when effect size (d = .08) considered (Cohen, 1988). For normative commitment, there is a significant difference between full-time and part-time employment status (p < .001). Table 1

Mean Differences and Effect Sizes of Employment Status for North Carolina Community College Faculty by Type of Commitment Full-Time Faculty (a)

Part-Time Faculty (b)

Difference (a - b)

p

d

Affective Commitment

5.24

4.64

0.60

0.000*

0.19

Continuance Commitment

4.52

4.28

0.24

3.07

0.93

Normative Commitment 4.00 Note: p = significance; d = effect-size (Cohen’s d). * p < 0.05

0.091 0.000*

0.08 0.29

Moreover, the magnitude of the difference is medium when effect size (d = 0.29) considered (Cohen, 1988). This data supports the conclusion that full-time community college faculty in North Carolina has significantly higher levels of affective and normative commitment when compared to their part-time counterparts, but there are no differences in continuance commitment.

9. Conclusions Affective Commitment. The research literature is non-existent for Meyer and Allen’s conceptualization of organizational commitment modeled for full-time and part-time community college faculty. Therefore, a direct comparison of findings from the current study with findings from the literature is not possible. Meyer and Allen (1991) define affective commitment as “the employee’s emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization” (p. 67). This is generally seen as a favorable form of commitment, meaning that the individual stays with the organization because they want to stay. The results of this study produced a mean of 745


for all the faculty (both full and part time) of 5.12 (SD = 1.53), just within the response anchor range for “slightly agree” (5.00–5.99) on the seven point scale. This level of affective commitment is generally in accordance with other studies that have utilized the Affective Commitment Scale in the higher education setting. Messer (2006) reported a mean score of affective commitment for Tulsa Community College faculty at 5.23 (SD = 1.33). Carver (2008) reported that a national sample of nursing faculty produced a mean score of 4.41 (SD = 1.22) for affective commitment. His study’s reported level of commitment, however, is slightly higher than the reported mean score of affective commitment for Christian higher education faculty at 3.11 (SD = 1.12) on a 5-point scale (Thomas, 2008). Examination of affective commitment by faculty status shows that full-time faculty reported a mean level of affective commitment of 5.24 (SD = 1.47). Yet, the part-time faculty reported a mean level of affective commitment of 4.64 (SD = 1.61). Statistical analysis demonstrated mean levels of affective commitment between full-time and part-time faculty were significantly different (p < .05), though the effect size was small (d = 0.19). There is no comparative research using Meyer and Allen’s conceptualization of organizational commitment modeled for full-time and part-time community college faculty. Therefore, a direct comparison of findings from the current study with findings from the literature is not possible. Yet, when comparisons are made with the few extant studies of organizational commitment among higher education faculty, the results of the current study do not match them. Speier-Bowman (1995), incorporating Mottaz’s conceptualization of organizational commitment, showed that overall commitment levels were not different between full-time and part-time faculty at Denver area community colleges. Borchers & Teahen (2001), using Mowday’s (1979) instrument for organizational commitment, reported no difference in commitment levels between full-time and part-time faculty at two Mid-Western universities. Murphy (2009), using years of institutional service as a single-item proxy for institutional commitment, reported full-time tenured/tenure track faculty have more years of service than part-time (contingent) faculty. This difference was explained as a by-product of the tenure structure and process itself. However, Murphy (2009) further indicated that part-time faculty were generally as committed as their tenured/tenure-track counterparts since both groups had an average of seven years of service. The current study indicates that full-time faculty maybe more affectively committed than their part-time counterparts. One possible reason for this could be due to the fact that part-time faculty may have not been in the organization long enough to develop affective attachment. Lower levels of attachment maybe a result of poor socialization to the college as opposed to actual time in employment. It is common for part-time faculty to teach sections of classes that are scheduled in the evening, after most full-time faculty have finished their work day. As a result, part-time faculty may not feel integrated and included in the cultural fabric of the college. Effective socialization is also related to organizational support. It teaches the part-time faculty member the skills of his/her job as well as the norms and values or culture that guide faculty behavior at the particular institution in order to enhance employee performance (Anakwe & Greenhaus, 1999). When the socialization process is institutionalized and made effective, some researchers believe it increases organizational commitment (Wanous, 1992). Normative Commitment. The level of normative commitment is in accordance with Carver’s (2008) study of nursing faculty that produced a mean score of 3.78 (SD = 1.17) for normative commitment; but it is lower than Thomas’ (2008) reported a mean score of normative commitment for Christian higher education faculty at 2.96 (SD = 1.05) on a 5-point scale. When normative commitment was examined by faculty status, full-time faculty reported a mean level of normative commitment of 4.00 (SD = 1.53). In contrast, the part-time faculty reported a mean level of normative commitment of 3.07 (SD = 1.51). Results indicated that the mean levels of normative 746


commitment between full-time and part-time faculty were significantly different (p < .05), though the effect size was medium (d = 0.29). A direct comparison of findings from the current study with findings from the literature is not possible. On the other hand, when comparisons are made with the few extant studies of organizational commitment among higher education faculty, the results of the current study do not match them. Several studies have reported no difference in commitment levels between full-time and part-time faculty (Borchers & Teahen, 2001; Murphy, 2009; Speier-Bowman, 1995). Normative commitment is a measure of moral obligation, or loyalty, to the organization. The mean score for normative commitment was significantly higher for full- time faculty than for part-time faculty. This finding could indicate that full-time faculty is more loyal to the organization and that part-time employees have less guilty feelings about leaving an organization than their full-time counterparts. Carver (2008) demonstrated that normative commitment may vary with generations of nursing faculty. Hartmann and Bambacas (2000) reported low levels of normative commitment in their Australian study of part-time, academic staff workers. They concluded that changing jobs is more acceptable than it has been in past years. Continuance Commitment. Continuance commitment is defined as the employee’s “awareness of the costs associated with leaving the organization” (Meyer & Allen, 1996, p. 67). A person who stays with an organization because they “need” to or feel they have no job alternatives demonstrates continuance commitment. The results of this study presented an overall mean score of 4.47 (SD = 1.57), which lies squarely within the response anchor range for “Neither agree nor disagree” (4.00–4.99) on the seven point scale. Thus, North Carolina community college faculty would neither agree nor disagree with the statement “I stay in my organization because I need to”. This level of commitment is higher in comparison to Carver’s (2008) study of nursing faculty that produced a mean score of 2.70 (SD = 1.12) for continuance commitment; it is in accordance with Thomas’ (2008) reported mean score of continuance commitment for Christian higher education faculty at 3.10 (SD = 0.72) on a 5-point scale. Examination of continuance commitment by faculty status shows that full-time faculty reported a mean level of continuance commitment of 4.52 (SD = 1.53), which was higher than the overall mean level of continuance commitment for all faculty in this study. Yet, the part-time faculty reported a mean level of continuance commitment of 4.28 (SD = 1.52). Statistical analysis showed the mean levels of continuance commitment between full-time and part-time faculty were significantly different (p < .05), though the effect size very small (effect-size r = 0.08). As noted earlier, the research literature is non-existent for Meyer and Allen’s conceptualization of organizational commitment modeled for full-time and part-time community college faculty. Therefore, a direct comparison of findings from the current study with findings from the literature is not possible. Yet, when comparisons are made with the few extant studies of organizational commitment among higher education faculty, the results of the current study do not match them. Several studies have reported no difference in commitment levels between full-time and part-time faculty (Borchers & Teahen, 2001; Murphy, 2009; Speier-Bowman, 1995). The current study has shown that full-time faculty may have more continuance commitment than their part-time counterparts. This means that full-time faculty is more aware of the costs associated with leaving the organization. Costs involve the loss of an employee’s investment of time, money or effort in the organization. It is posited in this study that continuance commitment develops as a result of decreased employment job alternatives. Written another way, employees who believe they have options for moving to a different job will have weaker continuance commitment than those who believe they have few job alternatives (Meyer & Allen, 1997). So part-time faculty, 747


who often work elsewhere to amass a base salary, may feel they have viable job alternatives for working at another organization. The development of organizational commitment is a process. The literature points to the importance of early work experiences and institutionalized socialization tactics in the development of affective commitment. Faculty is socialized into the profession in many ways, including the theory and history behind the discipline, the theory-to-practice training, and the infusion of the “faculty culture”. However, this culture may in fact contribute to reduced affective attachment, through the expectations of a, low wages, and greater work related demands. Ultimately, commitment is made up of a compendium of influences. For the individual, the reality of commitment is grounded in a combination of expectations, perceptions, and experiences. It is possible that the low levels of attachment to the organization for faculty is not just a factor of the individual not feeling committed to the organization, but also the individual not feeling valued by the organization. For the community college, it is important to provide an environment that faculty both full and part time can find support and to develop a “committed calling”, however that is defined. References Anakwe U. P. and Greenhaus J. H. (Fall 1999). “Effective socialization of employees: Socialization content perspective”, Journal of Managerial Issues, Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 315–329. Becker H. S. (1960). “Notes on the concept of commitment”, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 66, pp. 32–40. Borchers A. S. and Teahen J. A. (2001). “Organizational commitment of part-time and full-time faculty”, Proceedings of the Association for Information Systems. Carver L. L. (2008). “Organizational commitment and generational differences in nursing faculty”, unpublished dissertation, University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Cohen A. M. and Brawer F. B. (2003). The American Community College, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Dunham R. B., Grube J. A. and Castenada M. B. (1994). “Organizational commitment: The utility of an integrative definition”, Journal of Applied Psychology, pp. 370–380. Gormley D. K. (2005). “Organizational climate, role ambiguity, role conflict and nurse faculty work balance: Influence on organizational commitment and turn over intention”, unpublished dissertation, Universityof Cincinnati. Hackett D. R., Bycio P. and Hausdorf P. (1994). “Further assessment of Meyer and Allen’s (1991) three-component model of organizational commitment”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 79, pp. 15–23. Johnson B. (2001). “Toward a new classification of nonexperimental quantitative research”, Educational Researcher, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 3–13. Meyer J. P. and Allen N. J. (1991). “A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment”, Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 1, pp. 61–89. Meyer J. P. and Allen N. J. (1997). Commitment in the Workplace: Theory, Research, and Application, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Meyer J. P., Becker T. E. and Vandenberghe C. (2004). “Employee commitment and motivation: A conceptual analysis and integrative model”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 89, No. 6, pp. 991–1007. Meyer J. P., Stanley D. J., Herscovitch L. and Topolnytsky L. (2002). “Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization: Ameta-analysis of antecedents, correlates, and consequences”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 61, pp. 20–52. Mowday R. T., Porter L. W. and Steers R. M. (1982). Employee-Organization Linkages: The Psychology of Commitment, Absenteeism, and Turnover, New York: Academic Press, Inc. North Carolina Community College System (2006). “Data trends and briefings”, retrieved September18, 2007, available online at: http://www.ncccs.cc.nc.us/Reports/docs/data_trends_and_briefings/Data_Trends_June_29.pdf. North Carolina Community College System (2007). “A matter of facts: The North Carolina community college system factbook”, retrieved September18, 2007, available online at: http://www.ncccs.cc.nc.us/Publications/docs/Publications/fb2007.pdf. Pratt L. R. (1997). “Disposable faculty: Part-time exploitation as management strategy”, in: C. Nelson (Ed.), Will Teach For Food: Academic Labor in Crisis, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 264–277.

748

An Examination of the Levels and Differences in Organizational Commitment of Full and Part Time Community College Faculty Provasnik S. and Planty M. (2008). Community colleges: Special supplement to the condition of education 2008 (NCES 2008-033). Rifkin T. (2000). “Differences between the professional attitudes of full-time and part-time faculty”, paper presented at the American Association of Community Colleges Convention, Miami, FL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED417783). Thomas J. C. (2008). “Administrative, faculty, and staff perceptions of organizational climate and commitment in Christian higher education”, Christian Higher Education, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 226–252. Wallin D. (2004). “Valuing professional colleagues: Adjunct faculty in community and technical colleges”, Community College Journal of Research and Practice, Vol. 28, pp. 373–391. Wallin D. (Ed.) (2005). Adjunct Faculty in Community Colleges: An Academic Administrator’s Guide to Recruiting, Supporting, and Retaining Great Teachers, Bolton, MA: Anker Publishers. Wanous J. P. (1992). Organizational Entry: Recruitment, Selection, and Socialization of New Comers, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Yoshioka R. B. (Winter 2007). “Part-time faculty in California: Successes, challenges, and future issues”, New Directions for Community Colleges, Vol. 140, pp. 41–47.

749


Leadership of the Portuguese Community Schools in the East Coast of the United States and the Public Policies of Education: A Multiple Case Study António Maria Veloso Bento  (Center of Research in Education-CIE-UMa, University of Madeira, Portugal)

Abstract: The Portuguese community schools of the United States located in the areas of larger Portuguese population concentration are social organizations that come materializing throughout decades the designs of the educative policies of the Portuguese government in relation to the expansion and preservation of the language, the culture and the history of Portugal. These designs of the educative policies are enrolled in the Constitution of the Republic (1976), in the Basic Law of Educative System (1986) and, over all, in the successive legislative norms (Decree-laws and ordinances) of the successive governments. Portuguese community schools in the United States are structuralized in analogous way to schools of the Portuguese geographic space. For this qualitative study (multiple case), four directors of Portuguese schools of the East Coast of the United States were interviewed; two schools are in the state of Rhode Island and the other two are in the state of Massachusetts. Also, it was administered the questionnaire on practices of leadership “Leadership Practices Inventory” (LPI) of Kouzes and Posner (2002) to collect additional data about practices of leadership on the directors of the schools. The LPI evaluates practices of leadership classifying them in five domains: (a) Model the way; (b) Inspire a shared vision; (c) Challenge the process; (d) Enable others to act; and, (e) Encourage the heart. Results of this qualitative research indicate that the Portuguese Government has not had an educative policy stimulant, coherent and consistent of support, incentive, maintenance and diffusion of the Portuguese language and culture and the directors of the studied schools they have a proactive and serving leadership style in conducting the management of Portuguese community schools. The five practices of leadership are highly practiced by the directors of the studied schools above all the practices “Enable others to act” and “Encourage the heart”. Key words: leadership; Portuguese community schools; practices of leadership; language and culture identity

1. Introduction The ethnic groups try to reproduce in their new environments the traditions, the customs and the systems of organization of the mother-land. Among the various forms of communitarian organizations are the “ethnic schools”, educational institutions with a basic common objective: To teach and to preserve the language and the culture of one determined ethnic group. While that Joshua Fishman (1966) considers those schools as the factor António Maria Veloso Bento, Ed.D., Center of Research in Education-CIE-UMa, University of Madeira; research areas/interests: educational leadership, school administration, private tutoring. E-mail: [email protected]. 750

Leadership of the Portuguese Community Schools in the East Coast of the United States and the Public Policies of Education: A Multiple Case Study

most active in the maintenance of the language in the biggest part of the ethnic communities, Bradunas and Topping (1988) describe those same schools as formal manifestations of adaptations of the immigrants to the American society. Are counted by the thousands the ethnic schools that in the United States which continue to provide an alternative education and/or supplemental education to many American children (Fishman, 1980a) and among these thousands are about seventy Portuguese Official Schools (POS). With a long historical tradition, the Portuguese communities in the United States have come to create and to keep these schools for almost a century (Bradunas & Topping, 1988). For many Luso-Americans, the Portuguese Official Schools (POS) represent the natural symbiosis with the language and Portuguese culture and a community effort in the direction of awakening the conscience and sensitivity of the children for the cultural values inherited from their parents and grandparents (Bento, “A educação: Da família à escola”, 1985) and to perpetuate our language, culture and identity in the time and communitarian Luso-American space. 1.1 The Ethnic Schools in the United States Joshua Fishman, leader and pioneer in researching the Ethnic instruction relates that the United States, as the greater multilingual and multicultural nation cannot disdain the thousands of schools and the hundreds of thousands of children that the ethnic schools serve. Fishman (1980a) affirms: These schools must be enclosed in the list of our educational, social and intellectual resources for national reasons given the fact that the United States cannot give itself the luxury to ignore six thousand schools attended by six hundred thousand children (p. 236).

The Ethnic Schools are supplemental schools functioning between six and 10 hours per week and between three to five sessions of two hours each (Bradunas & Topping, 1988). According to Fishman (1989), linguistic education is only one of the multiple objectives of the ethnic schools. The education of traditions and history of ancestors, the wakening and the development of the ethnic identity, the improvement of communication between parents and children and the creation of chances for the members of the community to work and to socialize among them, are also essential objectives of great importance. In this way, Ethnic Schools had given an important and independent contribution to the maintenance of ethnic languages and cultures. Bentley (1982) affirms: For besides keeping the identity and increasing academic education, the proficiency in two languages is one advantage in a cosmopolitan world. Nine of ten Americans don´t know how to speak, to read or to understand another language for beyond the English. An education that leads to a high degree of bilingualism in English and a minority language is of great value for this country (p. 114).

As all the other ethnic schools, the POS transmit to its pupils significant levels of reading, writing and comprehension of the Portuguese language. Moreover, POS give also emphasis to history, literature, customs and traditions to the Portuguese people. 1.2 Language and Cultural Identity The language is not only one instrument of communication. According to Haugen (1974), the language is a social instrument that follows and gives existence to all the other social institutions because the language is the base of all the others institutions of the society. The language is also a social and personal symbol. Grosjean (1982) affirms that the language is “… a social symbol and of group identity, an emblem of belonging and solidarity” (p.

751


177). Being, thus, an instrument of communication, a personal and social symbol, the language is imbued of attitudes and values for those who use it and for those who do not know how to speak this same language. Languages and cultures are interrelated, forming the “cement” that holds together a community and their members and justify the existence of those communities and even our societies. Joshua Fishman (1999) told us the following: What is most unique and basic about the link between language and culture is the fact that in huge areas of real life the language is the culture and that neither law nor education nor religion nor government nor politics nor social organizations would be possible without it (p. 445).

On the other side, the ethnic identity is also linked profoundly to language. If neither ethnicity nor ethnic identity has been definitively defined nor exhaustively investigated, then their link to language must also suffer accordingly, both in theory and in practice. States Fishman: Indeed, the classic masters and founders of the social science disciplines generally ignored language altogether, considering it a constant (like breathing). They believed that it provided no variance to explain or that it was simply a redundancy with respect to ethnicity, both designate being expected to disappear in the more unified future that was presumably just over the horizon (1999, p. 449).

Thus, in our modern and “smaller” world, language, ethnicity and culture continue to be linked altogether, giving specific characteristics and attributes to different communities and to our societies. Tse (1997) concluded in his research study that the individuals that judge its group (or members) favorably have more positive attitudes and better proficiency in the language of their group. On the other hand, Maietta (1996) argues that it is important to know the attitudes in relation to the native language as an essential condition for the understanding of the preservation of the language as well as of this process. According to some researchers (Arias, 1976; Ribeiro, 1981; Becker, 1990, etc.), American schools have minimized the importance and even ignored the culture of minority children instead of serving as facilitators of cultural adaptation. In her master´s thesis (Castanho, 1993) about the attitudes and preferences of the pupils of 4th, 5th, and 6th grades in relation to reading in the POS concluded that the parents play an important role in the development of positive attitudes in relation to the Portuguese community and in keeping alive the Portuguese language at home through verbal communication. Another master’s thesis “Luso descending in the United States: The Portuguese school of Hartford” (Galo, 1997) had as basic objective to verify the interest of the pupils for the Portuguese language and culture and to determine the factors that cause that interest. Results of this thesis had shown that the positive degree of that interest depended in great measure on the youths’ parents, schools and community. Becker (1990), investigating the role of the public school in the construction of the ethnic identity of the Portuguese pupils who attended an urban school in New England disclosed the existence of a discrepancy between explicit norms of the educational policies and the practices of the educational ones:“The Portuguese pupils had entered in the public school with feelings of ethnic pride and had left with ideas of inferiority and shame” (p. 54). Finally, another study (Nunes, n.d.), took place in the middle of the Luso-Canadian community It concluded that: (a) The loss of the language and Portuguese culture, particularly in the young people, is exacerbated by the governmental lack of promotion and support in cultural and linguistic activities, and, (b) Existence of strong feelings of cultural duality and cultural conflict among the young Portuguese.

752


The cultural identification is very important for the personal and social realization of the minority individual and the group that belongs to; All the human being is incomplete if it will not be absorbed in a specific culture, affirms Cushman (1990). 1.3 Language Maintenance and Language Shift in the United States The study of language maintenance and language shift concerns the relationship between stability and change in habitual language use on one hand, and on-going psychological, social or cultural processes on the other, when populations with different languages must coexist (Fishman & Markman, 1979). Maintenance is, therefore, the effort of minority groups to preserve and use their mother tongue; and, language shift is an increasing reliance on the language of the host society and a gradual loss (decreasing reliance on) a minority’s native tongue (Bento, 2001). In the United States, a country in which worldwide languages and cultures exist, minority groups, usually, shift away quite rapidly from their native languages to English (Grosjean, 1982). Veltman (1983) theorizes that when two linguistic groups meet, a process develops in which speakers first retain their native language tenaciously but inevitably give it up in favor of the host language. In the case of language maintenance, retention of native language — often, native monolingualism — is the norm throughout life. In the case of language assimilation, English monolingualism is the norm, followed by an intermediate stage of bilingualism. According to Veltman (1983), during the intermediate stage of bilingualism, the native language relinquishes its control over communication to English. In fact, immigrant parents remain monolingual in their native language only if they live in a close-knit ethnic community where they can work, shop, and converse with friends and relatives in their language (Grojean, 1983). This way of life, quite normal decades ago, is still a reality in the Portuguese-American communities of New Bedford (Massachusetts), Newark (New Jersey) and San Jose (California). However, most first generations Americans, especially if they are young, soon come into contact with the English speaking majority and become bilingual. While most remain bilingual for the rest of their lives, a few choose to assimilate quickly in order to become monolingual speakers of English. Grosjean (1982) describes the language patterns of children born to first generation Americans: Some are bilingual from the beginning and some are monolingual in English if for instance the parents want to assimilate as rapidly as possible. Most of them follow a straightforward route: their early language input will be native language of their parents provided that they are the first born and that their parents speak the native language at home (p. 104).

For example, let’s consider a Portuguese couple who has a child a few years after arriving to the United States. If the couple speaks Portuguese to their child, that child’s first words will be in Portuguese language. In this sense, the child’s life is monolingual in the Portuguese language. Sometimes, and very rapidly, English enters the child’s life, perhaps through interaction on the playground, television, tablets, and English speaking friends of the family or day care. However, living in a close-knit Portuguese speaking community, the child, instead, may hear less English and therefore may retain this monolingualism until he or she goes to school. After two or three years of instruction in English, the child becomes fluent in English and consequently bilingual in the home language and in English. What happens from this point on? Will the child remain bilingual, or will he or she shift entirely to English?

753


Grosjean (1982) contends that if the parents are bilingual and if the social pressure to use English consists of very strong “peers pressure or negative attitudes of the English-speaking majority toward the minority” (pp. 104-105) then the child will slowly shift to using English. However, if communication in the home and with friends is done mainly in the native language, and if enough psychological factors (including religion and cultural activism) encourage communication in the native language, then the child will remain bilingual and will grow up proficient in both languages. 1.4 Portuguese Communitarian Schools in the East Coast of the United States According to data collected by Castanho (2010) there were in the United States 65 Portuguese community schools distributed by 13 states with 3.286 pupils and 210 teachers. In the state of Massachusetts there were 9 schools and Rhode Island it had 5 schools and a Portuguese population of 279.722 in Massachusetts and 91,445 in Rhode Island. The state of Massachusetts has the following Portuguese community schools:  Portuguese Official school of Cambridge and Somerville  Portuguese school of Hudson  Portuguese school of Ludlow  Portuguese school of Milford  Portuguese Official school of Peabody  Portuguese United for Education (in New Bedford)  Portuguese school of Casa da Saudade (in New Bedford)  Portuguese Official school of Fall River  Portuguese school of Taunton The state of Rhode Island has the following schools:  Portuguese school of the Youth Lusitana Club (in Central Falls)  Portuguese school of Pawtucket  Portuguese Official school of East Providence  Portuguese Official school of Bristol  Portuguese school of Cranston

2. Methodology As stated previously, as an additional data collection, it was used the questionnaire Leadership Practices Inventory of Kouzes and Posner (2002), an instrument with 30 items that evaluates the practices of leadership and distributes them in five great areas:  Model the way: to lead from what one believes in, starting by clarification of personal values; to give the example, to be the behavior model that we expect from others; to reach the right and the respect to lead through the involvement and direct individual action.  Inspire a shared vision: To have a vision of the future, to imagine the attractive possibilities for all the organization; to involve the others in a common vision, from the deep knowledge of his/her dreams, hopes, aspirations and values.  Challenge the process: To recognize good ideas, to support them and to show will to defy the system to get new services and adopted systems; to try and to run risks, originating constantly small victories and learning 754


with the errors.  Enable others to act: To promote the contribution of all, fomenting cooperative objectives, cooperative and constructing confidence; to value the others, sharing power and discretion; to use the word “we”.  Encourage the heart: To recognize the contributions, through the appreciation for the individual Excellency; to celebrate the values and the victories, creating a spirit community. The LPI consists of 30 affirmations, six sets of affirmations to measure each one of the five practices of exemplary leaders. Each affirmation has a punctuation of five points in a Likert type scale (1–Never, 2–Occasionally, 3–Some times, 4–Many times and 5–Frequently) (Kouzes & Posner, 2002). With this scale, the respondents indicated the frequency with that they practiced the described actions in each one of the affirmations. As already stated, we conducted four semi structured interviews to the four directors of schools (two in Massachusetts and two in Rhode Island).

3. Results The analysis of the results of the leadership questionnaires (LPI) indicated that the directors of the studied schools have a proactive and serving style of leadership in the conduction of the management of Portuguese’s community schools. The five practices of leadership highly practiced by the directors of the studied schools were, specially, the following:“Enable others to act” (average = 29) and “Encourage the heart” (Average = 28.5). The other practices of leadership had gotten also high averages — Inspire a shared vision (28.1), Model the way (27.6) and Challenge the process (27.1). The content analysis of the four interviews allowed us to arrive at the following conclusions in several categories: Leadership and decision making: The ones interviewed exert a leadership of collegiate, collaborative, democratic, voluntarism and aggregated type of personal values. It affirmed one interviewed: “the leader has to perceive that the others also are individual leaders; the school is not the school of Professor X, is our school, of all of us; it is the faculty, the totality that deserves the distinction, the recognition for the work that the school has made " (I # 1). In the same direction, another participant said: "What I say to the teachers it is that here all of us are in “equal foot”, to have availability, what I can do, I always ask for contributions of my colleagues; no decision is taken without being articulated among us and with the parents as well” (I # 4). One other participant, stated:“For me it is very important that the school functions with great success, or either, that the children are learning Portuguese, is for that, that they are here that feel protected are loved and respected; and, not only the pupils but also the teachers and the school commission” (I # 3). Qualities of the Director: The participants had related that a leader of a Portuguese communitarian school must have certain attributes such as, sense of balance, being friend of the colleagues and pupils, capacity of initiative and organization, deep knowledge of the Portuguese language and culture and sensitivity for the necessities of the educational community and of the “parents who are the pillars of the Portuguese schools” (I # 4). Stated the first one interviewed (I # 1) “the Director it is a landmark, the fiduciary office of the scale, guarantees the cohesion and even the appropriate behavior, everything he makes in the school”. Support of Portugal: The participants interviewed related that the support from Portugal is nonexistent almost null, financially. It has had some collaboration with the cession of some manual to some schools although those materials are out of our context our reality in the present time; The Coordination, headquartered in

755


Washington, is far away from the communities in such a way, geographic and pedagogically. It affirmed the participant (I # 4): “it does not have and we are not waiting to receive checks from Portugal but there are other supports that do not demand great investments: curriculum development, materials thought with our opinion, people who work here in the field, and to place all in the same page.”

4. Conclusions This research study, qualitative in nature, and multiple case, intended to assess the leadership styles and the perceptions of the directors of four Portuguese schools in the United States related to the Portuguese langue, culture and traditions as well as the communication with the Portuguese government and its representatives in the area of education in the United Sates; for those purposes we interviewed four directors of the Portuguese schools in the east coast of the United States (two in Rhode Island and two in Massachusetts); also, we administered the questionnaire on practices of leadership “Leadership Practices Inventory” (LPI) of Kouzes and Posner (2002) to collect additional data about the practices of leadership of those same directors. The minority groups in the United States and in other parts of the world tend to preserve and maintain their languages, cultures and their ethnicity through various means. One of the major instruments used are the ethnic or community schools which teach to the new generations the language, the values, the culture and the traditions of their ancestors. The Portuguese communities in the United Sates have been maintaining these ethnic schools for almost one hundred years. The Portuguese community schools are organizations rooted in its communities that are facing, on the present time, some challenges. Portuguese schools are led by people with great service spirit, deep cultural and language identity, and, devotion to the cause of the education of the Portuguese language and culture to the Portuguese descendants. They expect from Portugal and the Coordination Cabinet more support and orientation (and not so much financial support) in the elaboration of adequate materials appropriate to the reality of the learning public (they are now teaching the third generation no more the second) as well as orientation on audiovisual materials that represent the uses and customs of the several regions of Portugal (I # 3). The lack of communication among the several Portuguese schools is well-known and would be very important its regular existence. There had not been meetings with the Coordination neither with the Regional Assessor. Stated one interviewed (I # 4) “There are not and we are not waiting to receive checks from Portugal but there are other supports that do not demand great investments: curriculum development, materials developed with our opinion, people who work here in the field and to place all on the same page”. It would be important that the expectations of the schools relating to the mission of the Coordination of the Portuguese language in the United States be clarified. Perhaps the priorities of the mission of the Coordination are others, divergent of the expectations that community schools keep. Finally, the Portuguese Government must pay attention to the necessities of the Portuguese community schools therefore “… it is a moral obligation of Portugal to support the teaching situations of integrated education, as well as the community schools with quality teaching, therefore we need everyone to dignify the Portuguese language in the foreign countries”(Castanho, 2010, p. 61). References Arias M. (1976). “Bicultural approach you the issue of self-concept assessment”, doctoral unpublished dissertation, Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Becker A. (1990). The rolls of the school in the maintenance and change of ethnic group affiliation, Human Organization, Vol. 49,

756

Leadership of the Portuguese Community Schools in the East Coast of the United States and the Public Policies of Education: A Multiple Case Study No. 1, pp. 48–55. Bento A. (1985, 12th of November). A educação: Da família à escola. A importância da escola e a influência dos professores, O Journal, pp. 12, 21. Bento A. (2001). Effects of Portuguese Heritage Schools (Escolas Oficiais Portuguesas) on Language Attitudes, Cultural Identity, Academic Performance, and Educational Aspirations of Portuguese American Students: A Comparative Study, Ann Arbor, MI: Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. Bradunas E. and Topping B. (Eds.) (1988). Ethnic Heritage and Language Schools in America, Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Bentley J. (1982). American Immigration Today, New York: Julian Messner. Castanho M. (1993). “Reading: students’ attitudes and interests in fourth, fifth, and sixth graders in official Portuguese schools in the USA”, unpublished master’s thesis, Lesley College, Cambridge. Castanho M. (2010). “The Portuguese in the script of the taught European languages more in U.S.A.: The action of the Council member of Education in Washington DC”, Cambridge, MA: Portuguese Language Institute. Cushman P. (1990). “Why the self is empty: Toward historically situated psychology”, American Psychologist, Vol. 45 (April), pp. 599–611 Fishman J. (1966). Language Loyalty in the United States, The Hague: Mouton. Fishman J. and Marckman B. (1979). The Ethnic to Mother Tongue School in the United States: Assumptions, Findings and Directory, New York: Yeshiva University. Fishman J. (1980a). “Ethnic community to mother tongue schools in the U.S.A.: Dynamics and distributions”, International Migration Review, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 235–247. Fishman J. (1980b). Minority language maintenance and the heritage to mother tongue school, Modern Language Journal, Vol. 64, pp. 167–173. Fishman J. (1985). Revival The Rise and Fall of the Ethnic: Perspectives on Language and Ethnicity, The Hague: Mouton. Fishman J. (1989). Language and Ethnicity in Minority Sociolinguistic Perspective, Philadelphia, Pará: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Fishman J. (Ed.) (1999). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity, New York: Oxford University Press. Galo (1997). Young Luso-descendants in the USA: The Portuguese School of Hartford, master’s thesis, Open University: Lisbon. Grosjean F. (1982). Life with Two Languages: An Introduction You Bilingualism, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Community Press. Haugen E. (1974). Bilingualism in America: Bibliography and Research Guide, Alabama: University of Alabama. Kouzes J. and Posner B. (2002). The Leadership Challenge: How You Get Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations (3rd ed.), San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Maietta S. (1996). “Patterns of language attitudes and language uses: Study of New Mexican adolescents”, ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 415708. Nunes F. (n.d.). Sea Portuguese-Canadians from You the Sea: The National Needs Assessment, Toronto: Portuguese Canadian National Congress. Ribeiro J. (1981). Cultural Social and Psychological Factors Related You Academic Success of Portuguese Immigrant Youth, published dissertation, Boston: Boston College. Tse L. (1997). “Affecting affect: The impact of ethnic language programs on student attitudes”, The Canadian Modern Language Review — La Revue vivante canadienne DES languagess, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 705–728. Veltman C. (1983). Language Shift in the United States, Berlin: Mouton.

757


Citizenship, Tolerance and Humanism: Achievements and Safeguards — A Case of Young People’s Interpretations of Being A Citizen of A Particular State, Lithuania Vaiva Zuzevičiūtė1, Evelina Viduolienė1, Beata Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz2, Anna M. Zalewska3  (1. Deparment of Humanities at the Faculty of Public Security, Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania; 2. Department of Psychology of Development and Education, University of Warmia and Mazury, Poland; 3. SWPS Faculty in Poznan, University of Social Science and Humanities, Poland)

Abstract: At the same time, the research on how a young generation interprets situation and what are their perspectives on achievements in the sphere of human rights, citizenship, humanisms of young people is utmost importance both for professionals in public security and in any other field, for educationalists in any sphere, and for the civilisation as we know it. The status achieved is a result of immense joint efforts of thousands of years, and therefore it deserves efforts to preserve, cherish and further develop. It is aimed in this paper both at analysing the concepts and the way they are interpreted by young people, also some the data of a study on the interpretations on perspectives of young people on concepts at focus, is presented. The following research question was formulated: In what way the young people interpret concept of citizenship, of being a citizen in a contemporary Lithuania. Key words: citizenship; tolerance; culture; humanism; dimensions

1. Introduction Humanism, tolerance and acceptance of different culture (including religion, other aspects, such as cuisine, marital traditions, etc) comprises a core characteristics of a contemporary ideas of what is to have a society of equal, supportive and mutually respectful individuals and groups. In this context the subjective, authentic experience of each individual becomes of an utmost importance, especially, if situation of a young person is analyzed. Young people live in the context analyzed and characterized above, as if it is a given state. They did not yet have opportunity to analyze it themselves. They have no knowledge (or have not yet internalized it) on the Vaiva Zuzevičiūtė, Professor, Deparment of Humanities at the Faculty of Public Security, Mykolas Romeris University; research areans/interests: education; education of future law enforcement officers, citizenship education, intercultural education. E-mail: [email protected]. Evelina Viduolienė, Lecturer, Deparment of Humanities at the Faculty of Public Security, Mykolas Romeris University; research areans/interests: education of future law enforcement officers, citizenship education, psychological support. E-mail: [email protected]. Beata Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, Psychologist, Professor, Head of Department of Psychology of Development and Education, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn; research interests: young people’s social participation, citizenship and self-responsibility. E-mail: [email protected]. Anna M. Zalewska, Psychologist, Professor, Dean of SWPS Faculty in Poznan, University of Social Science and Humanities (SWPS) in Warsaw; research interests: impact of individual differences in personality, subjective well-being, quality of life. E-mail: [email protected]. 758

Citizenship, Tolerance and Humanism: Achievements and Safeguards — A Case of Young People’s Interpretations of Being A Citizen of A Particular State, Lithuania

history of humankind and the long way of thousand and hundreds of years it took to come to the state of things we have now. They take situation as it is, as if it is for granted. However, for those of us, working in the sphere of public security, it is obvious that the level achieved is a results of immense and long lasting efforts, the results of the process that suffered as many downturns as it enjoyed peaks. Therefore the need for a reflective, careful, respectful and responsible attention and safeguarding the situation is obvious to us. At the same time, the research on how a young generation interprets situation and what are their perspectives on achievements in the sphere of human rights, citizenship, humanisms of young people is utmost importance both for professionals in public security and in any other profession, and for the civilization as we know it. The status achieved is a result of immense joint efforts of thousands of years, and therefore it deserves efforts to preserve, cherish and further develop. It is aimed in this paper both at analyzing the concepts and the way they are interpreted by young people, also some the data of a study on the interpretations on perspectives of young people on concepts at focus, is presented. The following research question was formulated: In what way the young people interpret concept of citizenship, of being a citizen in a contemporary Lithuania. Methods of critical analysis of references and a quantitative survey were used for the development of the paper. The methodology and instrument for a survey were developed by an international team, led by Prof. Beata Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz. Data was processed using methods of multiple regression analysis. Due to the limitations of the paper, only a part of results is presented.

2. Citizenship, Tolerance and Humanism: Achievements and Safeguards In 21st century we still identify ourselves and others as belonging to different socio-economic strata, and to different religions, and as speaking different languages. The very question what or who comes first: individual or the society is irrelevant, as we are as both the product of where we live, as we are producers of the living situation (Jarvis, 2001). The ideas of citizenship and humanism, responsibility to share and defend have least two and a half thousand years of recorded history, stemming from the Ancient Greece, and living through downturns and almost total oblivion to appreciation and almost unanimous support. At least in the geographical area that is today known as the European Union and the parts of the world that have been under heavy influence of Anglo-Saxon diffusion, starting at modernity (17 century) (Jarvis, 2001). On the other hand, a more explicit attention to Western humanism has an even shorter history. As Lévi-Straus put it; “no civilization can define itself if it does not have at its disposal some other civilizations for comparison” (Lévi-Strauss, 1976, p. 272). In other words, we know about ourselves as much and because we know others. It is interesting to note that Lévi-Strauss claims all cultures having experienced technological advancement or ‘progress’, because only to a hedonistic contemporary eye the advancement is equalled to space shuttles. In a historical perspective, changes in building technologies, such as invention of bricks, is a major technological advancement, much more important that the ones quoted by a contemporary person. The cultural experience of a contemporary person just blinds him/her from acknowledgement of major accomplishments of earlier of other cultures. Western culture, author states, somehow proved to be less filtering than other cultures, that is, many of the advancements known and discovered in other cultures have been successfully integrated into Western culture, prompting its development: certainly technological, and artistic, and in some cases societal. The more Western “culture” accumulates, the more diversity is produced, and the more issues, phenomenon, aspects of living are labelled “culture-thing”. Simply because they are not things we live. Culture clearly becomes “artificial”, “made by man”, as T. Parsons once put it bluntly: more and more so for a contemporary person’s everyday experiences,

759


not just theoretical discourse (here from Butrime, Zuzeviciute, 2010). Therefore humanism, tolerance and acceptance of different culture (including religion, other aspects, such as cuisine, marital traditions, etc) comprises a core characteristics of a contemporary ideas of what is to have a society of equal, supportive and mutually respectful individuals and groups (Jarvis, 2001; Zuzeviciute, Tereseviciene, 2009). Even if other arguments (Milner, Browitt, 2002) could be provided for the changes in the of living a life of a contemporary person, there is no doubt that discovery of other “cultures”, and consequently, ever increasing diversity, together with the dominance of market economy, which, if not corrupted, proved itself to be most effective (but not inclusive and just) in generating wealth, had impact on our perception of who we are, where we are going, what we consider “worth” having or creating (Zuzeviciute, Tereseviciene, 2009). In this context the subjective, authentic experience of each individual becomes of an utmost importance, especially, if situation of a young person is analyzed. Young people live in the context analyzed and characterized above, as if it is a given state. They did not yet have opportunity to analyse it themselves. They have no knowledge (or have not yet internalized it) on the history of humankind and the long way of thousand and hundreds of years it took to come to the state of things we have now. They take situation as it is, as if it is for granted. However, for those of us, working in the sphere of public security, it is obvious that the status quo achieved is a result of immense and long lasting efforts, a result of the process that suffered as many downturns as it enjoyed peaks. Therefore the need for a reflective, careful, respectful and responsible attention and safeguarding the situation is obvious to us. At the same time, the research on how a young generation interprets situation and what are their perspectives on achievements in the sphere of human rights, citizenship, humanisms of young people is utmost importance both for professionals in public security and or any other field, and for the civilization as we know it. Therefore in this paper it aimed both at analyzing the concepts and the way they are interpreted by young people, also some the data of a study on the interpretations on perspectives of young people on concepts at focus, is presented.

3. Citizenship: The Concept and Its Interpretations Authentic experience of the significance of each individual’s own opinion is essential if the overarching aim is to have a society which appreciates rights and also develops citizens who are able to cherish and defend these rights (Foster et al, 2005; Ross, Zuzeviciute, 2011). The birth of the concept and the very phenomenon of citizenship in the West, it is generally agreed, come from the Classical Greece. Greeks were profoundly concerned with establishment of order against chaos, as they were at frontier of establishing civilized: regulated and managed by reason world, as opposed to the world, which was regulated by unknown forces. This concern is reflected in their philosophy, literature and understanding of what social cohabitation is. As a social dimension, order for Greeks seems to be intimately related to citizenship. The most widely spread and acknowledged model of ‘citizenship’ seems to include the following factors: common law; appropriate and negotiated systems of governance, and norms and values of the community. Law, its flawless functioning, and norms/values are at focus in this model; therefore, those are several themes at least, which might be pursued in our paper in order to disclose the phenomenon of being a citizen and of acting as one. Legislation concerning equal rights and duties, as well as systems and prevailing norms seems to be an integral part of the concept of citizenship. However, contemporary discussions on citizenship seem to be focused on the context of citizenship. If for an

760


ancient Greek “citizenship” meant order, security and relative freedom in a very specific, geographically, socially, and politically limited area, it is not the case today, or at least it is debatable. One of the main challenges that face contemporary European society is multiculturalism. On the one hand, European society has never been otherwise, as Durkheim noted (Durkheim, 1993), certain location in Europe in 13th century were examples of extreme multiculturalism. Paris university, established in 13th AD is one of such examples, since among students we could have found people from all over Europe and beyond. On the other hand, however, we can identify a major, in-depth difference between situations prior to modernity, and in 21st century. Earlier, locations where many cultures met, and interacted (most often — with extreme success) were even if numerous, than surely limited to certain places (for example, universities, courts of monarchs, monasteries). Today, however, the same applies to almost all clusters of society, geography of multicultural situation is universal, as is the level of impact to individual’s, groups’, and social institutions’ (for example: system of education) lives (Durkheim, 1993; Field, 2003; Teresevičienė, Zuzevičiūtė, 2005). Though citizenship, as notes, is a complex idea, which has its roots in antiquity, it acquired its contemporary significance during the 18-century revolutions and the Enlightenment movement (Jarvis, 2001; Field, 2003). The idea of “citizenship” also refers to conditions under which people participate in the wider community. Usually, and historically, the wider community is related to the entity — nation state. In a number of instances relating an individual to one’s political/economic/social context by means of identification as a “citizen” of a certain entity, proved to be a powerful means of building those political/economic/social entities (Giddens, 1993). On the other hand, relating through “citizenship”, was also corrupted in many instances. It seems, citizenship has lost its intrinsic, un-reflected relatedness to values. Duties and rights should be equally represented in the equation. If duties are overemphasized, individuals lose the ability to voice their authentic needs (Tereseviciene, Zuzeviciute, 2005). Even if historical importance of citizenship in the formation of national states cannot be overestimated, recent tendencies, referred to as postmodernism or late modernity, sometimes question the importance of national state for citizenship. It is widely argued that citizenship is being transformed, and possibly has lost its original meaning, under the impact of globalizing trends. Proponents of the idea note a shift of economic power particularly (Hargreaves, 1999). Even if there are clear signs that globalizing tendencies are weakening some roles of the nation state, there are also signs that nation states can regain their roles. One of the examples is formation of trans-national coalitions such as the EU. The coalition, sometimes referred to as supra-nation, assists in retaining and even strengthening capacities of national states. The majority of contemporary processes, such as migration, globalization or population growth, create new problems, including environmental pollution, health, conflict and poverty. Not all problems can be effectively solved through political regulation, and they require active civic attitudes and engagement (Nelson & Kerr, 2006). Thus the claim that the strength of globalizing tendencies has changed the terms of engagement, and that nation states are therefore in an extremely unstable and uncertain situation can be viewed with some reservation (Foster et al., 2005). Therefore any culture should start and promote discussions in the field and also support citizenship education, because the status achieved is a result of immense joint efforts of thousands of years, and therefore it deserves efforts to preserve, cherish and further develop.

4. Participants of the Study 351 adolescents aged 10−18 years old participated in the study. These students attended Kaunas secondary

761


school and a gymnasium in one of the near- border towns. Participants’ age mean was 13.8 years (SD = 2.2); 166 (47.3%) of them are male, 185 female. Almost three quarters of the participants live with both parents (N = 253, 72.1%), other live with either with single parent (N = 77, 21.9%) or one of the parents is dead (N = 19, 5.4%).

5. Methodology We used 34 item young people citizenship activity questionnaire developed by co-authors of this article (Zalewska, Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, 2011) to evaluate adolescents’ citizenship activity. Active, semiactive and passive citizenship factors were estimated in this study. These citizenship behavior dimensions were inspired by Kennedy’s concept (1997, 2006) and modified with regard to other classification of citizenship (Herbst, 2005) and civic activity (Theiss-Morse, 1993; Lewicka, 2004, 2005). 6 scales were used in this study: Passive citizenship dimension which represents national identity (appreciating symbols, myths and history) and patriotism (supporting your country, military service, loyalty). Semi-active citizenship dimension which represents loyalty (obeying the law and subordination to regulations, respect for the state) and citizen virtues, taking interest in public affairs and declared participation in elections. Active citizenship consists on 4 subdimensions: (1) political activity which represents declared participation in conventional political activity (e.g., being a member of a political party), (2) social activity is connected to participating in social movements and organizations working for the local society and in actions for building and maintaining local community (3) action for the change represents commitment to changing status quo (e.g., protests, street graffiti) and (4) personal activity represents responsibility for oneself and one’s future, engagement in self-development. Active citizenship dimension represents active attitude towards citizenship and responsibility. Evaluation for this scale is the sum of 4 active citizenship dimensions. Coefficient of Cronbach’s alpha is calculated to estimate the internal consistency for each scale. The results are following: passive citizenship dimension — 0.73, semiactive dimension — 0.58, active citizenship dimension — 0.68, active citizenship in political activity subdimension — 0.58, active participation in actions for change — 0.73, active citizenship and social activity subdimension — 0.65, active citizenship and personal activity subdimension — 0.50. Because of low internal consistency the last mentioned scale should be interpreted with caution.

6. Procedure of the Study Participants were asked to answer questions of the Active citizenship questionnaire and answer questions concerning demographics. The questionnaires were anonymous. Parents granted permission for adolescents to participate in study. The SPSS 18.0 package was used for a statistical analysis of empirical data. Descriptive statistics was used to describe the variables. For the statistical analysis multiple linear regressions were run to evaluate which citizenship dimensions may predict each other for adolescent citizenship activity while controlling the sociodemographic characteristics. Three regression analyses were performed and every adolescent’s citizenship activity dimension was regarded a dependent variable. Sociodemographic characteristics (participant’s age, gender (0 = female), school he or she is attended type (0 = gymnasium) and parents family status (0 = lives with both parents)) were included in series 1 in the regression model in order to control them. Remaining citizenship activity dimensions and subdimensions were included in series 2 in the regression model as the main variables. Active citizenship dimension was included in the analysis only as dependent variable in the 3rd regression model, however active citizenship subdimensions were included in the analyses when evaluating 762


passive and semiactive citizenship activity predictions.

7. Results of the Empirical Study Regression model for the Passive citizenship dimension. Results of multiple regression analysis revealed that sociodemographic characteristics alone explained only 8,8 percent of Passive citizenship intensity dispersion (F(4, 346) = 9,413, p < 0.001). Sociodemographic variables and other citizenship activity dimensions and sub-dimensions explained 26.2 percent of Passive citizenship dispersion (F(9, 341) = 14,802, p < 0.001). Regression coefficients and other statistics for regression model 2 (results for variables included in series 2 of multiple linear regression analysis) are presented in Table 1. According to results, younger participant’s age, male gender, living with both parents, expressed adolescent’s semi-active citizenship activity more and expressed political activity more (as related to higher intensity of adolescent’s passive citizenship activity status). The strongest relationship is between passive and semi-active citizenship activity dimensions. Table 1

Results of Regression Model Coefficients for Predicting Adolescent’s Passive Citizenship Activity Β

Stand. error

t statistics

Participant’s age

-0.113

0.090

-2.254***

Participant’s gender

0.202

0.386

4.127*

School type

-0.033

0.379

-0.676

Parents family status

-0.140

0.456

-2.695**

Semi-active citizenship

0.313

0,084

5.925*

Active citizenship: political activity

0.168

0.113

3.277**

Active citizenship: actions for change

0.013

0.095

0.268

Active citizenship: social activity

0.061

0.042

1.138

Active citizenship: personal activity

0.079

0.097

1.661

2.791

4.730*

Constant

Coefficient in multiple linear regression model is significant at *p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.05 level.

Regression model for the Semi-active citizenship dimension. Regression coefficients presented in Table 2 and results of multiple linear regression analysis revealed that only about 3.6 percent of semi-active citizenship dimension dispersion (F(4, 346) = 4.308, p = 0.002) may be predicted by sociodemographic characteristics; while sociodemographic variables and other citizenship activity dimensions and subdimensions explained 29,9 percent of semi-active citizenship dispersion (F(9, 341) = 17.581, p < 0.001). Regression coefficients and other statistics for regression second model (results for variables included in series 2 of multiple linear regression analysis) are presented in Table 2. According to results, female gender, attendance of school in a big city (secondary school), expressed adolescent’s passive citizenship activity more and political, social, personal activity and less dominated actions for change are related to higher intensity of adolescent’s semi-active citizenship activity status. The strongest relationship is between semi-active and passive citizenship activity dimensions. 763

Citizenship, Tolerance and Humanism: Achievements and Safeguards — A Case of Young People’s Interpretations of Being A Citizen of A Particular State, Lithuania Table 2

Results of Regression Model Coefficients for Predicting Adolescent’s Semi-Active Citizenship Activity β

Stand. error

t statistics

Participant’s age

0.023

0.056

0.459


-0.117

0.240

-2.417***

School type

0.119

0.230

2.554***


0.002

0.256

0.045

Passive citizenship

0.298

0.032

5.925*

Active citizenship: political activity

0.170

0.069

3.406**

Active citizenship: actions for change

-0.175

0.057

-3.715*

Active citizenship: social activity

0.237

0.025

4.647*

Active citizenship: personal activity

0.132

0.059

2.865**

1.729

3.655*

Constant

Coefficient in multiple linear regression model is significant at *p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.05 level.

Regression model for the Active citizenship dimension. According to results and regression coefficients presented in Table 3, about 6,7 percent of Active citizenship dimension dispersion (F(4, 346) = 7.323, p < 0.001) may be predicted by sociodemographic characteristics, and only 16,9 percent of Active citizenship activity dispersion may be predicted by sociodemographic variables and passive, semi-active citizenship activity dimensions (F(6,344) = 12.864, p < 0.001). According to results, the younger is participant’s age and gender (female) and more expressed by adolescent’s passive and semi-passive citizenship activity. They are related to higher intensity of adolescent’s active citizenship activity status. It seems that the strongest relationship is between active and semi-active citizenship activity. Table 3

Results of Regression Model Coefficients for Predicting Adolescent’s Active Citizenship Activity

Participant’s age

β -,133

Stand. error ,164

t statistics -2,585**


-,151

,709

-2,955**

School type

-,046

,702

-,910


-,050

,777

-,997

Passive citizenship Semi-active citizenship

,160 ,237

,099 ,153

2,850** 4,345*

4,326

11,059*

Constant Coefficient in multiple linear regression model is significant at *p < 0.001, **p < 0.01 level.

To summarize the results of the study, passive, semi-active and active adolescent’s citizenship activity are positively related to all dimensions of citizenship activity, with exception of adolescent’s actions for change in 764


society — the last mentioned subdimension is negatively related to semi-active type of citizenship activity or unrelated to any dimension of citizenship activity. Participant’s age (younger) predicts both passive and active citizenship activity. Adolescent boys more actively participate in passive types of citizenship activity, and adolescent girls more intensively participate in active forms of citizenship activity.

8. Conclusions and Discussions The empiric study seems to suggest that young people interpret themselves being citizen in a very personal and intimate way. The same trends are found out in other European countries (Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, Zalewska, Ross, 2010). Young people do seem to be interested in the benefits that a contemporary society has to offer them (especially, boys) rather than in actively joining the acivities for the citizenship (however, girls to some extent do demonstrate some willingnness to contribute to joint aspirations). There is observe a deficit of participation — action for social comunity, change and readiness to act in politics. On the other hand, the age of participants may explain the profile of the resulst to a significant extent as adolescent girls and boys do yet have to locate themselves in the world and society. However we must to be aware that young people, their attitudes and activity levels will determine the quality of human resources and social development in the future. Meanwhile, research studies point to a steady decline in young people's involvement in public affairs (Eurobarometer, 2013). Passive youths are hardly likely to become active citizens in adulthood. References Eurobarometer (2013). “European youth: Participation in democratic life”, European Commission, available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/youth/library/reports/flash375_en.pdf. Field J. (2003). “Civic engagement and lifelong learning: survey findings on social capital and attitudes towards learning”, Studies in the Education of Adults, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 142–157. Foster R., Graeffe L. and Zuzeviciute V. (2005). Professional In-service Courses that Relate to Citizenship Education and Identity: CiCe Gudelines, UK: London Metropolitan University, p. 23. Giddens A. (1993). Class and Power, The Giddens Reader. Basingstoke. Hargreaves A. (1999). Keičiasi mokytojai, keičiasi laikai. Vilnius: Tyto Alba. Herbst J. (2005). Oblicza społeczeństwa obywatelskiego (Faces of civic society). Jarvis P. (2001). Mokymosi paradoksai, VDU, Kaunas Kennedy K. J. (1997). “Citizenship education in review: Past perspective and future needs”, in: K. J. Kennedy (Ed.), Citizen Education and the Modern State, NY: Routledge. Kennedy K. J. (2006). “Towards a conceptual framework of understanding active and passive citizenship”, unpublished report in: J. Nelson & D. Kerr, Active Citizenship in INCA Countries: Definitions, Policies, Practices and Outcomes, QCA, London 2006. Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz B., Zalewska A. and Ross A. (2010). Future Citizens: 21st Century Challenges for Young People, Krakow: Impuls. Lévi-Strauss C. (1976). Structural Anthropology, Vol. 2, Basic books, New York. Lewicka M. (2004). “Kup pan książkę... Mechanizmy aktywności obywatelskiej Polaków (Buy a book... mechanisms of Poles’ citizenship activity)”, Studia Psychologiczne, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 65–82. Lewicka M. (2005). “Ways to make people active: The role of place attachment, cultural capital, and neighborhood ties, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 25, pp. 381–395. Milner A. and Browitt J. (2002). Contemporary Cultural Theory, Routledge, London and New York. Nelson J. and Kerr D. (2006). “Active Citizenship in INCA Countries: definitions, policies, practices and outcomes”, London: QCA, available online at: http://www.inca.org.uk/pdf/Active_Citizenship_Report.pdf. Ross A. and Zuzevičiūtė V. (2011). “Border crossings, moving borders: Young peoples’ constructions of identities in Lithuania in the early 21th century”, Profesinis rengimas: tyrimai ir realijos = Vocational Education: Research and Reality, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto leidykla. Vol. 20, pp. 38–47.

765

Citizenship, Tolerance and Humanism: Achievements and Safeguards — A Case of Young People’s Interpretations of Being A Citizen of A Particular State, Lithuania Theiss-Morse E. (1993). “Conceptualizations of good citizenship and political participation”, Political Behaviour, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 355–380. Warszawa: FRSO. Zalewska A. and Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz B. (2011). Psychologiczne potrtety młodych obywateli. Rozwojowe i podmiotowe uwarunkowania aktywności obywatelskiej młodzieży, Warszawa: Academica. Zuzeviciute V. and Butrime E. (2010). “E-learning as a socio-cultural system”, in: Berhard Ertl (Ed.), Technologies and Practices for constructing Knowledge in Online Environments: Advancements in Learning, Information Science Reference (Imprint of IGI Global), pp. 202–219. Zuzevičiūtė V. and Teresevičienė M. (2005). “Citizenship education — Future adults educators’ perspective: Lithuanian case study”, Adult Education in United Europe – Abundance, Diversity, Experience, pp. 309–321. Zuzevičiūtė V. and Teresevičienė M. (2009). Towards the Professionalization of Adult Educator’s Activities: Challenges and Perspectives, Monography, Institute for International Cooperation of the German Adult Education Association-dvv international, Germany- Poland, Warszawa, p. 223.

766


Education: A Culture-Acquirement Beyond Textbook-Study Sinan Çaya  (Marmara University, Turkey)

Abstract: Education shapes a child’s personality and mentality while filling his mind with information. Education, eventually makes the student gain and keep new and desired patterns of behavior. The basics of a given education program are indeed transmitted from the essential textbooks via the steady efforts of the faculty members, who undertake the roles of intermediaries. Nevertheless; beyond and above the official knowledge represented by the textbooks, the educative climate in its entirety (library, social facilities, gymnasiums, the human environment of fellow-students and teaching staff etc.) provides the cultural essence of one’s upbringing, which is at least as important as the domain of sheer knowledge. Key words: education; educative; teacher; professor; student; role model; institution

1. Introduction Through education, individuals acquire certain desirable behavior patterns. This fact alone makes education very significant in terms of ways regarding how to behave properly in given circumstances. Education is a social institution. It exists in all societies in one form or another. Borrowing Sociologist Merton’s key terms, it has manifest as well as latent functions. The former comprises providing knowledge, socializing the child, bringing about science and technology improvements; the latter involves protecting the child, preventing vice, raising the status and providing good company (Çaya, 2013; with reference to Tezcan, 1992, p. 20). The current strive of the world in education is to propagate it widely (so as to reach out to the poor, deprived and oppressed social layers) on one hand, and to democratize it (student council activities) on the other hand.

2. Brief History Historical Stages of Education in Turkey follow the madrasa, late Ottoman school (mektep) and new school eras . The kinds of education are, broadly speaking, regular (planned and programmed in formal schools) as well as casual (vocational training, seminars of any kinds, various courses for grown-ups) (ibid). 1

Sinan Çaya, Ph.D., Marmara University; research areas/interests: rural sociology, forensic social sciences, leadership, general education, social history, peasant studies. E-mail: [email protected]. 1 After Reformation (Tanzimat) Abdülmecid (1839–1861) replaced old neighborhood schools (financed with donations) with state-supported primary schools. Junior high schools (rüştiye) and high schools (idadi) came into being in big numbers. Higher Schooling dates even before: Military Medical School (1827), Military Staff Officer School (1834, 1846) and Law School. Saffet Paşa (1814–1883) is a monumental name in those efforts. (A madrasa-graduate, he had gotten a career in Foreign Affairs) (Çaya, 2013; with reference to Mardin). 767

Education: A Culture-Acquirement Beyond Textbook-Study

As for the pioneers of Turkish education in nearer times; Ziya Gökalp (1876–1924) stressed a “national” education. Prince Sabahattin (1877–1948) criticized a system which devalues personality and also promotes a central tendency for administration. He bitterly complained about lack of encouragement for entrepreneur-like attitudes and free development, ever since the midst of the family (Tezcan, 1992, pp. 19–20). Ethem Nejat (1882–1921) advocated for a kind of education aiming for rural development and was the very first inspiration provider for the idea of the village institutions (ibid). İsmail Hakkı Baltacıoğlu (1889–1978) objected to the imitation of the West and the sheer novelties in form, rather than content. Trips to the environment, school theatre, teaching of art and crafts, raising of productive men were his basic themes (ibid).

3. Typologies of Teachers A Category of Teacher Typologies goes as follows: Formal knowledge carrier, an agent for socialization (an adapter to future life), a provider of novelties and creativity, a focuser on measurement and evaluation (a meticulous grade-assigner). Another similar category of teachers comprises; respectively; the academic type (an expert on his subjects who attaches utmost importance to knowledge), the student-oriented kind (a surrogate parent for them, who even neglects his own home for their sake), the missionary sort (who stresses moral values; even though he may not be a suitable role-model2, himself). Among the given classifications, in the long run, it is probably the missionary type who is the most influencing and useful one. A shoe-shine man dropped out of junior high school once talked to me about his former history teacher. He said that he does not remember the terms and clauses of important armistices or agreements; but he vividly remembers a life lesson from the mouth of that teacher and here is the anecdote: A girl fell ill hopelessly and the doctor told the truth to the family. She was bound to die before the winter sets in. The autumn leaves were falling off one by one. The girl eavesdropped the bitter information. As the foliage got thinner on the trees, her hope was also diminishing. But a curious thing changed her future estimation. A certain leaf was insisting on not falling. Days passed on and the leaf held on, reinforcing the newly burgeoning hopes in the heart of the bed-ridden girl. Eventually she recovered. When she walked to the window, she discovered that the leaf was a painted picture on the window glass. A neighboring painter devised the idea to inspire some hope into her soul.

4. Other Auxiliary Educative Institutions Let us note that other agents of education also come into play: For Turkey one had been the State Industry before the onset of the privatization process. The examples are literally numerous like engineers being role-models for public and the children in terms of savoire-vivre/Lebensart/good manners in their social facilities (company eating house); promotion of sports in 2

If they can be living role models, so much the better, of course. In junior high school I had a history teacher, who had studied at Istanbul University while performing the profession of a municipal official. In his blue uniform, he was entitled to control the shops and public places. Sometimes he was on guard in his service station. He found opportunities to attend classes as much as possible and kept reading the assignments. Eventually he graduated and changed his job. He was a moralist and an elegant Istanbulite. He had a strong, determined will-power and persistence and perseverance.

768


provincial leagues thanks to representative football teams established and maintained by the sugar plants, railroad administration, gunpowder installations, pulp-and-paper industry and cement industry; granting of theater buildings to school ceremonies by the local government factory; providing room and board provision for single teachers; showing documentary movies and foreign cinema movies; housing wondering theater companies and exhibitions (Çaya, 2013). The other auxiliary educative institution for Turkey is the military. In accordance with the draft system, each healthy male is conscripted at his young age and serves for a specific period. Illiterate soldiers are first taught how to read and write. Practical hygiene rules are indoctrinated. Night courses contain concise information about all aspects of life. Many soldiers learn crafts and workmanship while in the army (meal-cooking, waiter task in an eatery, telephone operator’s job, photography, vehicle- driving etc.). A newspaper clipping (Millliyet, February 12, 1996) was narrating how family planning is instilled to plain soldiers. The pedagogical breakthrough is astonishingly effective. A praying-rosary (chapelet) contains 28 beads, representing days, in three colors: The first five yellow beads stand for the menstruation days of the wife. Then come five green and seven red beads followed by eleven green beads again. The loop is thus completed. During the red days the probability of pregnancy is high. The green days represent the safe dates. Let us point out that Russian author Grigory Petrov (1868–1925) vividly describes the contribution of the Finnish military to the development of the country, Finland, the Land of the White Lilies. However; to achieve this end, the barracks first reformed themselves3.

5. The Learning Climate Various activities like exhibitions of art and poetry, music chorus and recitals, movies, theater plays, conferences add much more to the intellectual formation than any textbook, in a cumulative manner. The relative freedom of expression and speech and the de facto immunity 4 against law observed in comparison to down town areas, makes a typical campus more of a liberated place even in a developing country, where full democratization is not ripe enough, yet. It should be pointed out that such freedom may sometimes backfire for young and depressed people and cause detrimental consequences like getting addicted to narcotics; being drifted into extreme (either right-wing or left-wing) political views or even political action. Once a poem exhibition was opened at a campus in Ankara by a young-and-pessimistic Turkish poet. The State Radio and Television Institution (TRT) would have definitely censured such an exhibition, on the grounds that it would sink the public morale (This clause is written as a condition, among other items, when it comes to participation in a music piece competition arranged by that organization). The mere title given to the exhibition was chosen in low spirits: I Like you Little, Life. A couplet is embedded in my mind with its keen theme of disappointment: While waiting for the White Prince mounted on his white horse;/A shadow got discernible in the distance: That of the Black Prince mounted on his black donkey! 3

Under the rule of Sweden, the garrison was bursting with rough, brutal, ugly swearing words. Privates, officers and even generals were employing swear-words. They were cursing mothers, fathers or even God Almighty [jamais/never!]. Young Finnish officers terminated those awful habitudes and brought cleanliness of body, word and moral principles. They taught the plain soldiers to wash their hands before meals and to clean their faces and teeth in the morning. They devised night plenary sessions for reading, speaking and debating (Petrov, new edition, 1994). 4 I remember a canteen-announcement written on n a piece of white paper saying that foreign (contraband) cigarettes had arrived; at a time when foreign cigarettes were illegal on the market in Turkey. 769


(The original stanzas were in Turkish). Another cynical short poem was something like: Bla-bla-bla Student-Numbered Suzanne! My high-school classmate and my very first platonic love!/I have just found out that your visit-price [in the brothel] has attained the numeral bla-bla-bla! (The original stanzas were in Turkish).

6. Effective Role Models Above all; professors themselves have more impact on the young minds of the students than anyone can imagine. Everything extraordinary and worthy is appreciated and internalized and as an eager student one tries to emulate those ways to the best of his capacity. I for my part, always tried to sort out the good traits of my professors from among the bad traits. A studious instructor with a very high IQ and bursting with scientific ambition and curiosity did appeal to me with those virtue of his. But his cultural degeneration represented by his hanging around stark naked in the gymnasium after having a match with his colleagues and taking a shower, was equally repulsive! Decent, behaved, politely and shyly conservative symbols of honor represented in the personalities of professors are more impressing than those of any other professionals. A friend of mine had such an elderly professor, a sheer Ottoman gentleman at Istanbul University and I got to know the honorable person through his narrations. While proctoring his own examinations; he would urge the students to avoid lengthy replies and provide concise5 ones instead; reinforcing his requirement with a physical sign: The thumb and the index finger brought together; to represent a tiny, minute size! Another “vicarious” meeting with another exemplary professor occurred through the memories of a Mathematics teacher, who had his degree from the Aegean University. On a certain exam paper, the assistants had printed the expression “give an example for each case!”. The genteel scholar stepped into the room during the exam for an announcement and made a correction by altering the imperative form into a request mode: “Would you please give an example for each case?”. Still, a Physics teacher once said that one of his professors had once warned the class: “If I am late, do not go away but wait for a while. The traffic may cause me to come late; but I never ever omit a class entirely! As a matter of fact; if one day I do not show up here, be sure that I dropped dead! No other excuses whatever for an eventual absence of mine!” In a bad situation an authority figure’s good words boost the morale. In my senior year in high school I was staying in a four-student-dormitory room. One roommate suddenly left for his home city, which was hit by an earthquake. Soon after, another’s father passed away and he in turn left for his hometown. The remaining two of us became uneasy in expectation of a new calamity targeting us. We pronounced our anxiety to the vice-principal, who was also the housemaster and who used to inspect the dormitories every morning regularly. He thought for a few seconds and then said: “Well, things can only get better!”. Those words came by like a magic balsam, healing our upset psychological states and improving the circumstances immediately! (Çaya, CBT-number 523). As for the previous housemaster, an English teacher; he was a strikingly interesting and imaginative person full of ingenious ideas, from time to time. One afternoon he would measure with a stop watch the timing of volunteers who race the staircases up to the entrance to the dormitory building. Some other time, he would 5

For the adjectives “lengthy” and “concise”, the professor would not use the commonly-used Turkish words “ayrıntılı” and “öz”; but instead, he would employ the pompous Ottoman words:“Not ‘mufassal’ but ‘muhtasar’ yes ‘muhtasar’, dear students!”. 770


instigate the arrangement of a song contest. (The former English teacher was to proceed his career later on with a Ph.D. degree in archeology). Once he posted a note on the bulletin board requesting the student with the biggest feet to see him for a present. But, alas! The brand new sport shoes were too big6 even for that student! On another occasion in one October evening; he gave a wonderful slide show to us, the boarding students, in the dormitory building study hall. The topic was his summer impressions of Anatolia at the time, as taken through his amateur camera. My first interest in anthropology could very well have been stirred during this one-hour-long presentation session. A picture still vividly embedded in my memory was the slide featuring a public toilet in a remote village: On the archaic entrance door whose aged wood veins were bulging, had been scribbled with white chalk in crooked small lettering: “Big job 25 piastres, small job 10 piastres”. The housemaster looked away from the audience with a shy smile and a blush discernible in the twilight as the scene suddenly emerged on the screen. During a course in America, our female instructor once said that his octogenarian father still calls the southerners the rebels, by reference to the Civil War. Hearing that information was sharpening one’s sense of history more than any book or encyclopedia could have done. During the same course; we had another female instructor whose father was a retired Navy officer. She had been indoctrinated with concepts like honor and dignity and pride ever since her childhood. On the verge of weekend holidays, she would constantly repeat her motto: “Take care of yourselves well, on the weekend. Please do not bring shame on your name!” When one considers the fact that nobody got in trouble on a weekend; it must have been an effective warning, indeed!

7. Some Heroes of a Haldun-Taner-Story In one of his partly autobiographical7 short story; Haldun Taner talks about an academic council in 1965 at the Faculty of Letters of Istanbul University, where one of three associate-professors should be promoted to full professorship for the Chair of Anthropology. The competition is severe and lobbying is in full swing: Imadettin Bey, coming out of the men’s room, had opened his sheet-sized handkerchief and was drying his hands. [He reminded of a provincial official who had just performed his ablutions in preparation for the prayer in a mosque]. It was not agreeable for Professor Sedat Germiyanoghlu to see this pockmarked professor, at all; maybe because he reminded him of his grandfather, the former sexton of a mosque, [a fact he was repudiating in his mind]. He himself was reckoned to be the most Western professor in the Faculty and the other the most obstinately Oriental and Ottoman of the academic staff. At every opportunity, he underlined their differences of training, style and mentality in a manner Imadettin Bey could not easily comprehend [due to his lack of an Anglo-Saxon education]. Imadettin Bey used to respond to those remarks with some coarse lines of classical poetry or resounding quatrains from the satirist Neyzen8. 6

The feet of Turkey’s population on average are smaller than Americans’. The biggest shoe size was 45 on the market until recent times. Once a shoe seller in Lüleburgaz proudly said that Oil-Wrestler Shaban from the town of Vize bought a pair of size 45-sneakers at his shop. 7 Indeed; translator Geoffrey Lewis notes at the top of the story that “some of the author’s former colleagues at Istanbul University still delight in identifying the originals of the characters in this story”. 8 Neyzen Tevfik had philosophical critical poems. He would not abstain from employing sheer swearing-words in rhymes, at times. 771


At this moment Sedat Bey received the scent of a cigar; which; Sadi Tümay was puffing at. Sedat Bey consoled himself that it was only a King Edward. But, no! Damn him! It was a Walter Upmann. This fellow Sadi could somehow procure high-class invitations all over the city! Once there, he never budged from in front of the buffet, eating steadily and with complete assurance depositing three or four cigars in his top pocket, as if he were loading ammunition into a bandolier. Sedat Germiyanoghlu had particularly noticed that Sadi always chose these cigar interludes for reading his Le Monde. [When Shefkati Bey took the floor and makes a slip of the tongue regarding those staff members who had no Ph.D. degrees despite their titles of full professor; double-doctorate Jevat Bey defended such colleagues as being equally worthy] and a heavy, oppressive silence fell. It got broken by Ali Rıza Bey. “I haven’t got two doctorates, like Jevat Bey. I haven’t even got one. [So, I was of course hurt by the previous remark of Shefkati Bey]” said he. Sedat Germiyanoghlu groaned inwardly. This was Ali Rıza’s regular practice. Being offended on one occasion would be his excuse for missing the next seven or eight meetings. Ali Rıza continued his speech, stringing together verses from Nefi, Karajaoghlan, Muallim Naji and Eshref 9 (abridged from Lewis’ translation of Taner, 1988).

8. Conclusion Education involves textbooks, of course. Then come other books, which support the courses. But books which do not pertain to the courses directly while contributing to one’s cultural improvement are also there, to be considered. Finally; all books left aside; the climate of education and especially role-model-teaching-staff have tremendous impact upon a student’s intellectual formation.

Figure 1 An Enthusiastic Instructor Usually Leaves His “ Trace” in the Memories of the Students

9

All four are very famous Turkish poets. Besides; all have satirical verses as their strong points. Especially Eshref was as skilful in using swear-words as previously mentioned Neyzen. 772


Figure 2

Years Ago, An Entrepreneur-Minded Student Arranged for A Liquid-Yoghurt Selling Facility at Late Night Hours,

on A Campus; Which Ran Smoothly for A Few Weeks, (Until An Interruption Came to Abolish It for Some Reason or Other).

Figure 3 What Is the Use of Good Knowledge, If Moral Principles Are Lacking?

773


Figure 4 Practicing Sports Is Part of Making Much of the Educative Atmosphere

Capped Child― “Our milk is diminishing!” Open headed Child―“We still have plenty of milk, how nice!” Figure 5 An Optimistic World-View Is the Complementary Ingredient of All Beneficial Knowledge and Culture, at the Final Analysis

References Çaya Sinan (2013). Unpublished classnotes for the course of behavioral sciences for engineers, Marmara University Faculty of Engineering, Istanbul. Çaya Sinan (w.d.) “Rehber Öğretmenin İyimserlik Aşılama İşlevi (The Function of Inculcating Optimism on the Part of the

774

Education: A Culture-Acquirement Beyond Textbook-Study Counselor-Teacher)”, Bilim-Teknik Eki (Supplement of Science-Technology) of Cumhuriyet Newspaper, number 523. Mardin Şerif (1991). “Tanzimattan Sonra Aşırı Batılılaşma”, Türk Modernleşmesi: Makaleler IV, İletişim yayınları, Istanbul. Mardin Şerif (1981). “Religon and seculanism in Turkey”, in: Kazancigil,Ali & Özbudun Ergun (Eds.), Atatürk: Founder of a Modern State, Hurst &Company, London. Mardin Şerif (October 1986). “Yenileşme Dinamiğinin Temelleri ve Atatürk”, Çağdaş Düşüncenin Işığında Atatürk, Eczacıbaşı yayınları, Levent, Istanbul. Milliyet Newspaper dated February 12, 1996. Petrov Grigoriy (New edition, 1994). Ak Zambaklar Ülkesi Finlandiya’da, trans. by Hasip Ahmet Aytuna, İnkılâp Kitabevi, Istanbul. Taner Haldun (reprint 1988). “No Trouble at all (original title: Rahatlıkla)”, A Short Story in the Collection Thickhead and Other Stories, translated from Turkish into English by Geoffrey Lewis, Forest Books, London & Boston. Tezcan Mahmut (1992). Eğitim Sosyolojisi (Sociology of Education), baskı, Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara, p. 8.

775


Theory and Practice in Foreign Language Teaching — Past and Present Ellie Boyadzhieva  (South-West University, Bulgaria)

Abstract: The article presents a concise description of foreign language teaching (FLT) methods from their beginning up to present time. The author sees the particular dominant approaches implemented in foreign language teaching practice as a result of the emergence of new linguistic and learning theories in different historical periods. The new findings in various areas of human knowledge influenced the dominant views in foreign language acquisition and caused particular changes in FLT practices. The interrelation between the leading linguistic and learning theories and the basic methods of teaching foreign languages since 16th century onwards is discussed. Finally, some important facets of the present practices in FLT are put to the fore and a conclusion is drawn that the lack of a dominant teaching theory is the reason why practices in FLT are eclectic and permissive allowing the use of a set of the teaching techniques which proved to be efficient and effective throughout time. Key words: approach, method, techniques, theory of language, foreign language teaching

1. Introduction Teaching and learning foreign languages has always been an important part of the social life of people. Its importance has gained a new momentum within the last 50 years of 20th century and was reinforced at the beginning of the 21st century due to the growing needs of international communication in the process of globalization reinforced by the development of the world web as its intrinsic part. Before looking in detail into how theory and practice of FLT are interwoven, it is necessary to unwrap the meaning of the term method in FLT. For the purposes of the forthcoming analysis the view of Richards and Rodgers is employed, who state that method in FLT should be used as “an umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice” (1982, p. 154). The division they draw between approach, design and procedure is widely accepted in modern theory of FLT and seems productive for the historical overview of the methods provided in this article and is used as a matrix one. According to them approach relates to beliefs and theories about language, design is connected with the form and function of the teaching materials in the course books, and procedure concerns the practices and techniques in the language classroom (Richards & Rodgers, 1985, pp. 16–17). However, in order to encompass the multifaceted features of language teaching and learning every element of approaches, designs and procedures is further broadened by the addition of supplementary elements. For example, as FLT deals with language it may be suggested that the concept of approach involves a general linguistics theoretical framework and/or a particular theory of learning that are in turn informed by a particular philosophical theory concerning basic epistemological matters. Design is further widened by involving the Elissaveta Boyadzhieva, Dr, Associate Professor, South-Western University; research areas/interests: general, applied linguistics, cultural studies. E-mail: [email protected]. 776

Theory and Practice in Foreign Language Teaching — Past and Present

concept of culture as part of a language and thus immersed consciously or unconsciously in the teaching materials, and finally, procedure involves issues like the degree of use of the mother tongue in the FLT classroom, the role of the teacher and the modes of evaluating the learners’ achievements as a result of the learning process. Observations of the change of the methods in FLT from diachronic perspective show that language learning and teaching methods generally follow the developments in the theoretical findings and stances in linguistics and its specialized sub-disciplines among which psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics and sociolinguistics play major roles. The change of the methods at different points of time and the switch from one method to another is also influenced by the development of new ideas in the theories of learning and philosophy. In this way, if we can speak about a dominant theory in FLT within a certain period of time, it itself should be considered a result of amalgamated postulates rooted in the linguistic, psychological and philosophical theories prevailing at the same period. In addition, the theory and practice in FLT should be also considered a result form the influence of extra-linguistic factors such as social needs, ideology, language policy and planning etc., which are in essence socio-cultural specifics of the particular setting where FLT takes place. As these issues are quite complex and need a particular exploration, they are not specifically addressed in this article.

2. Discussion In order to facilitate the forthcoming discussion the basic methods together with the respective underlying approaches, designs and procedures are bestowed in a chronological order in the a table below. The basic linguistic and/or learning theories underlying the methods together with the beliefs underlying the particular method are presented. Every approach is followed by a short description of the type of teaching materials used and a brief overview of the course books content. The prevailing teaching techniques and practices most characteristic of every method are presented under procedures as well as the use of the mother tongue and the role of the teacher in the foreign language classroom. Table 1 Method

Relations between Methods, Beliefs, Course Design and Teaching Procedures in Education Approach Course design Teaching procedures

Theoretical Major Beliefs basis 16th–19th century Traditional linguistics - Knowledge of Grammar-Translation focus on morphology grammar rules and the and syntax meaning of words Method equals language competence

1878 Berlitz The Direct Method

Developmental Oral interaction is psychology — focus on primary; knowledge of a language is the communication ability to produce everyday spontaneous speech

preferably Difficult authentic texts, grammar books with complicated explanations of language rules, dictionaries

Dialogues, focus on oral production: speaking, listening and pronunciation are most important; grammar is taught inductively

Translation from L1 into L2 and vice versa. Focus on written language and sentences rather than texts. Memorization of rules and vocabulary, drills of paradigms and structures. Fully teacher-centered instruction Vocabulary taught through demonstration or through association of ideas; Techniques: repetitions and drills; Translation and use of mother tongue prohibited; Fully teacher-centered instruction (Table 1 to be continued)

777

Theory and Practice in Foreign Language Teaching — Past and Present (Table 1 continued) Early 20s of 20th century The Audio-lingual Method

1930s to the 1960s The Oral-Situational Approach

Behaviourist Learning is an psychology (Skinner) automatic process & Structural linguistics achieved through mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over learning Behaviourist psychology (Skinner)

Syllabus based on language structure in dialogue forms; grammar taught inductively

Learning is achieved Dialogues and texts where through memorization meanings are expressed of structures in a by linguistic structures in given situation various situations

Cognitive Code Learning

Cognitive psychology & Humans are Texts without grammatical explanations, vocabulary Mentalism in linguistics biologically programmed to in context acquire language, every human possesses universal grammar

The Silent Way

Calep Gattegno

1970s

Suggestology Georgi Lozanov

1960s

Learning consists of No use of deliberately trials and errors, designed textbooks; language is learned Focus on pronunciation; through deliberate Grammar structures and vocabulary are introduced, experimentation, reviewed and recycled

The human ability of Dialogues, dramatized acquiring a foreign texts, songs and games. language is blocked The learning process is Suggestopedia mainly by fear of accompanied by failure. Relaxing background music, the environment opens the classroom is cheerfully mind and improves decorated the memory potential of the brain. James Asher Understanding Listening and responding Total Physical precedes speaking and with actions; grammar is Response active use of taught implicitly; focus on language, language vocabulary learning should activate the right hemisphere where the motor centre is located 1983 Krashen’s theory of Learning is different Selection of immersion and from acquisition. communicative activities The Natural Approach comprehensible input, Meaning is more and topics derived from mentalism important than form learner needs; materials and grammar, main come from realia rather aim: communication than textbooks with the target language speakers

Memorization of structural patterns; Vocabulary strictly limited and learned in context; Pronunciation emphasized; Content disregarded; Techniques: repetitions and drills; Sporadic use of the mother tongue; Fully teacher-centered instruction Focus on oral production; Techniques: drills and repetitions; Little(or no) use of the mother tongue; Fully teacher-centered instruction Learning language facts and developing skills by using cognitive abilities in the learning process; Grammar rules are established deductively and aim at building up learners’ experiences; Little use of the mother tongue; Teacher-centered instruction without domination Emphasis on the autonomy of the learner; Techniques: color rods and charts; No use of mother tongue; No repetitions and drills; The teacher must not interfere with the learning process Focus on grammar structures and vocabulary; No use of the mother tongue; The teacher provides the language input through reading out loud and instigating active interaction

Focus on understanding the foreign language and responding kinesthetically before starting speaking; No mother tongue; Fully teacher-centered process Immersion teaching; Focus on communicative skills and strategies with scaffolding provided by the teacher; No use of mother tongue; The teacher is the basic source of the target language input (Table 1 to be continued)

778

Theory and Practice in Foreign Language Teaching — Past and Present (Table 1 continued) 1980 – 1990s

Functional linguistics

Communicative Era

1990 onwards Post-Communicative Era

Learning Theories of Constructivism Cognitive constructivism (Jean Piaget) Social constructivism (Lev Vygotsky) Contingency Theory (D.& H. Wood)

Communication is Notional-Functional seen as the basic Syllabus 1 and task-based function of language; teaching; Textbooks with The categories of a selection of adapted meaning and function authentic materials and tasks in are more important meaningful situations; than the elements of different and graded grammar and selected grammar structure; the basic vocabulary; aim is to achieve taught inductively communicative competence including grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic competencies Learning how to learn Texts and dialogues of is a central element; different types from learning should specific scientific and generate new social disciplines linguistic knowledge presenting the forms of and consolidate the grammar and vocabulary existing knowledge

Focus on pragmatically appropriate use of authentic functional language for meaningful purposes; Parallel development of both productive and receptive skills; Fluency and accuracy seen as complementary principles in learner’s production; No use of mother tongue; The teacher is a facilitator and a guide

Focus on individual learning and discovery on the part of the learner; task-based classroom activities; Techniques: collaborative dialogue between learners, group and pair work; individual work with internet sources; Scaffolding provided by both teachers and peers Comeback of mother tongue in the language classroom The teacher is a facilitator and a guide

The beginnings of the theory of foreign language teaching (FLT) can be traced back to the 17th century when Jan Amos Comenius (originally Jan Amos Komenský) published his views of educational system in its various aspects in his famous Didactica Magna completed around 1631 and published in 1657 (Palacky, 1929, pp. 39–42). The issue of learning foreign languages is addressed specifically in his earlier work Janua Linguarum Reserata (The Gate of Tongues Unlocked) published in 1629 (Kumpera, 1992, pp. 247–248, 296–298, 309) where Comenius suggests that foreign languages should be included in the school curriculum and learned through the local vernacular. According to Encyclopedia Britannica:“His method of teaching languages, which he seems to have been the first to adopt, (my italics – EB), consisted in giving in parallel columns, sentences conveying useful information in the vernacular and the languages intended to be taught.” (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911). His views influenced foreign language training for the next three centuries to come, establishing a teaching method that was thoroughly applied until the 19th century. This method became known as “The Grammar Translation Method” (GTM). It would be difficult to relate its practices to a particular linguistic framework or a learning theory as such did not exist. Expectedly, GTM initially involved the teaching and learning of the two classical (and dead) languages, namely Ancient Greek and Classical Latin. At one point they became compulsory subjects in the school and university curriculums, part and parcel of the education in the field of humanities and an important symbol of belonging to the few educated ones at the time. The training process involved reading and direct translating of long complicated classical texts, memorizing paradigms and excerpts of texts. The materials used in the classroom were authentic texts, dictionaries and grammar books where the rules of the correct use 1

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is based on it. 779


were postulated and the learners were supposed to learn and recite. The teaching was fully teacher-centered with little active participation on the part of the learners and the whole teaching was conducted in the mother tongue. The students were expected to do direct translations to and from Latin and Greek and reciting memorized excerpts from classical texts as well as the grammar rules. One of the factors that secured the longevity of the GT method was the social need to train educated people who were able to read and understand classical scientific and philosophical texts and to train skillful translators. Due to the changing social and political situation toward the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries the need of teaching and learning modern living languages emerged. Although the inefficiency of the Grammar-Translation method when acquisition of living (real) languages is concerned became evident, it continued to be applied to teaching foreign languages without much change of practices until the first quarter of the 20th century. However, the new time required a practical use of foreign languages which brought to the fore the need to replace the grammar-translation method with another, more efficient approach. The first attempt in this direction was Berlitz’s Direct method (DM) emerging toward the end of the 19th century. The new method challenged the traditional GTM by suggesting a totally different approach to language teaching and learning. Although it is hard to relate DM to a particular linguistic school or learning theory it was based on empirical evidence of and observations on first language acquisition, which triggered the idea that a foreign language should be taught in a way similar to the process of language acquisition where speech precedes writing. Despite the questionability of the concept that foreign language learning is similar to the acquisition in the light of the latest findings of developmental psychology and neurolinguistics, the major linguistic belief of DM that oral language is primary and thus speaking in FLT should always precede writing was a significant breakthrough in the whole conceptualization of the goals of FLT and influenced several later approaches including the communicative approach. The most significant contribution of DM to modern foreign language teaching was the drift from GMT by emphasizing the importance of using everyday spoken language and the inefficiency of learning grammar rules by heart and out of context. In addition, DM was the first to promote the idea that the FL classroom should make everything possible to create a native-like target language environment by the conscious use of the target language only in the teaching process. The 20th century as a whole is characterized by a boom of new methods in FLT. This is a consequence of several factors, the most important among which are the emergence of several modern linguistic theories and psychological schools, Chomsky’s revolution in philosophy of language and language theory, the constitution of Applied linguistics as a separate branch of the study of language having FLT as its scientific object, the development of Internet towards the end of the century, and last but not least, the needs of optimizing foreign language learning in order to facilitate the efficient communication across peoples and cultures worldwide. In the early 20s of the 20th century the Audio-lingual Method (AL) inspired by Skinner’s theory of behaviourist psychology on the one hand, and structural linguistics on the other, was introduced to meet the needs of the American army2 of quick and effective foreign language learning. The basic presumption of AL was that learning a foreign language is an automatic process of memorization of set phrases that could be achieved through constant repetition and drills. The language structure was introduced in dialogue forms without a particular grammatical explanation. The grammatical structures were introduced one at a time in a dialogue form and the vocabulary was strictly limited and learned in the context of the concrete dialogue. Reading and/or listening to the 2

That is the reason why the audio-lingual method is often referred to as the Army Method.

780


dialogues followed by repetitions and drills were the basic teaching techniques in the FL classroom. Although the practical results were not as encouraging as expected, the AL method continued to be widely used in various countries in Europe (including Bulgaria) and the US until the 80s. Meanwhile, in the 30s, the Oral-Situational (OS) approach also gained popularity which lasted up to the late 60s. Most theoreticians of FLT righteously see the OS approach as a variation of the AL method for several reasons: first, both methods are likewise based on Skinner’s behaviourist psychology theory which treats learning as a process of forming habits and second, both share the belief that FL learning is achieved through memorization achieved by drilling structures and words which were the basic activities practiced in the classroom. A particular contribution of OS is that it postulates that not only vocabulary but also grammatical structures should be presented in particular appropriate situations and, what is more important - graded throughout the curriculum. The cognitive revolution of the late 1950s combined the new thinking in psychology, anthropology and linguistics with the emerging fields of computer science and neuroscience. In the late 60s the emergence of the Mentalist theory of language and the Cognitive Psychology theory prompted a new approach in FLT, or rather a series of approaches known as Cognitive Code Learning (CCL). The cognitive approaches in FLT emerged as a reaction to Skinner’s behaviorist ideas according to which the learning process is building habits. According to the cognitive theory learning a foreign language is a process of building a second verbal representational system which is functionally connected with the first language verbal system on the one hand and with the common cognitive or conceptual systems the learner possesses, on the other. As Archibald puts it, the learner must develop “new mental representations and develop facility at accessing those representations in a variety of circumstances” (Archibald, 1997, p. 535) The basic beliefs of CCL were preconditioned by the major view that language is an endowment and children are biologically programmed to acquire language. This view was translated into foreign language learning for both children and adults with the following effects: grammar does not need explicit explanations; correction of mistakes is ineffective and almost did not take place in the classroom. The grammatical rules should be established deductively and aimed at building up the learners’ experiences similarly to the processes characterizing first language acquisition. Vocabulary should be introduced in context and recycled in various contexts, facts are to be learned and skills to be developed by adding cognitive understanding throughout the learning process. For the first time the idea that the knowledge of a foreign language consists of the learner’s ability to perform four major skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking was introduced. Again for the first time the role of the learner was taken in consideration and supposed to be as important as the one of the teacher, whose role in turn was limited compared to all previous methods. CCL emphasized the learner’s cognitive activity, involving reasoning and mental processes rather than habit formation, a concept that is totally opposite to the behaviourist view that the learners are empty vessels and the main role of the teacher is to be a supplier of knowledge. In the decade between 60s and 70s of the 20th century at least three separate methods emerged which were in one way or another influenced by the mentalist school of language and the principles of cognitive psychology. It needs mentioning that none of them gained much popularity. However, they illustrate the various attempts to find a way to facilitate foreign language learning and have left traces in the contemporary FLT practices. The Silent Way (SW) was introduced by Calep Gatterno in the early 60s. He believed that learning consists of trials and errors and that experimenting should be in the centre of the learning process including foreign language teaching. The basic teaching aids were colour rods and posters. Although in the ideal case the teachers 781


should remain silent in order not to interfere with the learning process, they are still the basic providers of language. The focus is on correct native-like pronunciation and grammar which is achieved through experiments on the part of the learners in the foreign language until the ultimate correct utterance is produced and accepted by the teacher. This is the first method that introduced the concept of learners’ autonomy and learner-centered teaching. Suggestopedia (SP), also known as The Lozanov Method, was invented by the Bulgarian scholar Georgi Lozanov in the middle 60s. The basic belief the method was informed by was the conviction that the human ability of acquiring a foreign language is mainly blocked by the fear of failure in the production and that a relaxing classroom environment will improve the memory potential of the brain by activating its right hemisphere through music and relaxation and will thus shorten the process of foreign language acquisition at least three times compared to the conventional methods. The course design includes dialogues, short texts, songs and games all presented by the teacher at the background of a relaxing Baroque music in a classroom painted in bright colors and richly decorated with pictures and posters. The teacher is the main supplier of language requires active participation of the learners in the classroom activities. For the first time in the history of FLT games and songs are officially recognized as effective teaching techniques in the foreign language classroom. However, it should be noted, that the Lozanov Method has gained more popularity and is still practiced in language schools abroad rather than in Bulgaria under the name Accelerated Learning and became an example of the so called humanistic approach in FLT worldwide. Although there is still a Lozanov Centre functioning in Sofia and a Trainer Centre in the town of Sliven, the number of the trainees in Bulgaria nowadays is quite limited. The last method suggested by James Asher in the late 70s is known under the name Total Physical Response (TPR). It was based on the presumption in first language acquisition that understanding precedes speaking and the fact that the motor centre in located in the right hemisphere of the human brain. Translated in foreign language teaching theory this meant that receptive skills precede production, so that learners should learn to listen first and as a result of understanding are expected to respond with physical actions during the initial stages of learning. The teaching process is fully teacher-centered but does not exclude interaction although not in the form of verbal answers. Drills and repetitions are prohibited while grammar structures are introduced and recycled in different contexts. A common trait of the three methods described above is that they all are based on research in the field of brain anatomy and physiology and the findings of developmental psychology. The three introduce a humanistic approach toward foreign language learning and a stress-free learning environment. An interesting fact is that none of the founders of the three schools is a linguist with Asher and Lozanov — a psychologist and psychiatrist respectively, and Gattegno — a mathematician. Although none of them except Suggestopedia was long-lasting in the FLT practice, each of them made significant contributions to the modern concepts in the field. The first fully developed distinctive method in the early 1980 is Krashen’s Natural Approach (1983), also known as Monitor Model (MM). It is the most influential theory of foreign language teaching which underlies the foundations of the communicative approach in FLT. The basic concepts in his theory of foreign language teaching follow Chomsky’s views of the holistic nature of language. Krashen believes that any successive language is acquired in the same way as the mother tongue is because every human is born with an innate ability to possess language. According to him the two basic prerequisites for successful foreign language learning are the exposure to language and the availability of a comprehensible input. These two factors are of primary importance and became popular in FLT theory as the immersion and the input hypotheses. Without going into much detail it is 782


necessary to point out some of the fundamental concepts that shaped to a great extent the learning and teaching practices in the foreign language classrooms in the following years3. The immersion hypothesis insists that a total exposure to the target language should be provided in the language classroom. The teacher is responsible for ensuring the total exposure language environment by using the target language only. The teacher should make everything possible to make the input comprehensible for the learner by using both written and oral language, body language and all kinds of visual aids. Thus the teacher is supposed to be the leading figure in the foreign language classroom. Krashen’s Natural order hypothesis as part of the overall theory states that the order of acquisition of language follows its own logic and this makes the direct grammar teaching useless and ineffective. Krashen is the first to make distinction between acquisition and learning defining the first as a subconscious process and the second — as a conscious one, a distinction which is widely adopted in modern pedagogical theories of FLT. He was also the first to emphasize the importance of the development of the four language skills as well as the building of communicative strategies and the self-monitoring as a method of self-correction on the part of the learners. As for the language materials, it was recommended that they should be as authentic as possible and should come from realia rather than from textbooks. Most of these theoretical concepts were put into practice in the communicative era. The early 1980s are marked by the stardom of the so called communicative approach which became a panacea in foreign language teaching lasting to the end of the 1990s. The communicative approach as mentioned before is used as an umbrella term for various methods united by the theoretical view that the basic function of language is communication, which is in conflict with the mentalist view of language as part of human cognition. In that way the basic aim of foreign language teaching/learning shifted from attaining language competence to achieving communicative competence. Communicative competence as a key concept in the communicative era of FLT is only partly coinciding with Krashen’s idea of communicative competence of the learner who, according to the latter, should be taught in such a way so as to be able to communicate with the native speakers of the target language. The broadening and restructuring of the term communicative competence by including both native and non-native speakers has been heavily influenced by the rising status of English as the lingua franca of the globalized world. From the viewpoint of the communicative approach the linguistic competence in the target language is only one part of the communicative competence which also involves sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competencies (Hymes, 1972). The major beliefs of the Communicative Approach can be summarized as follows: meaning is more important than the structure and form; language learning does not imply learning structures, sounds and words but learning how to communicate. The notion communicative competence was introduced by Hymes (1966) in the middle of 1960s as a contrast to Chomsky’s linguistic competence of the ideal speaker/listener (Chomsky, 1965, p. 11). Hymes distinguished between the grammatical rules to make correct sentences and the rules framing the correct use of language in order to accomplish some type of a communicative purpose. Thus the aim of the teaching-learning process in FLT to build communicative competence far outreaches the teaching of the target language per se. These beliefs influenced the course books design as well as the teaching 3

For detailed description of Krashen’s hypotheses see Krashen S. and Terrell T. (1995), The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom, Prentice Hall Europe. 783


procedures by emphasizing the effective communication instead of the mastery of grammar. Vocabulary is carefully graded and introduced through a carefully selected and adapted of authentic materials. Grammar is taught inductively. Dialogues reflecting various communicative situations are designed to serve particular communicative functions. An important characteristic of the set tasks is to focus on pragmatically appropriate use of authentic language for meaningful purposes. The teaching aims at developing the four major (macro) skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening in content and task-based activities. The four skills are divided into two groups: productive (speaking and writing) and perceptive (listening and reading). Perceptive skills ensure the language input and the productive skills ensure the language output. Sometimes macro skills are opposed to micro skills, which comprise of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling (available online at: http://www.englishclub.com/learn-english/language-skills.htm). The focus on communication implies necessarily a discussion about the balance between fluency and accuracy which are seen as complementary principles. The role of the teacher is reduced to this of a facilitator and guide. Ideally, it is supposed that there should be no use of mother tongue in the foreign language classroom4. Although the communicative method had its heydays in the 80s and the 90s, its basic ideas are still commonly employed in foreign language teaching worldwide. From 1990 onwards, however, foreign language teaching entered a stage of the post-communicative era, when FLT has been heavily influenced by the development of the learning theories of constructivism, especially Jean Piaget’s Cognitive constructivism, Lev Vygotsky’s Social constructivism (rediscovered in this period), and last but not least, D. and H. Wood’s Contingency theory. The common beliefs concerning foreign language teaching and learning of constructivism can be summarized as follows: learning how to learn should be the core of FLT by generating new and consolidating the existing linguistic knowledge. The content of the textbooks drifted away from the global approach to language characterizing the communicative period and introduced different types of texts and dialogues on various topics including specific forms of grammar and vocabulary in specific scientific and social disciplines. The class activities became more and more task-based, pair and group work became the major techniques ensuring a collaborative dialogue between learners, and the teaching process became more learner-centered. Both the teachers and the learners take a shared responsibility of scaffolding. Autonomous learning is encouraged, the teacher’s function is the one of a facilitator, but there is a tendency to a comeback of the mother tongue in the language classroom. Along with the learning theories a very important factor influencing the latest developments in FLT from the 1990s onwards is indisputably the creation of the Internet that gives various possibilities for communication and autonomous learning in and out of the language classroom. While language learning in the post-communicative era generally follows the beliefs of cognitive and social constructivism, a multitude of different concepts concerning course designs and teaching procedures is observed. However, none of them is prevailing and has not turned into a method. This is the basic reason why the post-communicative period in foreign language teaching is often described as eclectic. One of the most popular concepts is the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) introducing the idea that any specific content can be learned using the medium of a foreign language. The concept has been implemented in the syllabus of many language schools (including Bulgaria) where apart from the language classes themselves, the foreign language is used as a vehicle of instruction in different special subjects. 4

The Common European Framework of Languages is based on the communicative approach and the notional-functional syllabus, which is a way of organizing communicative language learning curriculum around the teaching and learning of notions and functions. 784


One of the earliest applications of hi-tech technologies to the language classroom is the so-called Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). It is defined by Levy as “the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning” (Levy, 1997, p. 1) driving away from the “traditional” drill-and-practice FLT programs. At present CALL has recent manifestations as it is an intrinsic part of blended learning by creating a virtual language environment and enhancing Web-based teaching and learning. It informs also the use of interactive whiteboards, computer-mediated communication (CMC), and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL). The so called blended learning has been a major growth point especially in English language teaching within the past decades. It is based on the belief that the traditional face-to-face communication in the language classroom should be combined with distant learning by using the possibilities that the Internet provides for acquiring various types of knowledge where the foreign language is the major vehicle for transmitting information (Babu, 2009; Staker & Horn, 2012). While blended learning combines traditional classroom activities and the use of text books with Web- and computer-based tasks, some of the latest topic-based approaches totally deny the use of course books. Such is the so called Dogme learning proposed in 2000 by the English teacher and educator Scott Thornbury (2000, p. 1). Dogme focuses on communication claiming that course books tend to focus on grammar instead on the communicative competence. In addition, according to Thornbury they are often culturally biased, which appears to be counterproductive especially when they are “aimed at global markets” (Thornbury & Meddings, 2009, p. 13). As seen from the above said the post-communicative era in FLT is not based on a single theory of language or of learning. The practice of FLT is heavily influenced by the development of technology which provides plenty of opportunities to use new techniques of both teaching and learning. Practice shows that good teachers choose various options to introduce language structures and vocabulary: from using the traditional textbooks in the classroom to helping learners to make their own video clips focusing on different language facets. In fact, both the teachers and the students can use all good and effective teaching practices established in every previous approach that proved to be efficient in the years. For example, modern practice in FLT shows that translation is again a commonly used practice in the language classroom in bilingual environments where the teachers and the learners share a common language as a simple translation of a structure or a word proves to save time and intensify the teaching process. Grammar still tends to be taught inductively, but grammar explanations are regularly provided based on contrastive approach. Memorization of structures is often drill-supported because drills help memorization especially with adult learners. Language immersion is realized both in the real language classroom and in virtual classrooms. Despite the attempts to shift the focus of foreign language teaching entirely on the learners, practice shows that self-learning is less efficient than learning under guidance. This keeps the teachers in the centre of the teaching process, although learning is not entirely controlled by them and is not maintained in the classroom only.

3. Analysis The short historical overview of the methods in FLT reveals the following dependencies:  FLT methods depend on the theory they are founded on. The leading concepts in a particular theory trigger changes in the foundations of a particular method, which preconditions the selection of materials, the design of the

785


textbooks and directs the techniques and procedures of the teaching process itself.  Every change of the dominant theory leads to changes both in the course book design and in the classroom procedures.  Sameness of design and procedures are most often a result of sheer coincidence when the theoretical approaches are different as innovations in design and procedures follow the changes in the theoretical base of a method.  Good teaching/learning practices endure irrespectively of the different methods and independently of the underlying approach. Often they recur in the procedures of a subsequent method masked under a different term. The overview also shows that the development of the approaches and methods in foreign language teaching can be seen as a dynamic process where periods of tranquility are followed by periods of intensive change. The reasons why the methods in FLT in the intensive periods change include several factors. First, this is the emergence of a new theoretical basis that leads to a shift in the underlying beliefs of language or learning, a situation well illustrated by the rise and fall of Krashen’s Monitoring Theory and the Communicative approach. The second major factor for the departure of a given method is its general inefficiency which was the case with the Audio-lingual method where efficiency is thought along the lines of best results in acquiring competence in the foreign language in the shortest time and at minimal costs on the part of both the teacher and the learner. Third, some methods have proved to address particular social and age groups and appeared to be inappropriate for larger groups of learners, such as the Direct Method, The Silent Way or the Total Physical Response which are limited to young learners or beginners. Such a limitation does not mean that certain techniques which are supposed to be characteristic for a given method do not survive in the future. On the opposite, if they turn out to be reasonable, they are retained in practice. A good example is the comeback of the translation of particular structures and words, as well as the use of the mother tongue which were ‘prohibited’ since the time of the Direct method until the end of the Communicative period. When it comes about teaching grammar and vocabulary it needs mentioning that first, they are integrated in the four major skills but are taught both inductively and explicitly, and second, that the findings of modern applied linguistics and especially the notion of interlanguage (Selinker, 1975) and error analysis have contributed a lot to the textbook design grading the introduction of the grammatical structures and vocabulary and their recycling in appropriate contexts on every transition stage which proved to be a better way than the holistic approach to language. General practice in FLT in the post-communicative era also shows that many of the traditional practices survive despite the emergence of extreme ideas such as total avoidance of textbooks or their replacement by authentic materials from the Internet, diminishing the role of the teacher to an observer/advisor or even their replacement by computer programmes for self-education. Textbooks are still used in most FL classrooms no matter how good or bad they are. It seems that both teachers and learners accept the traditional textbook an anchor which allows them to follow the progress. Observations show that the same is valid for the parents as well. It also seems that despite the claims of the FLT theoreticians that the role of the teacher in the language classroom should be minimal and the process of teaching should be learner-centered, practice shows that this is very much a good wish. Paradoxically as it may appear, the average teacher in the average classroom is still the basic source of knowledge of the foreign language. Building learner’s autonomy is in the hands of the teachers and depend on their willingness to do so. This seems true even when distant learning or on-line language courses are concerned. 786


The situation in the post-communicative period retains the tendency of focusing on building communicative skills thus showing that the functional theoretical approach has proved to be more productive for foreign language teaching compared to the structural approach. In result the two productive skills — speaking and writing, are put in the centre of foreign language teaching in the post-communicative era with a small change in the goals. The quick growth of the number of the speakers of English as a foreign language taught under the communicative approach worldwide in the past 50 years brought to a new theoretical insight, namely that the achievement of a native competence in Chomskyan sense as an ultimate goal of FLT is impossible and, what is more important, unnecessary. The learner’s competence in current FLT is broadly replaced by the term native-like language proficiency as part of the communicative competence and the best possible stage an average a foreign language learner can achieve.

4. Conclusions It can be summarized that the two principal approaches in FLT mirror the two basic theoretical views about the nature of language. The structural theory of language treating language as a system of elements encoding meaning informed the grammar-translation and audio-lingual methods. The functional theories of language that view language as basic means of communication inspired most of the methods starting from the direct method and ending up with the post-communicative approaches in all their particular variants. It seems there is no enough evidence to isolate a particular “interactive view” in addition to the structural and functional ones as claimed by Richards and Rodgers claim (1982, 2001). According to them the “interactive view” sees language as “a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges” (1982, pp. 153–155). There is no reason to distinguish between interactive and functional as the view that language is used for interaction (oral or written) is an intrinsic part of functional linguistics which sees language as a social semiotic system offering a set of language choices to be used in particular situations (Halliday, 1978, p. 39). The latest developments in FLT, however, raise some questions and opens new discussions. For example, it is interesting that although the focus in modern FLT comes on communication, the teaching of phonetics and phonology as part of the oral production are deferred in most textbooks and classroom practices. The general view of most of the practitioners in the field of FLT nowadays is that unless it hinders the understanding of the message, every pronunciation is acceptable. Spelling, on the other hand is still seen as part of the learner’s writing proficiency which somehow contradicts the principles of achieving native-like competence having in mind the level of literacy of a great number of the native-speakers of English (see for example the statistics about USA and UK, respectively, available online at: http://www.bartonreading.com/literacystats.pdf; https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-grammar-punctuation-and-spelling-test-will-raise-childrens-literacy-st andards). The question that logically arises is: what portion of the communicative competence present pronunciation and spelling? An important problem that also needs addressing is the obvious discrepancy between teaching and testing. Communicative teaching would logically imply testing learners’ communicative competencies. However, this does not seem to be the case in most tests which are generally focused on testing grammar and vocabulary hidden behind reading and listening comprehension tasks. When writing is concerned it still seems that the lack of appropriate grammar and vocabulary in a written piece tend to be more important for the assessors in the

787


evaluation process even when the message is successfully passed across. Of course, these observations are quite general and should be a subject of a further exploration. In conclusion it can be assumed that the eclectics in nowadays FLT results from the pragmatic attitudes of teachers and teacher-trainers to the teaching-learning process. The lack of a dominant linguistic or learning theory opens the possibility for them to use all good practices from all FLT methods that proved to be efficient in the years. In my opinion it is a question of time the set of working practices based on experience and observations to be summed up in order to establish effective principles in FLT that will be more efficient than any particular method based on a particular theory. Thus theory and practice in modern FLT seem to go hand in hand and reinforce each other’s development.

References Archibald J. (1997). “Second language acquisition”, in: Contemporary Linguistics, London & New York: Longman, pp. 503–539. Comenius Jan Amos (1629). “Janua Linguarum Reserata”, retrieved 1 July 2014, available online at: https://archive.org/stream/jacomeniiianuali00come#page/n1/mode/2up. Comenius Jan Amos (1657). “Didactica Magna”, retrieved 1 July 2014, available online at: https://archive.org/stream/cu31924031053709#page/n15/mode/2up. Chomsky N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Encyclopedia Britannica (1911). Vol. 6, retrieved 25 June 2014, available online at: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Comenius,_Johann_Amos. Halliday M. A. K. (1978). Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning, Maryland. University Park Press. Hymes D. H. (1966). “Two types of linguistic relativity”, in: Bright W. (Ed.), Sociolinguistics, The Hague: Mouton, pp. 114–158. Hymes D. H. (1972). “On communicative competence”, in: Pride J. B. & Holmes J., Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings, Harmondsworth: Penguin, pp. 269–293. Krashen S. and Terrell T. (1995). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom, Prentice Hall Europe. Kumpera J. (1992). Jan Amos Komenský, poutník na rozhraní věků, Prague. Levy M. (1977). CALL: Context and Conceptualization, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Maljers A., Marsh D., Wolff D., Genesee F., Frigols-Martín M. and Mehisto P. (2010). Based on Marsh, D. & Wolff D. (Eds.) (2007), Diverse Contexts — Converging Goals: CLIL in Europe, Peter Lang: Frankfurt. Meddings L. and S. Thornbury (2009). Teaching Unplugged: Dogme in English Language Teaching, Peaslake UK: Delta. Palacký F. (1929). Život Jana Amose Komenského. Prague. Richards J. C. and Rodgers T. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. Richards J. C. and Rodgers T. (1982). “Method: Approach, design and procedure”, TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 153–168. Staker H. and Horn M. (2012). “Classifying K-12: Blended learning”, Innosight Institute, retrieved 23 June 2014, available online at: http://www.innosightinstitute.org/innosight/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Classifying-K-12-blended-learning2.pdf. Thornbury S. (2000). “A dogma for EFL”, in: IATEFL Issues, Vol. 153, Feb.–Mar., retrieved 23 June 2014, available online at: http://nebula.wsimg.com/fa3dc70521483b645f4b932209f9db17?AccessKeyId=186A535D1BA4FC995A73&disposition=0&all oworigin=1. http://www.englishclub.com/learn-english/language-skills.htm. http://www.bartonreading.com/literacystats.pdf. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-grammar-punctuation-and-spelling-test-will-raise-childrens-literacy-standards.

788


Chinese as Second Language Learners’ Beliefs about Vocabulary Acquisition Shuyi Yang  (College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Iowa, USA)

Abstract: This study examined L2 Chinese learners' beliefs about vocabulary acquisition. 59 participants provided their views in a 5-point-scale Beliefs about Chinese Vocabulary Acquisition Inventory. Semi-structured interviews with 6 participants were also conducted. Results showed that most learners believed that it is essential to know the pronunciation of words and that repetitive practice would be helpful. They also agreed that word pronunciation fails to provide useful information to assist in retaining and retrieving meaning, implying the indirect phoneme-meaning relationship in Chinese words. In terms of the characters in words, learners attached importance to character learning and preferred writing drills to structure analysis. Regarding word meaning and vocabulary size, most participants tended to adopt learning strategies of communicative nature. Pedagogical recommendations were that instructors should be aware of learners’ different beliefs, design various communicative activities, and introduce effective learning strategies. Key words: learner beliefs about vocabulary acquisition, Chinese Character Zone and Non Chinese Character Zone, L2 proficiency

1. Introduction All L2 learners hold certain views about how to learn a language. These views are referred to as beliefs of language learners. Issues of language learner beliefs have increasingly attracted attention from SLA scholars. However, studies of learner beliefs usually focus on general views about language learning. Research of learner beliefs about vocabulary acquisition still remains sparse. In this article, I will review the studies of learner belief, and report findings of a study that investigated Chinese L2 learners’ beliefs about vocabulary acquisition.

2. Beliefs about Second Language Vocabulary Learning 2.1 Beliefs about Second Language Learning Horwitz (1987) is the first scholar to explore learner belief. She created Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory which contains five categories: language aptitude, difficulty of language learning, nature of language learning, learning and communication strategy, and motivation. The inventory becomes the most commonly used scale for learner belief research. Many researchers found that socio-cultural context plays an important role in the shape of learner belief. For example, Tumposky (1991) compared L2 learning beliefs of formal Soviet Union and US students and concluded

Shuyi Yang, Ph.D. Student, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Iowa; research areas/interests: L2 vocabulary acquisition and L2 reading. E-mail: [email protected]. 789

Chinese as Second Language Learners’ Beliefs about Vocabulary Acquisition

that learners from multi-language contexts differed in some aspects of belief (e.g., motivation) from those from contexts where a single language dominated. Yang (1993) and Truitt (1995) examined English learning beliefs of Taiwanese and Korean students and found differences between these two groups of learners. Having compared Austrian and Japanese EFL learners, Mercer & Ryan (2010) reported that they held different beliefs specifically about the role of effort. Japanese EFL learners tended to more recognize the value of hard work in the success of L2 acquisition. Chang (2008) investigated beliefs of Chinese L2 learners from Chinese Character Zone (including countries which used or are still using Chinese characters in languages) and Non Chinese Character Zone. Results showed that learners from Non Chinese Character Zone were more optimistic and more likely to emphasize the role of L2 environment and communication strategies. Learners from Chinese Character Zone, meanwhile, were less likely to accept drill as an effective strategy and more likely to recognize the importance of culture in L2 learning. 2.2 Beliefs about Second Language Vocabulary Learning Following Horwitz (1987), most studies provided general description of learner beliefs without exploring further into beliefs about subsystems of the language such as vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics. There have been few studies of vocabulary learning belief so far. Some scholars examined the relationship between vocabulary learning belief and strategies. Results of these studies were inconclusive. On the one hand, some findings suggested that learners would adopt certain strategies based on their beliefs (Wen & Wang, 1996; Mori, 2002; Jiang, 2005). On the other hand, however, other studies revealed that learners’ beliefs and strategies were often inconsistent, that learners might actually use a strategy that they believed ineffective (Hang & Li, 2002). Some researchers focused their attention on certain specific vocabulary learning beliefs. For example, Wang (1998) explored vocabulary memorization beliefs of Chinese-speaking learners of L2 English and found that learners held negative attitude towards natural acquisition and supported rote memorization. Li (2004) investigated L1 Chinese L2 English college students' beliefs about rote strategies of vocabulary learning. Results revealed that learners regarded rote strategies as effective rather than mechanic and passive in common sense. Reflecting on her study of vocabulary learning beliefs of Chinese L2 learners from Japan, South Korea and Europe and America, Yan (2004) demonstrated that L1 Japanese learners were most likely to accept strategies of relying on contexts to acquire word meaning; L1 Korean learners tended to apply new words to communication; L1 European and American learners were the most strongest against rote memorization. As mentioned above, there still remains a lack of attention to learners' beliefs about vocabulary learning, especially for those who learn Chinese as L2. Previous literature has shown that L1 background has affected learner beliefs. Thus it is logical to speculate that learners of Chinese Character Zone could be different in some aspects of vocabulary learning beliefs from those of Non Chinese Character Zone given the unique Chinese orthography. Moreover, it is undeniable that L2 proficiency plays a role in learner belief. Learners of different L2 levels might hold different views regarding language learning, and more specifically, vocabulary learning. This study attempts to explore the following questions: (a) What are the beliefs about vocabulary learning among Chinese as second language learners? (b) What are the differences in beliefs between learners from Chinese Character Zone and those from Non Chinese Character Zone? (c) What are the differences in beliefs between low and high proficiency learners?

790


3. Method 3.1 Participants 59 Chinese as second language learners from Beijing Language and Culture University and Tsinghua University participated in this study. Among them there were 29 learners from Chinese Character Zone (13 males and 16 females, average age: 26) and 30 learners from Non Chinese Character Zone (15 males and 15 females, average age: 25). Chinese Character Zone in the present study covers the area where Chinese characters were once or are still used, including Japan, South Korea, and some Southeast Asian countries. Learners’ L2 proficiency was defined based on the learning time. Learners who had learned Chinese less than 960 lesson hours were identified as low level learners and those who have more than 960 lesson hours of Chinese learning were classified as high level learners (See Table 1). Table 1 L2 Proficiency

L1 Background

Low: 13

Chinese Character Zone

High: 16 Low: 16

Non Chinese Character Zone

High: 14

Participant Basic Information Gender Age Nationality Male: 6 Female: 7 Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, Vietnam, 26 Thailand Male: 7 Female: 9 Male: 8 Britain, US, Australia, France, Italy, Russia, Female: 8 25 Spain, Brazil, Kenya, Mongolia, Serbia, Male: 7 Kazakhstan, Tajikistan Female: 7

3.2 Instruments A background questionnaire and a self-made Belief about Vocabulary Learning Inventory were adopted in this study. The background questionnaire contains participant information of nationality, L1 background, age, gender, Chinese learning time, and weekly Chinese lessons. There are four main sections in the Belief about Vocabulary Learning Inventory (See Appendix): pronunciation (6 items), character (5 items), meaning (12 items), and vocabulary size (5 items). Pronunciation section mainly discusses the phonetic elements of word learning. Character section covers statements regarding the recognition and production of Chinese characters that constitute the word (Jiang & Zhao, 2002). Meaning section focuses on the acquisition of the lexical meaning (Oxford, 1990). Vocabulary size section emphasizes the width of vocabulary knowledge (Wen & Wang, 1996). Each section is further divided into two categories: attitude and learning strategy. The attitude part aims to elicit participants’ opinions about the status of each four section in vocabulary learning while the learning strategy part is designed to obtain participants’ views about the effectiveness of different strategies. The examples were listed in Table 2. Table 2

Pronunciation Character Meaning Vocabulary Size

Examples of Items in Belief about Vocabulary Learning Inventory

Attitude To learn vocabulary, it is important to know the pronunciation of the word To learn vocabulary, you don't need to learn to write the characters The learning of meaning is a very important part in vocabulary learning It is important to enlarge vocabulary

Learning Strategy If you always listen to Chinese radio or watch Chinese movies, you will pronounce words correctly Repeatedly copying words is a good way to learn vocabulary Guessing the meaning from the context is a good way to learn vocabulary Talking with Chinese friends is a good way to enlarge vocabulary

A five-point Likert scale was employed to gather participants’ responses to each statement. 1 refers to strong

791


agreement and 5 refers to strong disagreement. Participants were asked to read each statement and choose a number that tells how true the statement is in terms of what they actually think about Chinese vocabulary learning. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted for 6 participants (from 59 participants). The information of the participants for interviews could be seen in Table 3. Table 3 Participants for Semi-Structured Interviews Low Proficiency 1 (South Korea) 1 (Kenya)

Chinese Character Zone Non Chinese Character Zone

High Proficiency 3 (Japan, South Korea) 1 (Spain)

The protocol of the interviews follows two main lines: about the Inventory and about some critical incidents. Participants were first asked to explain their options of certain statements in the Inventory or give some more detailed information of certain beliefs. Then they were required to describe the greatest success and the biggest challenge in their Chinese vocabulary learning. The examples of interview questions were listed in Table 4. Table 4

Examples of Items in Semi-Structured Interviews

Why About Inventory Critical Incidents

How Success Challenge

Why did you choose strongly agree for this item? Are there any other strategies that you used? How did you enlarge your vocabulary? What is your most successful experience in learning Chinese vocabulary? What is the biggest challenge for your Chinese vocabulary learning?

4. Results 4.1 Overall Beliefs about Vocabulary Learning The percentage of agreement (including 1 Strong Agreement and 2 Moderate Agreement) was calculated for each statement. Table 5 Attitude

Learning Strategy

Percentage of Agreement for Each Statement in Pronunciation Section Knowing the pronunciation is important Accurate pronunciation is important Pronunciation helps meaning and writing Listen to tape Listen to radio and movies Read aloud

84.7% 81.4% 40.7% 57.6% 54.2% 78%

According to Table 5, a majority of participants recognized the importance of pronunciation in vocabulary learning. However, less than half of these learners realized that the acquisition of pronunciation was facilitative to the learning of lexical meaning as well as the memorization of the characters. The lack of the recognition of the direct script-phoneme and phoneme-meaning relationship in Chinese was further confirmed by the interviews. Several interviewees mentioned that there was no connection between pronunciation and semantic or morphological part of a word. I saw a word and couldn’t know the pronunciation. Knowing pronunciation not equal knowing the meaning. [Japan, high proficiency] Pronunciation, meaning, and scripts are separate. [Kenya, low proficiency] As for the strategies of learning pronunciation, most participants believed that reading aloud was very helpful. 792


More than half of the participants also agreed that listening to the tape, radio, and movies would have positive effect on their pronunciation learning. That learners attached importance to both speaking and listening in pronunciation practice was also displayed in the interviews. It is important to listen to the pronunciation of Chinese people. [South Korea, low proficiency] Talk with Chinese friends, and see some short videos because the videos are in Chinese and with subtitles. [Kenya, low proficiency] It worth noticing that one high proficiency interviewee, surprisingly enough, claimed that he didn't practice pronunciation. For him, knowing the rules of how to pronounce a word was sufficient for accurate pronunciation. His pronunciation of Chinese was indeed very accurate, which worth further exploration on his beliefs and actual learning activities. Actually I didn’t practice pronunciation. I would learn the rule of pronunciation. [Spain, high proficiency] Table 6 Percentage of Agreement for Each Statement in Character Section Attitude Learning Strategy

Knowing the character is important Only knowing the pinyin is enough Repeatedly copy Analyze structures of characters

55.5% 35.6% 67.8% 47.5%

As seen from Table 6, a large number of learners admitted that knowing and learning the characters in Chinese words was very important. For example, a low proficiency L1 Korean learner mentioned the benefits of knowing how to read and write Chinese characters. However, there were also learners who believed that reading and writing a word was less important than speaking. If I can read and write characters, I can read the notices and ads. I can do my homework.[South Korea, low proficiency] The most important is the speaking, to know how to say a word. [Spain, high proficiency] Table 6 also indicated that most participants preferred to repeatedly copying characters and only a few learners considered the structure analysis as an effective strategy. Such tendency was also detected in the interviews. Almost all interviewees were convinced that the writing drill enhanced memorization and acquisition. Only one high proficiency learner expressed her agreement to the effectiveness of structure analysis. Just copy, then I know how to write it. [South Korea, low proficiency] I can remember it only after I’ve copied it repeatedly. [Kenya, low proficiency] I’ll see the structure of the character, and practice it without looking at it. [South Korea, high proficiency] Table 7 Percentage of Agreement for Each Statement in Meaning Section

Attitude

Learning Strategy

Learning vocabulary is learning the meaning Knowing collocation is important Learning L2 words is knowing L1 equivalents Knowing culture is important Take notes Read magazines and newspapers Memorize Guess from context Look up dictionary Make sentences Write compositions

77.1% 67.8% 40.7% 45.7% 64.4% 72.9% 27.3% 50.8% 50.8% 83.1% 79.7%

793


As shown in Table 7, the vast majority of participants recognized the importance of semantic acquisition and a great many of them also believed that learning L2 vocabulary was much more than just memorizing their L1 equivalents. As one high proficiency learner claimed in the interview, there was no one-to-one mapping between L1 and L2 words. On the other hand, the function of L1 equivalents as the cognitive hook was still accepted by some learners. There seldom are total equivalents between 2 languages. It is really wrong to find the L1 equivalents. [South Korea, high proficiency] I’ll try to find how to say it in Spanish. Sometimes the translations are not the same, but it still helps me to remember. [Spain, high proficiency] In terms of the role of culture in vocabulary learning, only a few learners believed that cultural information should be paid attention to and those who valued the role of culture were mainly from Chinese Character Zone. The limited benefits of knowing the culture only emerged when learners acquired idioms or fixed expressions. If I don’t know Chinese culture, I cannot understand some words. [Japan, high proficiency] It is only required to know the culture when learning some idioms. [Kenya, low proficiency] It is notable that strategies concerning reading and writing were often considered as facilitative for semantic learning. Using newly learned words to create sentences and write compositions was the most widely accepted strategy among the participants. The productive activity was believed beneficial for both the consolidation of the new vocabulary and the discovery of possible errors according to the interview. While for some low proficiency learners, vocabulary production at sentence and paragraph level seemed beyond their current ability. It helps me to find my mistakes. Makes me think more. [South Korea, high proficiency] It is burdensome. [South Korea, low proficiency] Taking notes in L2 is another type of productive vocabulary exercise. Although quite a few participants mentioned the advantages of taking notes in L2, interviewees held different opinions regarding the selection of language for note taking. Some learners supported using L2 to take notes, to avoid the translation process and to build a direct representation in L2. The unique nature of its orthography, however, presents a grave challenge for learners, especially those from Non Chinese Character Zone, to write down the notes in Chinese. If I use L1 to take notes, there is a translation process. It takes long time and the habit is not good for L2 learning. [Japan, high proficiency] Using Chinese to take notes is too hard. [Kenya, low proficiency] Reading L2 magazines and newspapers was also believed to enhance the semantic acquisition. The benefits argued by the participants included the incidental acquisition of new words, deeper processing of word meaning in context, and learning of formal written words. It has been pointed out, however, that acquisition through extensive reading is often time-consuming and sometimes might cause inaccurate comprehension. I can learn many new, commonly used words. [Japan, high proficiency] I can remember the meaning better because there is a rich context. [Japan, low proficiency] It helps a lot in written words. [South Korea, high proficiency] It is slow, sometimes the understanding is not accurate. [Kenya, low proficiency] There were about half of the participants agreed on the effectiveness of guessing meaning from the context and the other half preferred looking up dictionary for meaning. The former enjoyed the advantages such as fast reading speed and the latter was the guarantee for accurate understanding. I’ve learned it (guessing from the context) from my teacher. It is good for fast reading. [Japan, high proficiency] 794


It (looking up dictionary) is good for accurate understanding of the meaning. [Spain, high proficiency] Table 8 Percentage of Agreement for Each Statement in Vocabulary Size Section Attitude

Learning Strategy

Expanding vocabulary size is important

88.1%

Good memory is important to enlarge vocabulary size

55.9%

Read

74.6%

Memorize dictionary

33.9%

Talk with native speakers

86.4%

Create word network

76.3%

It could be found in Table 8 that, most participants agreed on the value of expanding their vocabulary size. And good memory was only one of the factors that influence the rate and result of vocabulary expansion. A majority of learners believed that communicating with L1 speakers, connecting words with each other, and reading would improve the width of vocabulary. Memorizing dictionary, considered as hard, boring, and motive-killing, was far less popular. My Chinese friend will say the word for me if I cannot. I can learn new words that he always uses. [South Korea, high proficiency] When I talk with my Chinese friends, I can remember what I’ve learned in class. [Kenya, low proficiency] It helps me remember more words and also consolidated the learned words when I built a word system. [Spain, high proficiency] I can learn a lot of new words. [Japan, high proficiency] It is so boring to memorize a dictionary. It is hard to keep doing it. [Japan, low proficiency] 4.2 Differences in Beliefs between Learners from Chinese Character Zone and Non Chinese Character Zone Table 9 Percentage of Agreement for the Four Statements of Significant Difference Chinese Character Zone

Non Chinese Character Zone

Listen to radio and movies

54.2%

24.8%

Read aloud

68%

20.2%

Only knowing the pinyin is enough

17%

64.4%

Only recognizing characters is enough

27.1%

59.3%

A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted for each item, with L1 background (Chinese Character Zone vs. Non Chinese Character Zone) and L2 proficiency (low vs. high) as between-subject factors. Results showed that there was a significant main effect of L1 background in four items. Learners from Chinese Character Zone were more likely to recognize the effectiveness of listening to radio and movies in learning pronunciation than their Non Chinese Character Zone counterparts, F(1,55) = 10.048, p = 0.006. Chinese Character Zone learners more preferred reading aloud as a good way to practice pronunciation than those from Non Chinese Character Zone, F(1,55) = 12.627, p = 0.003. It is more likely for Non Chinese Character Zone learners to believe that only knowing pinyin is enough than Chinese Character Zone learners, F(1,55) = 8.428, p = 0.022. Finally, Non Chinese Character Zone participants more agreed that only recognizing characters is sufficient than Chinese Character Zone learners, F(1,55) = 7.330, p = 0.041. The differences between Chinese Character Zone and Non Chinese Character Zone learners were further

795


analyzed in interviews through the investigation of learners’ critical incidents. The most evident difference between learners from the two areas was concerning the character learning. Character learning was the most successful experience for Chinese Character Zone learners while the biggest challenge for Non Chinese Character Zone learners. We are better in Chinese characters than European and American students. Sometimes there are similar characters in Korean. [South Korea, high proficiency] For me, Chinese characters are easy. [Japan, high proficiency] Writing is really difficult because of Chinese characters. [Kenya, low proficiency] Other challenges faced by Chinese Character Zone learners included the learning and using of words with more than one meaning and collocations. And Non Chinese Character Zone learners often performed well in understanding and producing new words as well as making word lists. Sometimes it is difficult to learn the collocations. [Japan, high proficiency] This word has a meaning here and another meaning there. It is the most difficult. [South Korea, high proficiency] I have a good ability to generalize things. I can make various word lists, which helps me remember more. [Spain, high proficiency] I can listen and speak new words. [Kenya, low proficiency] 4.3 Differences in Beliefs between Low and High Proficiency Learners Table 10 Percentage of Agreement for the Statement of Significant Difference Repeated encounters in context

Low Proficiency

High Proficiency

11.9%

62.8%

The two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with L1 background (Chinese Character Zone vs. Non Chinese Character Zone) and L2 proficiency (low vs. high) as between-subject factors, yielded a significant main effect of L2 proficiency in one item. It is more likely for advanced learners to believe in the incidental acquisition of vocabulary through repeated encounters in context than low level learners, F(1,55) = 4.066, p = 0.034. There was no significant interaction between L1 background and L2 proficiency in any item.

5. Discussion 5.1 Overall Beliefs about Vocabulary Learning Results of this study showed that most learners believed that learning and practicing pronunciation is important for vocabulary acquisition and reading aloud is a good strategy. There is, however, a lack of awareness of the script-phoneme and phoneme-meaning relationship in Chinese words due to its unique orthography. There have been two main views about the role of phonology on the retrieval of meaning in Chinese word processing. One is that the activation of phoneme is the prerequisite for the access of grapheme with phoneme as the vehicle connecting the script and meaning (Zhang & Shu, 1989; Tan & Peng, 1991; Perfetti & Zhang, 1991, 1995). Another opinion is that there is a direct access from script to meaning without the activation of phoneme (Leck et al., 1995; Chen et al., 1995; Zhou, 1997). The findings of this study suggested that, at least in L2 learners’ opinion, phonology doesn’t play a role in accessing the meaning although they might actually use the phonetic information during the word processing.

796


In terms of character learning, a large number of learners recognized the importance of Chinese characters. Repeatedly copying characters is considered as assistant in learning and memorizing. Although research has demonstrated that the writing drill was less efficient (Liu & Jiang, 2003), participants in this study still held that it was a preferable method to practice Chinese characters, which could be explained by its disproportionately frequent use in the classroom. As for the semantic aspect, many participants emphasized its essential status in vocabulary learning. Many participants also mentioned the limited role of L1 equivalents. It has been widely accepted that L1 word knowledge plays a significant part in L2 vocabulary acquisition. L2 learners, especially those at early stage of learning, tend to attach new L2 words to already existing L1 conceptual representation (Jiang, 2004). According to the three-stage model of L2 vocabulary acquisition proposed by Jiang (2000), learners at the first lexical association stage and the second L1 lemma mediation stage internalize L2 words through L1 equivalents. Learners at the third full development stage can extract information of L2 words from exposure without the medium of L1 translation. Participants in this study have realized that the representation of L2 words should be ultimately established through L2, although L1 facilitated the integration at the early stage. Regarding the expansion of vocabulary size, the majority of learners preferred focus-on-meaning communicativeness-oriented activities such as reading magazines and newspaper, talking with L1 speakers, and watching videos and movies. Distinct from focus-on-form approach, focus-on-meaning activities allow learners to implicitly acquire L2 through meaningful exposure (Schwartz, 1993; Schwartz & Gubala-Ryzak, 1992). In addition, learners would experience deeper processing with the assistance of rich context and thus integrate the words better and faster into their interlanguage. 5.2 Differences in Beliefs between Learners from Chinese Character Zone and Non Chinese Character Zone Results of this study revealed that learners from Chinese Character Zone were more likely to recognize the benefits of listening to radio and movie on the development of accurate pronunciation than their Non Chinese Character Zone counterparts. A possible reason is that learners from Chinese Character Zone can better use subtitles of radio and movies. With the prior character experience, Chinese Character Zone learners can make a fuller use of the subtitles to quickly understand the content and therefore have more cognitive resource distributed to the pronunciation. On the contrary, it is hard for Non Chinese Character Zone learners to experience the effect of listening to radio and movies since they spend most of their attention on the content understanding due to the challenge of recognizing subtitles. It is also more possible for Chinese Character Zone learners to consider reading aloud as a good practice of pronunciation. The preference to this activity might be explained by the traditional emphasis on practice in Asian culture. In addition, reading aloud has been a traditional classroom activity in Asian countries. The higher familiarity might lead to higher degree of agreement on its effect. On the other hand, participants from Non Chinese Character Zone more tended to agree that only knowing the pinyin is sufficient for vocabulary learning. The more emphasis on the role of pinyin might be explained by their less familiarity to Chinese characters and the similarity between pinyin and their own orthography. As a phonetic symbol, pinyin shares the alphabets and linear arrangement with alphabetic writing system adopted by the L1s of Non Chinese Character Zone learners. Therefore, it is much easier to accept pinyin for those learners. Furthermore, the fact that pinyin could be used, to some degree, for expression enables Non Chinese Character

797


Zone learners to believe that it is enough to just know the pinyin. Furthermore, Non Chinese Character Zone participants were more likely to believe that only recognizing characters without producing them is acceptable. It might be explained by the different degrees of difficulty in recognition and production. Recognition requires learners to search the corresponding phoneme and semantic information based on the script. In many cases, a broad outline of characters could be sufficient for accurate recognition. Production, by contrast, involves a process of retrieving the detailed information of the script from the mental lexicon and turning the cognitive representation into a concrete one through some motor activities. Production is more difficult than recognition because of its higher demand on the reproducing of the detailed information (Jiang, 2003). Thus, for those without previous Chinese character experience, production seems beyond their ability and recognition is a more realizable task. 5.3 Differences in Beliefs between Low and High Proficiency Learners As indicated in this study, it is more possible for high proficiency learners to realize the benefits of repeated encounters of words in context. Reflecting on his research on the incidental vocabulary acquisition of Japanese-speaking learners of Chinese, Qian (2004) reported a positive correlation between incidental vocabulary acquisition and L2 proficiency. The higher L2 proficiency has a learner, the more likely he or she is to know the meaning of a novel word after repeatedly encountering it in different contexts. The higher efficiency in incidental acquisition among advanced learners could explain their much stronger belief in the effect of this activity.

6. Conclusion Findings of this study suggested that most Chinese as L2 learners believed that it is essential to know the pronunciation of words and that repetitive practice would be useful. They also agreed that the phonetic elements fail to provide useful information to assist in retaining and retrieving meaning, implying the indirect phoneme-meaning relationship in Chinese words. In terms of the characters in words, learners recognized the value of character learning and preferred writing drills to structure analysis. Regarding word meaning and vocabulary size, most participants tended to adopt communicative and meaningful learning strategies. Some pedagogical implications were made. In the learning of pronunciation, instructors should encourage activities such as listening to radios and movies and raise the awareness of the phoneme-meaning relationship in Chinese. For characters learning, instructors need to help learners from Non Chinese Character Zone to overcome the fear and promote the application of structure analysis. During the instruction of lexical meaning, L1 equivalents can be used with caution and the role of culture should be emphasized. Furthermore, instructors should provide students with more opportunity to use vocabulary in real world to expand their vocabulary size. References Chang J. (2008). “A research on Chinese as foreign language learners’ beliefs of language learning”, MA thesis, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China. Chen H. C., Cheung S. L. and Flores d’ Arcais G. B. (1995). “Orthographic and phonological Activation in recognition in recognizing Chinese characters”, Psychological Research, Vol. 58, pp. 144–153. Hang J. and Li R. F. (2002). “An investigation of Tsinghua University freshmen’s beliefs and strategies of vocabulary learning”, Research on Education Tsinghua University, Vol. 1, pp. 107–113. Horwitz E. K. (1987). “Surveying student beliefs about language learning”, in: A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learning Strategies in Language Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, pp. 119–129. Jiang N. (2000). “Lexical development and representation in a second language”, Applied Linguistics, Vol. 21, pp. 47–77.

798

Chinese as Second Language Learners’ Beliefs about Vocabulary Acquisition Jiang N. (2004). “Semantic transfer and its implications for vocabulary teaching in a second language”, The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 88, pp. 416–432. Jiang X. (2003). “An experimental study on the effect of the method of teaching the learner to recognize characters more than writing”, Chinese Teaching in the World, Vol. 2, pp. 91–97. Jiang X. and Zhao G. (2001). “A survey on the strategies for learning Chinese characters among CSL beginners”, Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, Vol. 4, pp. 10-17. Jiang Y. (2005). “A research on English major students’ beliefs and strategies of vocabulary learning”, MA thesis, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China. Leck K. J., Weekes B. S. and Chen M. J. (1995). “Visual and phonological pathways to the lexicon: Evidence from Chinese readers”, Memory & Cognition, Vol. 23, pp. 446–476. Li X. (2004). “An analysis of Chinese EFL learners’ beliefs about the role of rote learning in vocabulary learning strategies”, A Thesis Submitted in Fulfillment of the Requirements of the University of Sunderland for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Liu Y. M. and Jiang X. (2003). “An experimental study on the methods of Chinese character learning by European and American learners”, Chinese Teaching in the World, Vol. 1, pp. 59–67. Mercer S. and Ryan S. (2010). “A mindset for EFL: learners’ beliefs about the role of natural talent”, ELT Journal, Vol. 64, pp. 436–444. Mori Y. (2002). “Individual differences in the integration of information from context and word parts in interpreting unknown kanji words”, Applied Psycholinguistics, Vol. 23, pp. 375–397. Oxford R. L. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know, Boston: Newbury House. Perfetti C. A. and Zhang S. (1995). “Very early phonological activation in Chinese reading”, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, Vol. 21, pp. 24–33. Qian X. J. (2004). “A research on incidental vocabulary acquisition in Chinese reading”, in: L. Jianming (Ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on International Chinese Instruction, Beijing: Peking University Press, pp. 548–558. Schwartz B. D. (1993). “On explicit and negative data affecting competence and linguistic behavior”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Vol. 15, pp. 147–163. Schwartz B. D. and Gubala-Ryzak M. (1992). “Learnability and grammar reorganization in L2: Against negative evidence causing the unlearning of verb movement”, Second Language Research, Vol. 8, pp. 1–38. Tan L. H. and Peng D. L. (1991). “Visual recognition processes of Chinese characters: A research to the effect of grapheme and phoneme”, Acta Psychologica Sinica, Vol. 3, pp. 272–278. Truitt S. (1995). “Anxiety and beliefs about language learning: A study of Korean University students learning English”, Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences. Tumposky N. R. (1991). “Student beliefs about language learning: A cross-culture study”, Carleton Papers in Applied Language Studies, Vol. 8, pp. 50–65. Ottawa, Canada. Center for Applied Language Studies, Carleton. Wang W. Y. (1998). “Beliefs, strategies, and memorization of English vocabulary”, Foreign Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 3, pp. 47–52. Wen Q. F. and Wang H. X. (1996). “An analysis of college students’ beliefs and strategies of English learning”, Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages, Vol. 4, pp. 61–66. Yan S. H. (2004). “A research on Chinese as foreign language learners’ vocabulary learning strategies”, MA thesis, Beijing Language and Culture University, Beijing, China. Yang N. (1993). “Understanding Chinese students’ language beliefs and learning strategy use”, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of TESOL, Atlanta, GA. Zhang H. C. and Shu H. (1989). “Phonetic similar and graphic similar priming effects in pronouncing Chinese characters”, Acta Psychologica Sinica, Vol. 3, pp. 284–289. Zhou X. L. (1997). “The limited role of phonology in semantic activation”, in: P. Danling (Ed.), Chinese Cognition Studies, Shandong: Shandong Education Press, pp. 159–194.

799


Appendix The Belief about Vocabulary Learning Inventory This part is for understanding students’ backgrounds, all the information you offer is only for our research studies. Gender Nationality Age Native Language Years of learning Chinese How many classes in a week Directions The Belief about Vocabulary Learning Inventory is designed to assess students’ opinions on a variety of issue and controversies related to vocabulary learning. On the following pages you will find statements related to your opinions on vocabulary learning. Please read each statement and mark the response (1, 2, 3, 4 or 5) that tells how true the statement is in terms of what you actually think about vocabulary learning. 1----------strongly agree 2----------agree 3----------neither agree nor disagree 4----------disagree 5----------strongly disagree strongly agree strongly disagree 1. To learn vocabulary, it is important to know the pronunciation of word. 1 2 3 4 5 2. To learn vocabulary, it is important to pronounce word correctly. 1 2 3 4 5 3 Frequently listening to the Chinese tape doesn’t help you to know the pronunciation of word 1 2 3 4 5 and pronounce word correctly. 4 If you always listen to the Chinese radio or watch the Chinese movies, 1 2 3 4 5 you will pronounce word correctly. 5 Repeatedly reading words aloud is a good way to learn vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 6 The pronunciation can help you remember the meaning and way of writing. 1 2 3 4 5 7 To learn vocabulary, it is not important to know how to write the Chinese characters. 1 2 3 4 5 8 To learn vocabulary, you can only learn to write Chinese phonetic alphabet. 1 2 3 4 5 9 To learn vocabulary, you don’t need to learn to write the characters. 1 2 3 4 5 It is enough to just recognize the word. 10 Repeatedly copying words is a good way to learn vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 11 Analyzing the structure and elements of Chinese character and then writing from memory 1 2 3 4 5 is a good way to learn vocabulary. 12 Making notes in Chinese in class is a good way to learn vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 13 Often reading Chinese magazines and newspaper is a good way to learn vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 14 To learn vocabulary is to learn the meaning of words. 1 2 3 4 5 15 The learning of meaning is a very important part in vocabulary learning. 1 2 3 4 5 16 Reciting lists of words or dictionary is not a good way to learn vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 17 Guessing the meaning from the context is a good way to learn vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 18 If you encounter the same word in different contexts, you will know the meaning of the word. 1 2 3 4 5 19 If you find a word that you don’t know, you should immediately look up in a dictionary. 1 2 3 4 5 20 You should pay attention to the phrases and fixed structures when learning vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 21 You don’t need to know Chinese culture when learning vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 22 Making sentences is a good way to learn vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 23 To learn the meaning of a word is to understand its equivalent in your native language. 1 2 3 4 5 24 Using words that you have learned to write compositions is helpful for vocabulary learning. 1 2 3 4 5 25 It is important to enlarge vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 26 Reading is not a good way to enlarge vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5 27 Reciting a dictionary is a good way to enlarge vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5

800

Chinese as Second Language Learners’ Beliefs about Vocabulary Acquisition 28 If you have a good memory, you can enlarge vocabulary. 29 Talking with Chinese friends is a good way to enlarge vocabulary. 30 Summing up a group of synonyms is a good way to enlarge vocabulary.

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

801


Motivating Secondary School Students to Learn Languages with Relevant Media — PopuLLar Figen Yılmaz, Meral Şeker  (School of Foreign Languages, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey)

Abstract: Maintaining motivation among students in secondary schools has been one of the biggest challenges. When considering the EU mother-tongue-plus-two-strategy accepted in 2002, the huge need to motivate secondary school students to learn languages becomes even more important. Studies show that motivation to learn depends on the extent to which teachers are able to satisfy students’ needs: to feel in control of their learning (Zimmerman, 1998); to feel they are learning something which is relevant to their lives (Biggs, 1995); to feel connected with others (Deci & Ryan, 1991); and to feel the activities they are doing are interesting and fun (McCombs, 1994). The EU funded PopuLLar Project, described in this paper, has opted for songs, videos and interactive activities in order to meet these students’ needs for motivation. Through this project the students will be able to combine their love of music, with creativity, literacy, digital competencies, and group collaboration and, most importantly, use LWULT languages. Key words: foreign language learning, music in language teaching, learner autonomy

1. Introduction As Deci & Ryan (1991) point out knowing how to meet individual learner needs for control, competence, and belonging in the classroom is a key to unlock student motivation to learn. Therefore, it can be assumed that the success in motivating students to learn does not depend on using large amounts of resources and materials but perhaps requires a revised approach to teaching on the teacher´s side. The engine which generates secondary students’ motivation to learn can be basically set to motion by including provisions for relevancy, choice, control, challenge, responsibility, personal connections and fun. The PopuLLar project, an EU funded educational activity, has opted for songs, videos and interactive activities in general, as one of the most popular teenage interests, and as a path leading to wider possibilities of both self-learning and professional growth. Students, working autonomously on the lyrics of the song of their choice, create new lyrics in their mother tongue and the language they study and record their final product on video. Working with popular songs in this way presents something which meets all the above mentioned Figen Yılmaz, Dr, School of Foreign Languages, Çukurova University; research areas/interests: music and language learning, young learners, content language learning, teacher training and teacher efficacy beliefs. E-mail: [email protected]. Meral Seker, Dr, School of Foreign Languages, Çukurova University; research areas/interests: content language learning, young language learners, collaborative learning. E-mail: [email protected].  PopuLLar project (ref.no: 518346-LLp-1-2011-1-UK-COMENIUS-CMP) has been funded with support from the European Commission. This document affects the viewf only of the author and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. 802

Motivating Secondary School Students to Learn Languages with Relevant Media — PopuLLar

requirements for engaging students — songs are something they are interested in, they work independently, and they get into contact with a school in another European country. Thus, collaboration and learner’s autonomy are fostered, social connections are built, and students feel that they are fully in control of the shape of the final outcome. A teacher in this project acts as a guide who supports student’s job and supervises the smooth flow. His students’ and his own horizons broaden with opportunities that such international collaboration brings. PopuLLar is designed to address multiple priorities and key competencies within the LLP:  Create a new, innovative teaching methodology  Motivate students to learn languages  Foster students’ learning to learn key competence  Raise use of technology in education  Provide meaningful opportunities to communicate in foreign languages (focusing on LWULT — Less Widely Used and Less Taught)  Enhance teacher’s and students’ digital competence There are six project partners who brought together their expertise from the fields of secondary education, music and video making to produce an innovative educational activity based on using popular songs lyrics to improve teenagers’ motivation to learn languages:  The Mosaic Art and Sound, Ltd. (Coordinator)  Kindersite, London, UK  Language School with the State Language Exam Rights PELIKAN, Ltd., Brno, Czech Republic  University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain  Opera Bazar, Lucca, Italy  Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey  Kulturrings in Berlin e.V., Berlin, Germany

2. Pedagogic Background 2.1 Teenagers and Music Music is an essential part of human existence. It is a way of how people express their feelings all over the world. It is hard to imagine a culture without it. In the context of education, music is becoming more and more popular subject. Music is a leisure time activity of almost each young person in the world and this is its biggest advantage. Teenagers are overwhelmingly engaged with music, 92% of 14–17 year olds own an MP3 player and they listen to an average of nearly 2.5 hours of music per day (British Music Rights, 2008). Since music is a teen’s relevant issue, utilizing it will motivate and engage the students in an area that is an important part of their lives. 2.2 Music in Foreign Language Teaching One of the most important factors for achieving teaching and learning effectiveness is social harmony among the learners. In a classroom, children often sing together to celebrate birthday, to play games together, to appreciate the feeling of togetherness. Music is also used to soothe the mind, to relax the mind and body. Music enables the learners to be free from pressure and stress. Music is deliberately used to teach language, social and cultural feeling since cultural meanings, inspiration, and worldviews are encoded in songs. In other words, songs

803


tell thousands of human stories. While there is no formal approach of introducing music to language teaching, educators have often reported that songs can be used effectively in foreign language education to support different language skills (Spicher & Sweeney, 2007). Studies using participants´ native languages have shown that under certain conditions, verbal learning and verbatim memory for text can be supported by using a musical learning method (Thaut et al., 2008). In fact, there is a great amount of research confirming increasing tendency of remembering the language thanks to music. Brewer (2004) summarizes these effects of music stating “music stabilizes mental, physical and emotional rhythms to attain a state of deep concentration and focus in which large amounts of content information can be processed and learned”. One of the biggest advantages is that music is all around us. It means that there is nobody who can have no opinion about it. The students’ point of view is maturing with their age and that’s why they want to discuss their favourite genre or artist. Everybody wants to know what their popular artist sings about. There are so many kinds of music so everyone can choose what they prefer. In general it could be said that music is a pleasure close to everybody. Another advantage is its accessibility and simplicity of using it. Teachers can start the activity in the lesson by introducing a task and then lead the entire work through stream, social networks and other tools. It is easy, fun and it attracts students’ attention not only at school but also at home in their leisure time. Actually, music enriches every language lesson and there is a presumption that music can bring closer and friendlier relationship between the students and the teacher. It means that the lessons are enjoyable, gripping, engaging and witty. The combination of fun, rhythm, vocabulary, melody, and the presence of the foreign language aspect causes great progress in learning. In the PopuLLar project, the work with lyrics of a chosen popular song represents a language task students need to complete. This method is based on Task-Based Learning (TBL) approach, which basically refers to language acquisition through solving a problem or doing a task without concentrating on language features. The role of the teacher is providing a suitable environment for facilitating language acquisition and setting a task or problem to solve. Students then work autonomously on performing the task. A deeper language analysis is incorporated after learners have completed their job. The emphasis is placed on reaching a balance between language accuracy, traditionally sought by formal school instruction, and conversational fluency. This way, students will practice in relevant context something they like and feel familiar with — music and lyrics — with a language practice in form of recreated lyrics. 2.3 Teenagers, Multimedia and Foreign Language Learning Modern day technological advancements are constantly seen throughout every aspect of life. Teenagers today are surrounded by cell phones, portable Internet availability, laptop computers, smart phones, iPods, Mp3 players of every brand, and many other devices, and many more. Figures from a recent survey conducted by British Music Rights (2008) reveal interesting findings on the state of digital music in UK. Quite unsurprisingly, the age groups who lead the time spent on listening to music are young adults aged 18–24 with more than 4 hours a day listening to music, and teenagers aged 14–17 who spend on average more than 3 hours listening to music. Although some voices claim all these technological advancement are creating a less interactive generation, technology also has positive impacts on today’s youth, especially in terms of social activity. Internet not only offers an easier way to share information, but also contributes to sociability by providing a way to communicate with distant friends and family. In addition, it gives socially challenged teenagers an opportunity for interaction in

804


any language they choose. The use of multimedia, which refers to the use of audio and video to record a song in PopuLLar, can take integrating music into language learning even further by providing lots of benefits; such as amusement, diversity in class activities, availability, possibility of sharing and collaboration, creating reflecting opportunities, etc. Now that audio recording technology has become very accessible and easy to use, the recordings can be easily uploaded and shared. Audio recordings are a good option if privacy is an issue and the students don’t want to show themselves. Recording music can increase students’ motivation as they will be able to keep a record of what they have developed and share their results. Additionally, they become more competent in the active use of media – supporting visual and media literacy of the learners.

3. How to Use the PopuLLar Project Autonomously In order to be able to implement the methodology developed, the following steps will guide students: Phase 1 – Creating and recording a song Step 1 - Select a song Step 2 - Rewrite the lyrics (native language – the language you speak in your classroom) Step 3 - Translate the lyrics (target language – the language you are learning) Step 4 - Record singing audio & video (both versions of your song) Step 5 - Upload and share Phase 2 – Sharing across Europe Step 1 - Select a song made by other students across Europe Step 2 - Translating (native language) Step 3 - Record singing audio & video Step 4 - Upload and share Although writing lyrics is a complex task, a simplified brief outline of the typical song writing process can help students throughout this process. However, it’s important to remind students that the choices they make along the writing process will determine the result. (1) Selecting a strong music background which evokes some ideas and feelings. (2) Selecting the topic of the song (The choice is theirs. It can be anything from pains of a broken heart, friendship, betray to the last holidays.) (3) A string of thoughts flowing from the initial idea, brainstorming. (4) Noting down the ideas. (5) The development of the lyrics or music by choosing carefully and meaningfully each word. (6) Keeping verses. (7) A revision of the phrasing or order of the music/words, meaning, rhyme and purpose to fit with the music frame. (8) Rewriting necessary parts. (9) Language proofreading of the lyrics. (10) Final accommodation of the lyrics with the music frame. (11) Coming up with a catchy song title.

805


4. Pilot Implementations of PopuLLar across Europe 4.1 Results for Students 4.1.1 Participants and Context The project has been implemented in initial piloting in five different school settings from Turkey, Italy, Czech Republic, Spain and Germany so far. A total of 65 students whose ages range between 14 and 19 participated in the study. The whole group completed all the phases described in the methodology. Prior to and following the implementation, participating students were given a pre and post questionnaire. 4.1.2 Results of the Pilot Implementations for Students Students were given pre-questionnaires to elicit their prior experience about and expectations from the proposed new approach to learning. The results of the student pre-questionnaire show that all students love music of many types varying from pop-rap, R&B, jazz, lounge, rock and blues. They were all aware that music was very important for foreign language learning. Almost all students (97%) stated that they use the internet on a daily basis for communication, entertainment and education. Overall, students had highly positive expectations of their participation in the PopuLLar project. They thought that it could help them improve their language skills, be more creative and collaborative. Students reflected on the results and compared them with their expectations in the post questionnaires. Students (93%) reported that they had enjoyed working autonomously in groups in the process of choosing a song, writing and translating the lyrics and shooting the video. The majority of the students (87%) also said that they used their creativity in writing and translating the lyrics. Thus, the results of the post questionnaire indicate that the students feel that they have gained and improved skills in terms of cooperation, autonomous work and creativity. As for the difficulties that the students have encountered, almost all students (81.5%) agreed that writing and translating the lyrics was the most difficult phase. According to 18.4 % of the students, singing was the most difficult phase. In addition, one student indicated that video-editing was the most difficult. Hence, students' reflections regarding the difficulties that they have encountered during the initial piloting process differ from one another. In order to overcome these difficulties, two options can be offered. Firstly, as the perception of difficulties differ among students, jigsaw method might be implemented to make use of individual differences and students' different skills and knowledge so that active and effective participation is ensured in group work activities. Also, it could be an option to let the students decide whether they want to complete all steps of initial piloting (three audio/video products in total) or if they focus on one or two videos where they can put more creative energy to it. 4.2 Results for Teachers 4.2.1 Participants and Context The project has been implemented in five schools: Turkey, Italy, Czech Republic, Spain and Germany and 11 teachers participated along with their students. The teachers’ role in PopuLLar Project includes observing and guiding or assisting when there is a demand from students. Since the project’s ultimate aim is to encourage students to work autonomously and collaboratively, teachers are not expected to monitor or interfere with the process. They completed pre- and post-questionnaires before and after the implementation.

806


4.1.2 Results of the Pilot Implementations for Teachers According to pre-questionnaire, teachers had some positive expectations. They stated that they were eager to try a new method (i.e., using music and multimedia) in their language classes and thought that it would be a motivating and creative experience for their students. They also liked the idea of sharing students’ work on the web since it would encourage students to perfect their work. Previous to the implementation, several teachers expressed their worries about the students’ participation. Some of the teachers reported that a number of students looked a little insecure before starting to work in the project. Teachers expressed their fear that students would need a lot of help to work on the lyrics. They were also worried about the time needed to work on the project. However, after the implementation of the project was completed, majority of the participating teachers expressed their surprise for high student participation. They noted that their students became more willing to participate as they started to work on the phases together. In particular, uploading their work to the web accelerated their participation. They also stated that students were observed to have a lot of fun working together. They gave their ideas, commented on others’ and discussed the details in collaboration. They stated that the project resulted in friendship and reflection. Some of them expressed their surprise that students spent their free time to complete the phases of the project, which normally would not happen to complete their homework. They also stated that they were thrilled with students’ creativeness and the variety of skills (e.g., using technology, playing instruments, writing lyrics, creating stories, acting, etc.) they used during the project. According to the participating teachers’ reflections, the project has increased students’ motivation and willingness to get involved in the language they were learning. They described the project as different, innovative and encouraging. As a teacher, they were happy to have seen their students so enthusiastic and creative. All of the teachers rated the tasks in the Project as very effective and stated that they were very happy to have participated in PopuLLar Project.

5. Conclusion Overall, both students’ and the teacher’s opinions of the Project were very positive. They found the experience to be rewarding and fun. The students were very proud of their work and kept asking for the comments from Project partners. They gave feedback on partnering countries’ songs and compared theirs with them. The teachers mentioned that they became aware of the importance and power of music for language learners and would definitely integrate music in their teaching. As the results of the Initial piloting demonstrate, the PopuLLar project idea is appealing to students’ interests and relevant to their lives. It has also been rated by teachers highly and referred as innovative, motivating and relevant. The methodology created in the project works in the context of secondary and high school education. Thus, the project has an enormous potential to promote certain skills such as cooperation, creativity and autonomous work in education. References Biggs J. (1995). “Assessing for learning: Some dimensions underlying new approaches to educational assessment”, The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 1-17. Brewer Ch. (2004). “How to use music”, available online at: http://www.accelerated-learning.info/files/How%20to%20Use%20Music-Chris%20Brewer.pdf.

807

Motivating Secondary School Students to Learn Languages with Relevant Media — PopuLLar British Music Rights (2008). “Music experience and behaviour in young people: Main findings and conclusions”, Adam Webb, available online at: http://www.songwriters.ca/ContentFiles/ContentPages/Documents. Deci E. L. and Ryan R. M. (1991). “A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality”, in: R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 38, Perspectives on Motivation, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 237-288. McCombs B. L. (1994). “Strategies for assessing and enhancing motivation: Keys to promoting self-regulated learning and performance”, in: H. F. O'Neil Jr., & M. Drillings (Eds.), Motivation: Theory and Research, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 49-69. Spicher L. and Sweeney F. (2007). “Folk music in the L2 classroom: Development of native-like pronunciation through prosodic engagement strategies”, Connections, Vol. 1, pp. 35-48. Thaut M. H., Peterson D. A., Sena K. M. and McIntosh G. C. (2008). “Musical structure facilitates verbal learning in multiple sclerosis”, Music Perception, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 325-330. Zimmerman B. J. (1998). “Dimensions of academic self-regulation: A conceptual framework for education”, in: D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance: Issues and Educational Applications, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

808


Case Study on a Smart Class-Based Class: Focusing on a Cyber University Class Mi-Ja Shim  (Busan Digital University, Korea)

Abstract: The main goals of a smart class are supporting a variety of teaching-learning methods in an online class environment, generating and sharing content with ease without constraints, temporal and spatial alike, fostering online interactions, and managing teaching-learning materials efficiently in a cloud environment. This study seeks to explore more effective class strategies through a case study on a smart class-based class. According to the study findings, a smart class improves learners’ digital literacy, facilitates data-sharing with and feedback from fellow learners, enhances learners’ willingness to participate in class, and elicits positive reactions from them toward novel experiences. These findings imply that smart devices, not just offering convenience in information access, encourage learners to actively take part in the production and utilization of diverse information in the teaching-learning process. Key words: smart devices, smart class, class strategy, digital literacy

1. Introduction The widespread availability of smart devices has increasingly expanded the extent to which educational mediums are utilized in education environments. In recent years, classrooms have witnessed a variety of educational mediums, such as smart device applications, brought in to classes. Smart media is treated as an environment conducive to ensuring convenience in information access, taking into account an information recipient’s individual characteristics, and permitting each recipient to actively participate in information production instead of just receiving information (Smith, 2011). This suggests that there is a need for broadening both opportunities for the user’s participation and the scope of media use. The digital media environment has made it possible for the learner to freely navigate among mediums and has facilitated participation and sharing by enabling networking, multi-tasking, and content production and sharing. In such an environment, therefore, the learner should not only have a good grasp of the digital environment and operate digital devices, but also should develop digital literacy as a new learning capability grounded on sharing and interaction in the digital social culture. Digital literacy in the age of digital media places a strong emphasis on the learner’s ability to take the lead in selecting and processing digitalized information, then converting it to knowledge he or she needs, as well as the learner’s ability to utilize various functions embedded in the hardware component of media, such as smart phones, tablets, and PCs (Gweon Seong-ho & Kim Seong-mi, 2011). Mi-Ja Shim, Professor, Busan Digital University; research areas/interests: educational technology. E-mail: [email protected]. 809

Case Study on a Smart Class-Based Class: Focusing on a Cyber University Class

In particular, digital literacy is a learning capability that is required more than ever for cyber university students learning online. A cyber university is strikingly different from a conventional off-line university in teaching-learning environment and learner background and characteristics. Differences in learners’ characteristics and capabilities affect the process and outcome of their learning task implementation. The specificity of cyber universities, however, engenders limitations, including a decrease in the learning effect due to a lack of face-to-face communication with teachers, constraint on immediate feedback, the constant demand for learners’ self control and management ability, the need for a certain level of computer literacy, dropping-out, and learners’ lack of will to follow through learning. For an effective cyber university class, therefore, it is necessary to formulate learner-centered teaching plans and ensure interaction, communication, and actuality of the class. Regarding a class plan, in particular, much emphasis is put on factors that influence the way learners form their social presence and immerse themselves in learning. In practice, the formation of social presence in a cyber learning environment has been reported to have an impact on learning immersion and effect (Han Seung-yeon & Im Gyu-yeon, 2012). In this regard, it is necessary to establish class strategies that promote and support learners’ participation and interaction, as well as the formation of their social presence. According to a study analyzing cyber university problems (Kang, 2010), offerings of learning resources, information for course selection, and information such as technology support services and technical support are satisfactory, but support related to actual learning management is inadequate. An examination of the types and characteristics of cyber university course content shows that they are comprised mostly of one-way audio or video lectures, and with such formats it is difficult to induce students to participate in class and promote dynamic interaction. According to a study analyzing the learning activities of cyber university students (Pak & Yi, 2010), questions and demands related to motivation for and interaction in class participation are shown to have the highest response rate at 49.8%, with learning material registration and usage at 16.1%, pressure about studying or suggestions on learning methods at 15.2%, and questions about tests and papers at 12.6%. These study findings demonstrate that there is a strong desire to have motivation for class participation and interaction. In general, cyber university students have a higher dropout rate than traditional university students (Im, 2007). This study intends to explore more effective class strategies by performing an analysis of a case study on a smart class-based class as a way of inducing learners’ vigorous class participation, furthering their social presence, and improving digital literacy.

2. Concept and Components of a Smart Class A smart class is a solution that allows participants to make a presentation with the use of smart devices and to share and discuss in real time what is on the pages related to a subject area on the web. As illustrated in Figure 1, it is possible to register PPT with the app, present it using a smart device, and create content at the same time. In addition, teachers and learners can share and discuss the created content on subject area-related pages on the web. Particularly, SyncThink (one of the application types) as a presentation app creates presentation content by smart device. And it is possible to presentation through linking smart device with PC screen, generating content automatically after presentation. In addition, uploading content to relevant subject area page. SyncThink has three characteristics which set it apart from existing apps. First, it can be utilized in conjunction with presentation tools such as PowerPoint. Second, it is not dependent on a particular device, providing both temporal and spatial convenience. Third, it provides potent collaboration functions. Presentation materials and content stored in a cloud

810


environment can always be shared among learners in real time. Moreover, since all such processes in a smart class is recorded, it is possible to foster activities for post-class reflection.

Figure 1

Smart Class Composition

The components and major functions of a smart class are given in Table 1. Table 1 Components and Major Functions of a Smart Class Components PPT Upload Program Presentation App (SyncThink)

Teaching-Learning Materials Box (My Page)

Subject Area Page

Major Functions . Registering prepared PPT file with the app and teaching-learning materials box . Creating presentation content by smart device (audio + slides) . Presentation through linking smart device with PC screen (mirroring) . Generating content automatically after presentation . Uploading content to relevant subject area page (smart class) . Keeping content generated by the app . Keeping various image files stored on PC . Keeping teaching-learning materials on Youtube, Vimeo, and Slideshare . Providing a distinct URL for each material . Providing authoring tool for presentation using PC . Managing teaching-learning materials and content categories . Designating title of materials, and establishing scope of outline revision, deletion, and sharing . Sending materials via Facebook, Twitter, and e-mail . Exclusive webpage for class . Registering and sharing various materials in teaching-learning materials box . Online discussions

3. Study Method Smart class-based courses and participating learners are given in Table 2. Table 2

Study Subject Courses and Learners

Course Title

Attendees (Participating Learners)

Theory of Distant Education

89 (71)

Report writing, presentation, and feedback: pros and cons of e-learning

Instructional Design

88 (75)

Report writing, presentation, and feedback: content assessment

Area of Utilization

811


Using Power Point, learners write their assignments according to the topics given in each course. With the use of a self-presentation app, they create presentation materials as content and embed it in the smart class. Teachers and fellow learners review content and write comments. In this way, it is possible to learn the number of reviews received by each content and to instantaneously share them through Facebook, Twitter, and e-mail. The main screen of a smart class is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

The Main Screen of a Smart Class

Smart class consists of two areas. First, the class gallery can discuss and share the content that is produced by the authoring tool. Second, my page is a supplement class video and presentation content can be managed efficiently. The main features are of the smart class as follows. First, a variety of teaching and learning in the online learning environment. Second, without time and space constraints, convenient and easy to create content and share. Third, to facilitate interaction between learners. Fourth, efficient management of teaching materials in a cloud environment.

4. Findings Learners participating in the smart class scored very high in the degree of class satisfaction, reaching 4.6 out of 5 points. Especially, the learners were shown to place a high value on being able to create their own content using smartphones and share it with fellow learners. Major findings of smart class utilization are given in Table 3. As shown in Table 3, average frequency of content creation per learner is 3.4 times, average frequency of written comments per content is 2.1 times, average frequency of content reviews per content is 14.7 times, and average frequency of SNS use is 0.4 time. And keyword for learner reflections are Increasing self-confidence in

812


smart device use, alleviating presentation anxiety, forging affinity and sharing with fellow learners, strengthening willingness to participate in class through content production experiences, and taking on the challenges of a new experience. Table 3

Major Findings of Smart Class Utilization

Classification

Details

Average Frequency of Content Creation

3.4 times

Average Frequency of Written Comments

2.1 times

Average Frequency of Content Reviews

14.7 times

Average Frequency of SNS Use

0.4 time

Keyword for Learner Reflection

. Increasing self-confidence in smart device use . Alleviating presentation anxiety . Forging affinity and sharing with fellow learners . Strengthening willingness to participate in class through content production experiences . Taking on the challenges of a new experience

Some learner impressions are presented below: “One trial after another, I finally did it. I am so proud of myself. This opportunity has allowed me to build confidence in using smart devices.” “It was a marvelous and interesting experience. I especially liked that I was able to create content on my own by using the app and to see other learners’ content as well.” “This novel experience helped me understand the various functions of smart devices that enable smart class participation, and also gave me an opportunity to reflect on myself while carrying out my presentation assignment.” “By sharing the content of other learners have occurred intimacy with fellow learners. And it was amazing to hear their voices.”

5. Conclusion A cyber university class entails what goes beyond the perimeter of e-learning content. In order to improve learners’ class satisfaction and improve the ease with which class is conducted, it is urgent that, along with content creation, a variety of teaching methods geared toward the characteristics and needs of learners be developed and applied. In this light, a smart class-based class is expected to have the following effects. First, it can galvanize interaction between teachers and learners and among learners in the online learning process. Second, it helps augment social presence in the online teaching-learning process. Third, the sharing of materials makes it possible to vitalize collective intelligence. Fourth, by expanding communication methods and scope, the learning space can be broadened. Fifth, it is possible to compile teaching-learning materials and implement their consolidated management. Sixth, a smart class-based class can be used as a portfolio in which learners’ learning history can be maintained. Lastly, in the teaching-learning environment where the use of smart devices has become prevalent, learners’ digital literacy is expected to improve. On the basis of the study findings, the following class strategies utilizing smart classes are proposed:

813


   

First, produce and provide in a timely manner content for advanced or remedial learning. Second, form emotional communication by sharing self-introduction content at the outset of the semester. Third, produce learning outcomes in team-based learning and conduct discussions with fellow learners. Fourth, through presentation assignment production, sharing and feedback, renew the will to participate in learning and nurture a sense of self-efficacy.

References Gweon Seong-ho and Kim Seong-mi (2011). “Reconceptualization of digital literacy in the age of social media: Focusing on Jenkins’s ‘convergence’ and ‘participatory culture’”, Media and Education, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 65–82. Han Seung-yeon and Im Gyu-yeon (2012). “Teaching capability modeling for Cyber University teachers”, Education Method Research, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 837–862. Im Yeon-uk (2007). “An empirical study for investigating the relationship between Cyber University students related variables and dropping out”, Journal of Korean Information Education, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 205–219. Kang Wu-jong (2010). “Analysis of Cyber University problems and an improvement plan: With a focus on the teaching-learning method”, master’s thesis, Graduate School of Education, Chosun University. Pak Jong-seon and Yi Seung-min (2010). “Analysis of eLearning preparation and learning activities of Cyber University adult students”, The Journal of Korean Association of Computer Education, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 51–59. Smith Aaron (2011). “Smartphone adoption and usage: Pew Internet & American Life Project”, available online at: http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports2011/Smartphones.aspx.

814


Methodological Strategies of Using Educational Multimedia Website in Teaching Arts Courses Lyudmila Gavrilova1,2  (1. Donbass State Pedagogical University, Ukraine; 2. Computer Engineering Department, National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Ukraine)

Abstract: The article examines innovation of teaching aids and creation of an integral educational information environment as urgent problems of contemporary higher education. After providing the notions of “educational web-resources” and “educational website” with proper definitions, we proceed to differentiation of the sites according to their use in different spheres of education. Within that theoretical framework we address the structure and contents of the educational website “Multimedia Technologies in Music Education”, and consider the methodological approaches to the use of the site in the study of such artistic courses as History of Music Art and History of Ukrainian Music at a pedagogical university. We introduce techniques of how to use the teaching facilities of the site in the classroom, supplementing them with examples of individual tasks for students, empirically approved in the author’s teaching practice. Key words: educational website, multimedia teaching aids, history of music, methodology of teaching music

1. Introduction Innovation of teaching and learning aids proves to be a developmental tendency in contemporary education. The notion of “teaching aids” which sustained the traditional model of education undergoes gradual transformation into the category of “integral educational information environment”, which correlates with the process of ICT development, determined by the system of web-servers and other Internet resources and processes. As a result, the notions of “an educational website” and “educational web resource” come into terminological circulation in education studies.

2. Literature Review According to H. Stetsenko (2007), the term “Educational Web Resources” (EWR) refers to the data, which can be presented in textual, graphic, audio, video, and any hybrid formats, that come from a special subject area to facilitate learning process, consisting in formation of special knowledge, skills and techniques (Stetsenko G., 2007). EWR are basically electronic educational resources allocated within either a local network (Intranet) or the World Wide Web (Internet). Lyudmila Gavrilova, Ph.D. in Art History, Assistant Professor of Music and Choreography, Donbass State Pedagogical University; Doctoral Student in Computer Engineering Department, National Pedagogical Dragomanov University; research areas/interests: ICT in music education. E-mail: [email protected]. 815

Methodological Strategies of Using Educational Multimedia Website in Teaching Arts Courses

The term “Educational Web Site” refers to a narrower notion, which still needs disambiguation. Some authors are inclined to link it to a more concrete notion of “an educational website” (EWS), referring to a group of hyperlinked webpages, whose content comes from a certain course or any other element of curriculum. It is typical to subsume school websites and course websites under the category of EWS. In the broadest sense EWS refers to any site providing either innovative modes of organizing the learning process or supporting teaching aids. According to Gosudariev (2007), EWS is a Web-based information resource (Gosudariev I., 2007). In her research of characteristics of a EWSs as a component of integral educational information environment T. Yashina defines EWS as a set of webpages integrated by a single design, which support the teleological process of education, located on one server and can be used for learning assessment. According to Yashina (2005), content, design, technical implementation, and functional capacity are basic components of a EWS (Yashina T., 2005; Mogilev A. & Yashina T., 2004). Classification of EWSs according to the sphere of application considered in Zhuk (2006), Matveieva (2006), Samborska (2008) includes course websites for distant and in-class learning, consulting sites, sites of teaching groups, sites of informing internet projects, sites distributing cultural and educational information, reference sites (eEncyclopedias, online dictionaries, databases), sites of mixed types. It is also necessary to mention educational press (the sites of pedagogical periodicals) and personal websites of scientists, teachers and educators. The objective of this paper is to identify the structure and the content of the website “Multimedia Technologies in Music Education”, and to find efficient strategies of using the website for teaching arts courses.

3. Strategies of Using EWS for Teaching Arts Courses The primary school teaching department of the State institution of higher education Donbas State Pedagogical University includes a subdepartment of music, which offers qualification of a music teacher at primary school. Students of music specialty are to master a number of arts courses including “History of Music”, “History of Ukrainian Music”, “Multimedia Technologies in Artistic Education”, and “Integral Study of the Discipline “Art”, etc. In order to enhance teaching of the aforementioned courses, we created the educational website “Multimedia Technologies in Artistic Education” (URL: http://multimusic.com.ua/index.php.ua/). It is necessary to mention that general requirements to structure and content of EWSs have not been well-defined yet. In Matveieva (2006), Sugak (2012), and Yashina (2005) we find only few demands to the content, design, technical realization, and operation of such websites (Yashina T., 2005; Matveieva S., 2006; Sugak D., 2012). The authors claim that content of an EWS should correspond to scientific principles of didactics; be systemic, visualizing, and accessible; provide structured information, hyperlinks, and multimedia facilities. EWS design should meet criteria of graphical layout, colour scheme, and dynamical construction. Requirements for engineering development and operation of EWSs include functionality, accessibility, interacting capacity, upgrade capability, user-oriented flexibility. The EWS “Multimedia Technologies in Artistic Education” is designed to meet the most of the aforementioned requirements. The website is used to offer a blended type of learning, which combines the modes of the web-based distance learning with the traditional in-class learning, when students are to use internet facilities to communicate with the teacher.

816


Figure 1

The Home Page of the EWS “Multimedia Technologies in Music Education” (ukr), The Navigation Bar with the Buttons of the Main Menu Sections

Now it is time to proceed to the structure of the site. The site “Multimedia technologies in Music Education” includes five sections. The Home page provides access to the learning materials, which consist of: (1) Electronic instruction set of the course “Multimedia Technologies in Art Education”, offered as an optional subject to the primary school teaching students of State institution of higher education “Donbas State Pedagogical University”, included to the undergraduate curriculum of the specialty 6.010102 — Primary education; the set “Multimedia Technologies in Art Education” comprises the syllabus, the comprehensive instructional outline, the practical lessons schedule, tasks for student individual work, electronic version of the course treatise. (2) Multimedia learning facilities for the course “History of Ukrainian Music”, comprised as an optional subject in the undergraduate curriculum of specialization “Music”. The website contains the multimedia materials on the history of Ukrainian music including the course synopsis; the extended instructional outline of the course; music items for individual listening, grouped according to the topics of practical lessons, and downloadable in mp3 format; selected multimedia presentations of course topics. For advanced learning of certain aspects of the history of Ukrainian music there is a hyperlink to the online course treatise “Ukrainian Spiritual Music”. (3) Learning materialsforthevocationalcourse “History of music art” (section “Russian music”) including multimedia course book “History of Russian music: from ancient times to the early 20th century” with a hyperlink for downloading the file, the course instructions and guidelines. (4) Learning and instructional materials for the course “Integral Study of the Discipline “Art” including the course outlines and synopsis, electronic versions of two study books, and multimedia presentations. The course is compulsory for all specializations of the primary school teaching department. Another section of the site “Multimedia Technologies in Music Education” comprises the digital copies of the author’s articles published in academic journals. The articles address the problems of implementation of the aforementioned study books as multimedia learning facilities in art education (“The electronic course book

817


‘Ukrainian spiritual music’: contents, structure, instructions for use in higher pedagogical education”, “Multimedia aids use for learning history of music”, and others. These articles can be used as supplementary instructional guidelines to multimedia course books “History of Music Art” and “Ukrainian Spiritual Music”. The articles offer recommendations concerning installation of multimedia learning aids, their structure, navigation rules, etc. The section “Tasks for Students” contains assignments for online assessment of students’ knowledge and skills required by the courses “History of Music Art” and “History of Ukrainian Music”; a set of quizzes offering to guess a musical clip. “Personal Page” introduces the profile of the author of the site, her scientific achievements, gives contact information. In addition to the main menu every page contains a sidebar menu comprising language selection, search box, registration and authorization tools. The visitors of the site are also offered to see a virtual gallery of paintings by Picasso, Brack, Malevich, and other famous artists, which exhibit original views on music, or to listen to pieces of classical music online.

Figure 2

The Section “Tasks for students”: Online Quiz in “History of Ukrainian Music” (ukr)

The website “Multimedia Technologies in Music Education” is used for learning artistic courses: (1) To upload, systematize, store and employ various text and multimedia learning materials. (2) To provide online test assessment and offer audition quizzes in history of music. (3) To provide courseware and guide students’ individual work. Teaching of art courses involves complex use of materials from the site for in-class activities and individual learning practice of the users. The website offers materials facilitating teaching techniques of accomplishing a number of goals. Reproductions, photos, music fragments and video clips compiled in multimedia presentations help draw students’ attention to the basic categories of music theory and illustrate conceptual diversity between various trends of music art. 818


The slideshow about Ukrainian Lavras (Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, Pochayiv Lavra, and Sviatogorsk Lavra) from the electronic course book “Ukrainian spiritual music” comprises 5-minute clips informing about the past and the present history of Ukrainian religious centers and their musical traditions helps strengthen emotional impact on students and offers additional information on history of Ukrainian music. To increase didactic efficacy the aforementioned multimedia aids we suggest a technique, which enables activation of students’ attention. Before showing the presentation the lecturer offers students a list of questions on the main items of the topic. Such teaching techniques allow to intensify dynamics of lectures. Use of the EWS makes us incorporate creative tasks for individual work in new forms, offer them to students, and assess their performance. Practical experience in teaching the art courses proves efficiency of the following tasks, requiring students to master skills in managing software. (1) Completion of an analytical transcript of a musical composition, which assumes analysis and interpretation of a musical piece by a Russian or Ukrainian composer from the primary school curriculum. To render learning assistance the website offers electronic study books on music analysis, scores, and audio materials. Students are recommended to use the multimedia course book “Ukrainian Spiritual Music”. This task requires students to argue for their interpretation of the musical pieces, to identify the elements of musical form, structural and dramatic features of music composition. Music analysis should be adapted to the demands of primary schoolchildren — the students’ future pupils. The students should be able to inspire pupils to understand and interpret music. (2) Creation of a multimedia presentation about an opera by a Ukrainian or Russian composer, which involves selective and creative activities with audio and video materials, photos and reproductions, texts, and scores, etc. Presentations may be in MS Power Point. The students may design presentations as advertisement booklet in MS Publisher, or video clip in AVI, etc. Conceptual scenarios for presentations may vary from general outlines of opera history to exposition of the current issues of opera art. Presentations may also focus on opera characters, genre specifics or peculiarities of staging. Thus students are offered a wide variety of choices for their creative work. Emerging questions can be discussed with the instructor through e-mail or Skype. (3) Creationof a multimediaprofileof a composer. Studentsareofferedtomake a draft on thecomposer’s biography, complete an outline of his creative evolution, select multimedia materials for their presentations. To successfully perform the task students ought to actualize the acquired skills in managing audio and audio information resources. (4) Preparation of such multimedia aids as audio and video clips, pictures and reproductions in Nero Wave Editor of Nero Vision for lessons of music and art in primary school. (5) Completion of multimedia tests for intermediate or final assessment of pupils’ knowledge in artistic subjects. The tests may be performed in MS Power Point, MyTestX, UniTest System, and other test constructing software. The aforementioned tasks subsume under creative assignments for individual work, since their performance requires students to employ their personal experience and creative imagination. In addition to these tasks the students are offered a variety of traditional techniques, which are performed through schematized algorithms and concern logical processing of text resources:  to complete a biographical outline of a composer’s life, to define the main periods of a composer’s creative 819


evolution, to reflect aesthetic character of that progress, to reveal the most important events in a composer’s life;  to compile a list of a composer’s works provided with genre classification and references on original or instructional literature;  to draw up a chronological table indicating development of a certain genre within a specific historical period. When completed, the works are sent to the instructor’s e-mail address. The best projects are showed and discussed on seminars. Formative and summative assessment of theoretical knowledge and listening skills acquired by students within the artistic courses is performed online through the test provided by the site “Multimedia Technologies in Music Education”. The test records are delivered to the network administrator’s page. The test fulfillment is limited in time to intensify students’ activities and their attention.

4. Conclusion During the academic year 2012-2013 the educational website “Multimedia Technologies in Music Education” was employed in practice of teaching various courses: music history, music theory, and other art-related disciplines at Donbas State Pedagogical University. Practical observation and theoretical consideration have resulted in the following positions: (1) Use of the website multimedia resources and interaction tools in teaching such courses as “History of Music Art”, “History of Ukrainian Music”, “Multimedia Technologies in Art Education”, “Integral Study of the Discipline “Art” enables enhancing students’ proficiency and technological competences. (2) Specifics of musicological disciplines require interaction between the instructor and the students, which can be facilitated by the EWS in blending web-based and traditional face-to-face activities. The courses oriented towards teacher training (e.g., “Multimedia technologies in art education”, “Integral Study of the Discipline “Art”) may be effectively adapted to online learning environments without any face-to-face communication. (3) The instructional approaches considered in this research are valid in achieving the following teaching goals:  enhancing apprehension and understanding of the learning materials in the courses on music history and music education;  involving students in active forms of individual learning activities;  arousing students’ interest in vocational subjects. Web-based learning activities help reinforce development of ICT-competences of the students, improve their internet-using skills, and make them follow transformations of evolving learning environments. Practical results of our research suggest the further proceedings: to supplement the site “Multimedia Technologies in Music Education” with sections comprising the courses “Analysis of Music Composition” and “Music Theory and Solfeggio”; to continue improving instructional approaches to EWS use at a pedagogical university. References Stetsenko G. (2007). “Educational web-resources and their classification”, Computer in School and Family, Vol. 62, No. 6, pp. 23–26. (ukr) Gosudariev I. (2007). “Web-technologies at school”, available online at: http://design.gossoudarev.com. (Russia) Yashina T. (2005). Quality Evaluation of Educational Websites as a Factor of Development of Integral Informational Learning

820

Methodological Strategies of Using Educational Multimedia Website in Teaching Arts Courses Environment, Voronezh. (Russia) Mogilev A. and Yashina T. (2004). “On the notion and structure of integral informational learning environment”, available online at: http://vio.uchim.info/Vio_24/cd_site/articles/art_1_5.htm. (Russia) Zhuk L. (2006). Internet Technologies as Organizing Tools of Students’ Individual Work at a Technical University: In Foreign Language Teaching, Saint Petersburg. (Russia) Matveieva S. (2006). Website as Genre of Internet Communication: On the Basis of Scientists’ Personal Sites, Lugansk. (Russia) Samborska O. (2008). “Using topical personal sites in teaching process”, available online at: http:// bar-bgpk.at.ua/biblioteka/vikoristannja_tematichnikh_personalnikh_sajtiv_u_n.p. (ukr). Sugak D. (2012). The Website of a University Faculty within the Structure of Integral Informational Learning Environment, Saint Petersburg. (Russia) Khutorskoi A. (2003). Didactic Heuristics. Theory and Technology of Creative Teaching, Moscow: Moscow University Press. (Russia)

821


The Role of the Open Educational Videos as Support and Evidence of Learning: Project TALK — Targeting Achievements-Linking Knowledge Fernando Jorge Mortera Gutierrez, José Arturo Villarreal Guzmán  (Escuela de Graduados de Educación, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico)

Abstract: This article will show the results of a research project on educational technology. Project which target was to study and investigate the role of the educational video as a scholar production from K-12 students in their academic performance by utilizing the new technological tools available through digital devices and by applying the new Information and Communications Technology (ICT). The project was supported by Tecnológico de Monterrey and the Masters in Educational Technology division from Escuela de Graduados en Educacion, EGE (Graduate School of Education). The research was performed with students from middle basic education level (junior high) from Colegio San Felipe located in the city of Monterrey of the state of Nuevo Leon in Mexico, during the school year September 2012–July 2013. The main objective was to detect if creating educational videos influences directly in the fundamental learning of students within this institution, through the production of open educational videos conceived as open educational resources (OER). Key words: open educational resources, educational videos, middle basic education, educational innovation, educational technology

1. Introduction The present article describes the results of an investigation project of educational technology which target was to study and analyze how the production of educational videos by junior high students influences in their academic performance by utilizing the new available communication tools through mobile devices (iphones, ipads, tablets, smartphones, etc.) in addition to the Information and Communications Technology (ICT). The project was supported by Tecnológico de Monterrey and the Masters in Educational Technology division from Escuelade Graduados en Educacion, EGE (Graduate School of Education). In this project, students themselves produced educational videos under an open licensing format conceived like open educational resources (OER) by creating their own means and didactic digital resources available at an Internet level for their use, production, and redistribution. The design and production of educational videos as open educational resources (OER) field is merely new, it is well known that highly expensive educational videos have been produced for decades moreover, under copyright schemes, but having these under OER parameter lowers their cost and allows their access through the Fernando Jorge Mortera-Gutierrez, Ph.D., Tecnológico de Monterrey; research areas/interests: educational technology, instructional design, innovation in education, and distance learning. E-mail: [email protected]. José Arturo Villarreal Guzmán, Med., Tecnológico de Monterrey; research areas/interests: blended learning, learning styles, learning process, open educational resources (OER). E-mail: [email protected]. 822

The Role of the Open Educational Videos as Support and Evidence of Learning: Project TALK — Targeting Achievements-Linking Knowledge

Internet. Due to the lack of OER and open educational videos in Spanish for junior high-level students, the project was directed to investigate how to generate a stock of open licensing audiovisual stock (respecting copyright) (creative common and open source) for the teaching of the different areas that conform the academic curriculum of such level that permits to optimize the use of technological resources at schools and the development of digital materials for learning.

2. Theoretical Framework With the advent of Web 2.0 and social web it has been facilitated the generation of informal communities with great potential for the communication, collaborative work, and learning. On the other hand, the use of video consumption will reach 50% of the total internet traffic in 2012 and for 2015, the quantity of video that circulates in Internet in one second would take a person around five uninterrupted years of video playing and also on demand video will triplicate the amount of traffic of 2010 by 2015 (Cisco, 2010). Sideways, YouTube, the largest home made videos host where every minute 48 hours of video are uploaded and 3,000 million of videos are played a day counts with an audience of 800 million users a month (http://goo.gl/mceKw), which recently announced its new educational videos section http://youtube.com/edu. The Open Educational Resources (OER) is a new and pushing trend of the knowledge society, particularly with the advent of the Internet 2 and all its possibilities such as the use of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) into the educational scope and its impact towards the learning process on its diverse modes. The term Open Educational Resources (OER) points to the resources and free educational materials and freely available in the Internet and the World Wide Web (such as text, audio, video, software tools, and multimedia, among others) and that have free licenses for the production, distribution and use of such resources in the sole benefit of the world educative community; specially for its utilization by teachers, professors, and students from different educational levels (Atkins, Seely Brown, & Hammond, 2007; Schmidt, 2007) Existing the need and specific demand in Mexico of improving and increasing the levels of both school and academic performance from our students of basic level in the different areas (Spanish, mathematics, history, natural science, etc.) making them participate in the building of their own educational resources along with the active participation from teachers and professors will permit them motivate and direct impact over their academic achievements (Ramirez, 2007). The training and development of the teachers of basic education concerning design and production of educational videos as open educational resources (OER) is necessary, likewise training them on the digital information field, use of technologies, and the design of digital materials with the purpose of generating a stock of open licensing audiovisual materials (complying with copyrights) for the teaching of social and natural science that allows optimizing the use of technological resources at schools and the development of digital learning materials (Burgos-Aguilar, 2010). All of it has the target of complementing the elaboration of didactic resources by teachers with the creative and active participation from students themselves, for example in the creation of: educational videos provided from a fictional, original, creative, and interesting story that gets the attention of the native “multi-tasking” in a short lapse of time (a couple of minutes) to approach and educational theme in a non-conventional way (Mortera, Salazar, & Rodriguez, 2012). The results of the project here presented promote the good use of the educational video in computers and mobile devices to narrate, record, and edit such story in order to publish it and share it through video channels of

823


the Internet (as YouTube, etc.) to be shown in the classroom or extra class. Thus, the video transforms into not only an interesting open educational resource, but also a total self-manifestation of an interesting formative process and an experience rich in learning on a collaborative, meaningful way and always located here and now inside an environment where our little boys and girls develop. The video also offers great possibilities of personal, artistic, self critic, and reflexive expression, besides the aspiration to be a very original work that offers a clear evidence of the learning to the same teacher that guides and evaluates the entire process (the making of educational videos based on digital narratives as learning evidences). By acquiring this, support materials and evidences of the academic performance among students of basic level education would be created, these elements will be key aspects for the development of this project of investigation proposal, whose goal will be to seek, analyze, and measure the direct effect of these audiovisuals resources (the open educational video- OEV) as a teaching strategy onto the academic success and the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, and competencies between the boys and girls of the basic educational level (UNESCO, 2010). 2.1 Functions of the Educational Video The video has diverse functions, particularly in its impact and effects at an educational level, among them its informative and motivational functions stand out, on the other hand, its creative and expressive function, and lastly its appraising and researching function (Ferrez, 2004). Into its informative function it stands out its role as a document that disseminates and distributes knowledge in a relatively easier way compared to the printed information or to other sources. “The specific peculiarities of the video as a piece of technology permits that such piece can perform the informative function in a very distinct way, as for example, television does” (Ferrez, 2004, p. 68). In the video, the selection of the information to disseminate may respond to the particular needs of the group of people who express or the group of subjects who will be receivers (students). J. Férrez (2008) comments about it that: The versatility of the technology of the video, the ease that it offers to record during precarious environmental or brightening conditions makes it particularly suitable for the reportage, for the documentary, for the testimonials. The informative possibilities of the video are boosted by its versatility and they remain as evidence the same way during the viewing [projection]: viewing in normal cadence, in accelerated cadence, image freezing, visualized searching of the pertinent moment…(p. 69).

Following this, the technology of video offers service to particular and diverse interest of users such as the case of the open educational video pointed in this article and the exposed project… “reproducing daily realities with a freshness that becomes them into new ones” (Ferrez, 2004, p. 69). Relative to its motivational function, the video, particularly the educational one, focuses on the receiver to cause an impact in his person and willingness and by that augment the possibilities of causing a type of learning response. [The video delivers]…a main function in the modern conception of education if the importance of the emotional and willing stimuli during the educational process is considered. There the video can play an important role taking in consideration the capacity of the audiovisual means to cause emotions and sensations (Ferrez, 2004, p. 71).

On the other hand, another of its functions stands out: the expressive creative. There is where the creation and production of video permit the manifestation of singularity, sensitization, subjectivity, and expressiveness of particular ideas in a propositional way.

824


The luminous image encourages awareness of the own self affective world and facilitates the liberation of self emotions of affective states. “The Technology of video is vastly versatile. Its creative possibilities are extraordinary and yet unexplored. Being connected with the synthesizer and with the generator of special effects or with the computer, the image metamorphoses until infinity” (Ferrez, 2004, p. 75). At last, relative to its appraising function, J. Ferrez (2004), says that: “When talking about appraising function, it is referred to that act of communication in which what basically matters the most is the valuation of conducts, behaviors, or skills of the subjects caught by the camera” (p. 76). He also comments that into his researching function: “By its technological configuration the video is an instrument fitted to do research works at all levels: sociological, anthropological, scientific, educational…” (Ferrez, 2004, p. 82). The technology of video permits without any questions all kinds of investigations. It allows as investigating the behavior of people as the one of animals. It permits the analysis as conducts of individuals as of conducts of groups, collective, communities, and even mass. It can be investigated through the video both the events of nature and the ones caused by men’s wit (Ferrez, 2014, p. 82).

The following part of the article, describes and explains the process of investigation (methodology) done in the production of open educational videos and their impact in the learning process among adolescents of junior high level where they were the main creators and producers, and enhancing with this, their educational formation. 2.2 Objective The objective of the project was to investigate the effect that open educational videos (OEV) have as a learning strategy towards the academic performance of the junior high level students (middle basic). In addition, to boost the generation of a stock of open educational resources for teaching social and natural science and with this, optimizing the use of existent technological resources at schools and the development of digital materials for learning through the creation of their own educational software repositories in the Internet where this OER-educational videos will permanently be for their free access. 2.3 Research Problem To the problematic of increasing the quality of the education so the students from middle basic education level improve their academic performance; particularly within the social science and natural science and the elevated cost that the creation of resources and support educational and instructive materials results; the ICT raise as an alternative that may diminish the high costs and the shortage of free resources available in the Internet so they can reach more scholar audience and reduce the digital gap. It is through the creation and production of open educational videos that is presented the acquisition, integration, and management of proper new knowledge, skills and competencies, which must be brought to teachers and students to solve this problem of acquiring new knowledge. There is interest in developing educational innovations that permit to study and analyze the best learning strategies displayed by the teachers. Such ones seek to influence directly into the learning of the adolescents of the middle basic education level through the development and production of open digital educational videos, elaborated and produced by the students themselves and teachers; creating like this their own educational and instructive resources, and with that to enhance the production of such educational materials and teachers updating. 2.4 Research Questions (1) Which is the direct effect of the educational videos as learning strategy towards the academic

825


performance within the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and competencies among students from middle basic education level at Colegio San Felipe? (2) How much does the creation and production of open educational videos, conceived as OER make the development of digital educational software repositories available in the Internet?

3. Methodology A quantitative investigation including field work was performed making observations in the classrooms and a pole-type questionnaire was applied to two groups of students from junior high level at Colegio San Felipe, with a total population of 45 students from which only 20 students answered them. The questionnaire contained 20 questions and was applied through the following link http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/V7GLDR2. The pole was founded over the process of creation and production of educational videos that students made during the 2012–2013 school year, mainly during January and February 2013. The performed analysis was based on descriptive statistics and frequencies distribution being able to respond with it to the research questions which aimed to measure the effect and impact of the educational videos as creative tasks of the students within their significant learning of the social and natural science subjects respectively, also as the boost in the creation of digital repositories. Colegio San Felipe is a prestigious, private bilingual institution located in the south of the city of Monterrey in the state of Nuevo León established more than 15 years ago and ever since, it has served a student population conformed by middle and high level class kids and adolescents. The students possess resources concerning the availability of mobile and digital devices that allowed them to make the projects of videos that were assign to them and which they selected along with their teachers and instructors guidance.

4. Main Results There were two stages attached to the results of the project. The first one founded over the creation and production of videos and the second one, over the pole results. (1) Concerning the creation and production of the educational videos of the two contributor groups of junior high, the mechanics were the following: 6 teams per each group or classroom were formed by 3 to 5 members per team to make the video filming, edition, and production tasks. The materials produces were part of their English speaking classes related to the social and natural science subjects (Colegio San Felipe is a bilingual institution) from junior high level within the official program of Secretaria de EducaciónPública SEP (Secretariat of Public Education). For the filming and recording of the videos any mobile device that had a 5 megapixels camera and a video, image, and sound editing function was required. During the editing process of the videos there were used some of the basic editor applications such as: iMovie or Final Cut (video), movie-maker, GIMP (image), Audacity (audio), Smart Converter (intended for video formats), iTunes, iDVD and sometimes Garage Band (from iLife suite for Mac). Inner topics of the subject in English related to the junior high educational level academic curriculum were selected. Students were authorized towards the topic election. Later they developed a presentation about it in the classroom and such exposition was recorded. They were able to rely on a PowerPoint presentation. Once they filming was over they took the videos home, and some students were carrying at least 2 devices to film an iPod, 826


Ipad, a Smartphone, or a camera (photograph and video one), which helped them a lot. Finally, the students built up and described their video with images extracted from such sources. The students worked the edition at home, they removed unnecessary parts, took bloopers away (errors that emerged during the recording). All of this was made in order to deliver the produced and edited videos by the students themselves, with a maximum allowed length of 3–5 minutes. All of the videos were edited and produced under Creative Commons licensing, since they were produced as open educational resources (OER). All this created great expectation and motivation among the students being satisfied by the achieved goals during this academic activity that reinforced their learning. The videos were presented during an event held for ninth grade students of junior high from Colegio San Felipe during the month of march 2013 mirroring the TED conferences format (Technology Entertainment and Design) that are organized for the Internet audience (http://www.ted.com/). The educational videos produced were set into a channel under the concept of TALK: Targeting Achievements-Linking Knowledge and uploaded to two different sites: Youtube (http://youtube.com/user/talkbroadcast) and Vimeo (http://vimeo.com/talkbroadcast) in different formats depending on the software in which the video had been edited being *.mov, *.mpeg, *.avi, and *.mp4 the most common ones. The site where all videos are gathered and can be watched in Internet is called Talkbrodcast.blogspot, in the following link www.talkbroadcast.blogspot.com. In this site it can be found permanently, the videos that were produced by the students as part of the project. The total videos produced and located in this site were a total of 21 (up to April 24th, 2013). (2) Regarding the results of the pole (questionnaire) there are the following findings. From the 20 students that answered the pole, 12 are male (60%), and 8 are female (40%); all with an average age of 14 years; 90% were taking the third year of junior high (9th grade), and there were two students from the second year (8th grade) (10%). It was asked to them if they had previously made videos and from the 20 students, 11 (55%) answered that indeed they had made a video, and 9 students answered never (45%). It was asked to them whether they had received any kind of instruction and training to perform the activity of producing and editing the videos, 50% answered yes, and the remaining 50% answered no. Regarding the question asking if they use these technological means to expose, 25% answered sometimes, 35% responded that they use them many times, and the remaining 40% replied that they always use them, about the frequency in which they utilize presentations as videos in their classes, 5% answered never, other 5% once a month, other 25% every 15 days, other 25% mentioned once per week and the rest (40%) answered every day. It was asked to them if the utilization of educational video has contributed to improve their performance and learning during their classes, 45% (9 students) replied that it has been some sort of significant, other 45% (9 students) answered that it has been significant, and the remaining 10% (2 students) commented that it has been significant indeed. The following Figure 1 shows the educational functions that the respondents considered the most important ones in the use of the educational video:

827


Figure 1

Educational Functions of the Video in Class

It was asked to the students if they had participated in the creation of educational videos watched during their class, 10% said they had not participated, 40% commented sometimes, 25% replied that they had participated many times, and finally, the remaining 25% answered that they always had participated. This shows an active participation of the students in the presentations that are given in their classes and topics from the academic program. When it was asked whether there were advantages for the students regarding the use and application of the educational videos in class as instructive material to support their own learning, all of them presented a positive response, considering that for the majority, the use of videos in the classroom turns into faster, funnier, and quicker learning, which leaves a sense of satisfaction around them because they have more time for other things since the learning became effective in a shorter time, and moreover the process was nicer. Now, just as they were questioned about the advantages that they observed in the use of videos in class, they were also asked whether they observed disadvantages in such process and what they were to which the majority of them responded that the disadvantages were not significant, a pair of students mentioned that it was much time required for the elaboration of the video, and a single student said that the result was not what he expected in the sense of taking advantage of or liking the process since he states that it is hard to make the videos. Finally it was asked to the students whether they had liked participating into the creation of their own educational videos of their classes and had learned, 95% answered yes, and just 5% said no. This shows the great acceptance that an activity that directed the positive use of the mobile devices and the use of ICT for learning had and not as means of distractions and escaping during the process of learning itself.

5. Conclusions This research project on educational technology pretended to promote the good usage of the educational video in computers and mobile devices to relate, record and edit educational topics towards the diverse levels of middle basic education (junior high) in Mexico, publishing and sharing through channels of video in the Internet (such as YouTube, vimeo, etc) instructive materials to be shown in the classroom or as extra-class thus, supporting the teaching and the learning process.

828


In this way, the video becomes not only into an interesting open educational resource, but into an entire manifestation worthy of a significant formative process and also into an experience rich in learning in a collaborative way being always located here and now inside the setting where adolescents develop. The video also offers great possibilities of personal, artistic, self critic, and reflexive expression besides of aspiring to be an innovative work that shares a clear evidence of the learning of students. The current project of investigation, whose objective was to inquire, to analyze, and to measure the direct effect of the videos as open audiovisual resources (open educational video) and as learning strategy in the academic achievement and acquisition of new knowledge, skills, and competencies among students from middle basic education level (junior high) was justified by the results obtained during this investigation which they demonstrate accordingly. In both the production of more than 21 educational videos under OER type by the students themselves in the reinforcement of their significant learning, and also in the creation of a new Internet channel: Talkbroadcast.blogspot (www.talkbroadcast.blogspot.com) that allows having a digital educational “home-made” repository of Colegio San Felipe about the achievements of its junior high students.

Acknowledgement It is specially thanked to Colegio San Felipe (located in the city of Monterrey in the state of Nuevo León, México) for its support and collaboration in the making of this project, particularly to one of its teachers José Arturo Villarreal Guzmán M.Ed. without his participation and support, this project would not have been possible. It is also extensively acknowledged Tecnológico de Monterrey for its support in developing this project. References Atkins D. E., Seely Brown J. and Hammond A. L. (2007). “A review of the open educational resources (OER) movement: Achievements, challenges, and new opportunities”, San Francisco, CA: Report to the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. Burgos-Aguilar J. V. (2010). “Distribución de conocimiento y acceso libre a la información con Recursos Educativos Abiertos (REA)”, Organización de los Estados Americanos (OEA), Revista Digital La educ@cion, available online at: http://www.educoas.org/portal/laeducacion. CC (2010). “Creative commons licenses”, available online at: http://creativecommons.org/. Cisco (2010). “CISCO visual networking index: Forecast and methodology, 2010-2015”, available online at: http://goo.gl/UVNc. Férrez J. (2004). Video y educación, Buenos Aires, Argentina: Paidós. Haddad W. and Draxler A. (2002). “Technologies for education: Potentials, parameters and prospects — Challenges and possibilities of ICTs for education”, UNESCO and the Academy for Educational Development, San Francisco, CA: SAGE. Mortera F. J., Salazar A. L. and Rodríguez J. (2012). “Metodología de búsqueda y adopción derecursos educativos abiertos en la práctica académica”, in: Ramírez M. S. & Burgos J. V. (2012). Movimiento educativo abierto: Acceso, colaboración y movilización de recursos educativos abiertos, México: Lulú editorial digital, available online at: http://catedra.ruv.itesm.mx/handle/987654321/564. OSI (2010). “Open source licences, open source initiative”, available online at: http://www.opensource.org/licenses/alphabetical. Ramírez M. S. (2007). “Administración de objetos de aprendizaje en educación a distancia: experiencia de colaboración interinstitucional”, in: Lozano A. & Burgos V. (2007), Tecnología educativa: Un modelo educativo centrado en la persona, México: Limusa. Schmidt J. (2007). “Recursos educativos abiertos: Estrategia para apertura y desarrollo social de la educación superior”, available online at: http://www.guni-rmies.net/news/detail.php?id=1106. UNESCO (2010). UNESCO OER community. http://oerwiki.iiep-unesco.org.

829


Adoption of Information and Communications Technology: An Evidence of Teacher Education Institutions in Davao City Eddelyn D. Gupeteo  (Faculty of the Teacher Education Department, Ateneo de Davao University, Philippines)

Abstract: This dissertation investigated the rate of ICT adoption of Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs) in Davao City. Specifically this research was conducted in order to determine the status of ICT institutional factors and the status of ICT adoption of TEIs in Davao City, to determine the behavior and reasons of teachers in adopting ICT and to identify the factors that best affect the rate of adoption. The study used a questionnaire adapted from Becta School and a self survey assessment tool to gauge the ICT mark threshold of the different schools. A Contingent Valuation Method was used to determine the behavior of teachers in adopting ICT and Probit model in order to determine the factors that affect the rate of ICT adoption. In the findings of the study, the factors that affect the rate of adoption are the years in using ICT, educational background and accessibility to teachers. Key words: ICT, adoption, teacher education institutions, ICT Mark Threshold, contingent valuation method

1. Introduction The momentum of the technological revolution creates rapid and disruptive changes in the way in which people live, work, learn and play. As the pace of technological advance shows no sign of slowing, the challenge is in learning to adapt to changes and to prepare people to work with new technologies competently and confidently. (Future Trends in Technology and Learning) All of the ten countries in Asia such as Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia and China have national policy on ICT. While for the educational technology standards for teachers only China was able to finish it, Philippines and Malaysia are on the process of making it happen (Situational Analysis of TEIs on ICT Integration). As in most other areas of modern life, computers and technology have had an important impact on higher education. For more than four decades, information technology has played an important role in the structure of schools and universities (Sherry & Gibson, 2002) and information technologies are widely available on university campuses. For example, approximately three-fourths of higher education institutions provide technology-based course management tools to their faculty (The Campus Computing Project, 2001). With technology more available on campuses, the integration of technology into teaching and learning in higher education has become more and more crucial since technology has the potential to reinforce the core of teaching and learning (Green & Eddelyn D. Gupeteo, Ph.D., Ed.D., Faculty of the Teacher Education Department, Ateneo de Davao University; research areas/interests: education and ICT. E-mail: [email protected]. 830

Adoption of Information and Communications Technology: An Evidence of Teacher Education Institutions in Davao City

Gilbert, 1995). In fact, “if higher education wants to survive in the expansion of technology, then it must be prepared and must prepare its faculty to implement the new technologies within their classrooms” (Hagenson, 2001, p. 2). Everybody is talking about technology integration, investing so much on it but few practicing teachers profess to know exactly how to proceed. The fact is that real integration requires change …. However, what seems to be lacking is a model that teachers can use to guide them through the necessary changes they will need to make to be successful in integrating new technology into their classroom (Johnson & Liu, 2000, p. 4). In the Philippines, the move for K to12 paradigm implementation created a big leap in the change of our educational system. As what the Secretary of Education Armin A. Luistro said in his speech during the 4th National Convention of the Centers of Excellence, Centers of Development, Centers of Training and Association of Local Colleges and Universities last April 11-12, 2011 at Bataan, “If our TEIs are not yet teaching in a revolutionary pedagogy using Information Technology as a backbone in teaching and learning, then there is no future”. The way to the future is Information Technology and the backbone of education in the future is Information Technology. The change in the Teacher Education Curriculum in 2005 has a tremendously effect in all Teacher Education Institutions. The thrust of the educational system includes the integration of technology in the curriculum with the inclusion of Educational Technology courses such as Educational Technology 1 and 2. But for many, the focus of these courses is typically on technology skills and applications rather than the integration of technology across the curriculum (Smith, 2001). This has been referred to by Pelgrum and Law (2003) as the learning about ICT phase. Many Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs) have also progressed to the learning with ICT phase, whereby teacher educators are using their computer capabilities to enhance instruction without necessarily changing beliefs about the approach and methods for teaching and learning. The third phase, learning through ICT is not commonly practiced in pre-service teacher education. In this phase, ICT is integrated completely as an essential tool in the curriculum (Pelgrum & Law, 2003) Moving to this level of integration, where technology infiltrates all aspects of the teacher education curriculum is perceived as out of reach for a large proportion of TEIs. Many of their teacher educators do not have sufficient skills or knowledge to model the use of technology in their classes. Despite funding for the transformation of schools through technology, the classroom was still driven by lectures, textbook, and passive learning (Kromhout & Butzin, 1993.) Opportunity to use technology across a range of both pre-service and in-service classes are further restricted in different schools where a more traditional teacher education and school curriculum is delivered with its focus on lecture style, rote learning and exam based result (Smith, 2001). Very few teachers are integrating technology into their classes due to the different problems such as availability of resources, training, access and administration support. It is in this premise that the researcher would like to find out the threshold level and the factors that may affect in the TEI’s adoption of ICT. This study seeks to identify the factors that affect the rate of adoption of Information and Communications Technology in the Teacher Education Institutions in Davao City. Specifically it sought to answer the following specific questions: (1) What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of: a. Sex b. Age c. Length of service in teaching 831


d. Number of years using ICT e. Number of ICT trainings attended f. Subject taught g. Educational Background (2) What is the status of ICT Institutional Factors in terms of: h. resources i. connectivity j. policies k. Accessibility to teachers l. Accessibility to students m. support n. training (3) What is the status of ICT adoption of Teacher Education Institutions in Davao City? (4) What is the behavior of teachers and the reasons in adopting ICT for instruction using the contingent valuation model? (5) What are the factors that significantly affect the rate of adoption of ICT?

2. Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine and to give a picture of the status of ICT adoption of TEIs in Davao City and to identify the different factors that may affect the rate of adoption. This study hopes to offer more arguments in the growing body of knowledge concerning ICT in education. Also, this hopes to provide contribution for TEIs strategic ICT plan, and policy implication for school adoption and assessment of ICT with more contextualized application and implementation.

3. Methods Used A causal research design using contingent valuation method is used in this study. Causal research design attempts to explain the relationship between two variables (if A causes B to occur). Causal Research explores the effect of one thing on another and more specifically, the effect of one variable on another. This research design is used to measure what impact a specific change will have on existing norms which is the status of adoption and allows researcher to predict hypothetical scenarios upon which an institution will base its technology integration plan. Contingent valuation method (CVM) was used which involves directly asking people in a survey how much they would be willing to pay for specific services or how much compensation they are willing to accept to give up specific goods and services (Pearce & Turner, 1993). This method is referred to as a “stated preference method” because people are asked directly to state their values, rather than infer values. Dichotomous choice was used to elicit the willingness to pay/willingness to accept. The possible range of values for the maximum WTP (or minimum WTP) of individuals was pre-set. This is to gauge the willingness to pay (WTP) of the teachers for ICT. Estimation of WTP typically involves asking prospective respondents whether or not they would be willing to pay at various hypothetical prices. The sources of data are primarily from the survey questionnaires given to the respondents in order to determine the demographic profile of the respondents such as sex, age, length of service, number of years using 832


ICT, number of ICT trainings attended, educational background and subjects taught. The institutional factors of the Teacher Education Institutions with the following indicators: resources, connectivity, policies, accessibility of students and teachers, training, and support are also included in the survey questionnaire. The general attitude and behavior of teachers and the willingness to pay are also gathered through the third part of the questionnaire using a likert scale and the contingent valuation questionnaire respectively. The status of technology adoption is determine through the part four of the survey questionnaire using rubric for ICT mark threshold which is adapted from Becta school. The respondents were the teachers teaching in the identified teacher Education Institutions in Davao City. These teachers are handing professional, core and major subjects and teaching in a full time basis. There are 147 teachers from 21 TEIs comprising from private universities and state university respectively.

4. Results For the socio-demographic profile of the respondents, majority of the ICT adopters and non-adopters are female and most of them ages between 31–40 years old. Adopters are teaching already from one to ten years in the Teacher Education Institutions. For the number of years using ICT majority falls between 0-5 years. It was found out that most of the teachers were not able to attend even a single training on ICT and they are usually teaching non-ICT related courses. A higher percentage of adopters are with MA/MS degree. The second focus of this study is on the institutional factors in which constitute the profile of TEIs with 47.6% are 1:1 ratio of computer to student and for the speed of internet connection 32.7% has a speed of 256 kbps. The institutional factors such as resources turned out to be given emphasis of the TEIs since 90.5% have funds allocation for the maintenance and support of technology. However most of the TEIs don’t have a strong or fast internet connection or wireless connection though most of the schools are providing resource center where teachers can use computers and can be connected to internet. Teacher’s accessibility is very evident to TEIs as well. Even students have access to computer laboratories especially if there is prior arrangement by teachers. TEIs are very weak on policy when it comes to ICT, only 15.6% and 25.2% consider ICT test for teacher’s regularization and promotion respectively. When it comes to support such as technical and administrative, majority of TEIs were given support such as access to equipment for instructional purposes, the booking of computer laboratories and class schedule to accommodate teachers in the use of it and the provision of technicians who are available if teachers need them. In the case of training, most of the teachers do not receive trainings specifically on advanced course in the use of the internet such as creating website, developing homepage or video conferencing. Most of the teachers in the TEIs of Davao City are not exposed to latest development and trends on ICT. The third part of this study is about the status of ICT adoption using the questionnaire on identifying the threshold level. Result shows that in all the indicators for ICT adoption the TEIs turned out to have a low capacity which means below the international standard threshold of 2.0. It implies that TEIs in Davao City are still on the process of starting to adopt ICT in education. Although from the survey the focus of adoption is for the teaching and the learning process with the highest mean of 2.8503 compared to other indicators but still it is interpreted as low capacity. The lowest mean result 3.0935 is on resources since the environment for online learning is not very evident in most TEIs. Teachers exhibit also a positive behavior towards ICT since the resulted mean are 3.77 and 3.78 respectively

833


focusing on proper use and maintenance of equipment so that the next batch of students may still benefit through their learning experience and process in the classroom. However, most of the teachers are not open to the idea of paying something for the equipment and its maintenance. Under contingent valuation result it was found out that 92.5% of the teachers are adopters of ICT and only 7.5% are non-adopters. Schools are usually the source of ICT for them comprising 37.4% and 18.4% are using ICT on their own. The number of hours spend for computers every month ranges from 1–420 hours and most of the teachers spend one to fifty (50) hours every month which is 41.5%. Teachers are spending from Php 80.00 to as much as Php 8,000.00 per month for ICT and the highest percentage of 15.6% amounting to Php 1,000.00 which means that most of the teachers are spending at least Php 1,000.00 every month for ICT alone. Thus, 74.8% of the teachers are willing to pay for ICT in the amount of Php 100.00 every month. They have the reasons why they are willing to pay because they believe that it’s one way of helping prolong the life span of ICT equipment so in the future there are still many students who can benefit from them. They are in favor of collecting it through salary deduction comprising 74% while others prefer to have it on a voluntary basis. Out of 147 respondents, 35 or 23.8% of them are not willing to pay due to the reason that they believe it’s the sole responsibility of the school to allocate funds for the budget of ICT for teachers use and 28.57% do not want to pay however are willing to do so but they have limited resources. There are also 108 or 73.5% who are willing to volunteer to help in the maintenance of ICT facilities. The probit analysis resulted to the following significant factors such as years in using ICT which is positively related; educational background exhibits a negative result wherein an increase in the years of educational attainment there will be a decrease in the probability of adoption; and the last significant factor is the accessibility to teachers with a positive sign indicating that if teachers are given access the higher is the possibility of ICT adoption. All estimates are based on the self-assessment survey by Becta School on the international ICT mark threshold set at 2.0.

5. Conclusion This study focused on the rate of technology adoption of the TEIs in Davao City. The ICT mark threshold of Becta School used by international schools as a self-survey in determining ICT mark whether below or above the threshold was used as a dependent variable. The threshold level is equivalent to 2.0 which means that the result is greater than 2.0 it is below the threshold level and if less than 2.0 it is considered as above the threshold level and represents the rate of adoption of teachers and TEIs as a whole, used throughout the data analysis. Results indicated that the three factors namely age, number of years in using ICT and accessibility to teachers are the significant factors that affect the rate of adoption of ICT with the estimates of parameters using tobit analysis. The probit analysis method for the factors affecting the rate of ICT adoption resulted to also three significant factors such as years in using ICT which is positively related meaning, the increase in the number of years in using ICT to increase also in the rate of adoption. The educational background with a negative sign connotes that the higher the educational background the decrease in the rate of adoption which implies that most of the teachers who are PhD and EdD degree holders are lagging already in the adoption which is also in consonance with the result of age variable, the older the teacher the lower is the rate of adoption. The third one is the accessibility to teachers, if the TEIs shall provide teachers with facilities and opportunities on the accessibility of technology, the rate of adoption will increase.

834


The CVM was used also to determine the willingness to pay of the teachers, taken into consideration that the WTP will opt for the adoption of technology. The teacher adopters’ valuation of ICT has an average amount of Php 129.85, and this is the amount they are willing to pay every month for the adoption of ICT. Taken together, these findings suggest the importance of creating support networks for teachers as well as giving opportunities for faculty development through continuous training and access to technology. References Bingimlas Khalid Abdullah (2009). “Barriers to the successful integration of ICT in teaching and learning environments: A review of the literature”, Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, Vol. V, No. III, available online at: http://www.ejmste.com/vSn3/EURASIA_vSn3_Bingimlas.pdf. 1 Bialo E. R. and G. Solomon (1997). Technology & Learning, Vol. 18, No. 2, p. 70. Burkholder (1995). “Effects of technology integration education on the attitudes of teachers and students”, Journal of Research on Technology in Education. Chief Executive Officers’ Forum on Education & Technology) (1997). “Year 1 report: From pillars to progress”, available online at: http://www.ceoforum.org/reports. cfm?RID=1, pp. 3, 33. Christensen R. (1998). “Effect of technology integration education on the attitudes of teachers and their students”, doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton. Dupagne M. and Krendl K. A. (1992). “Teachers’ attitudes toward computers: A review of the literature”, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 420–429. “Future trends in technology & learning”, available online at: http://infotech-itsoln.blogspot.com/2010/06/future-trendsin-technology-and.html, retrieved: September 20, 2011. Gardner D. G., Discenza R. and Dukes R. L. (1993). “The measurement of computer attitudes: An empirical comparison of available scales”, Journal of Educational Computing Research, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 487–507. Green D. C. and Gilbert S. W. (1995). “Great expectations: Content, communications, productivity, and the role of information technology in higher education”, Change, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 8–18. Luistro, A. (2011). National Convention Report for Colleges and Universities. Bataan, Philippines Hignite M. A. and Echternacht L. J. (1992). “Assessment of the relationships between the computer attitudes and computer literacy levels of prospective educators”, Journal of Research on Computers in Education, Vol. 24, pp. 381–389. Hagenson T. (2001). Faculty Mentoring: The Power of Students in Developing Technology Expertise, Information Publishing, Inc. USA. Havelock R. G. (1973). The Change Agent’s Guide to Innovation in Education, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Johnson D. and Liu L. (2000). Integration of Technology into the Classroom: Case Studies, The Haworth Press, Inc. USA. Koohang A. A. (1989). “A study of attitudes toward computers: Anxiety, confidence, liking and perception of usefulness”, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 137–150. Kromhout O. and Butzin M. (1993). “Integrating computers into the elementary school curriculum”, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, Vol. 26. Mahmud R. and Ismail M. A. (2010). “Impact of training and experience in using ICT on in-service teachers’ basic ICT literacy”, Malaysian Journal on Educational Technology, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 5–10. Morky Graham (2010). “Gender, age or teaching experience: are they issues for primary teachers with ICT?”, International Journal of Information and Operations Management Education, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 349–355. Pearce D. and Turner R. K. (1993). Environmental Economics: An Elementary Introduction, Center for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. Pelgrum W. J. and Anderson R. E. (Eds.) (1999). “ICT and the emerging paradigm for lifelong learning: A worldwide educational assessment of infrastructure, goals, and practices”, International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, Amsterdam, pp. 22, 38, 77, 65. Pelgrum W. J. and Law N. (2003). “ICT in education around the world: Trends, problems & prospects”, UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning, United Nations, Paris. Pennington M. (1999). “Asia takes a crash course in educational reform”, in UNESCO Courier [Online], Vol. 5, pp. 17–20, July-August, accessed 14 January 2010. 835

Adoption of Information and Communications Technology: An Evidence of Teacher Education Institutions in Davao City Rogers Everett M. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations (5th ed.), Garnet Hertz Updated 02 December 2006, available online at: http://www.conceptlab.com/notes/rogers-2003-diffusion-of- innovations.html. Sherry L. and Gibson D. (2002). “The path to teacher leadership in educational technology”, Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education [online serial], Vol. 2, No. 2, available online at: http://www.citejournal.org/vol2/iss2/general/article2.cfm. “Situational analysis of Asian TEIs on trainings of ICT integration”, accessed October 5, 2010, available online at: http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ict/Metsurvey/philippines.pdf. Smith W. (2001). “Community and its virtual promises: A critique of Cyberlibertian rhetoric”, Information, Communication and Society, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 370–387. “The campus computing project”, accessed last October 20, 2011, available online at: http://www.campuscomputing.net/sites/www.campuscomputing.net/files/2001-CCP.pdf. Tondeur J., Keer H., Braak J. and Valcke M. (2005). “ICT Integration in the classroom: Challenging the potential of school policy”, Department of Educational Studies, Ghent University, Henri Dumantlaan, B9000 Ghent, Belgium. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (1995, April). “Teachers and technology: Making the connection (OTA-EHR-616)”, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Violato C., Mariniz A. and Hunter W. (1989, Winter). “A confirmatory analysis of a four-factor model of attitude toward computers: A study of pre-service teachers”, Journal of Research on Computers in Education, pp. 199–213. Woodrow J. E. (1992). “The influence of programming training on the computer literacy and attitudes of pre-service teachers”, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 200–218. Xu Zhongmin, John Loomis, Zhang Zhiqiang and Kuino Hamamura (2006). “Evaluating the performance of different willingness to pay question formats for valuing environmental restoration in rural China”, Environment and Development Economics, Vol. 11, pp. 585–601.

836


Network Life: The Identity of Adolescent High School Students Gladys Hernández Romero, Rosario Cruz Solís  (Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Mexico)

Abstract: The following document presents the results of a study on high school students and how they incorporate the new information technologies into their daily life. The subject is approached from the line of research of Technological Innovation led by the members of the research group: Educational Innovation in Teaching and Learning Processes. This study shows evidence of how the use of devices such as video games, cell phones and internet has influenced students’ behavior patterns both at school and at home. The empirical study was based on an intentional or convenience of 220 from a total of 350 students. The Results indicate the need to incorporate curriculum planning to the subjectivation processes that students develop from these practices. Key words: information technologies, identity, adolescents, high school students

1. Introduction Considering that we live in the information and communication society and the changes occurred in the various fields as a starting point, it is necessary to consider and reconsider how they affect the educational environment; the rise and proliferation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and its inclusion in the classroom, makes a change in the teaching and learning processes necessary. Research on students usually recognize categories such as economic status, levels of performance and educational trajectories. There are still few research that take into account the socio-cultural practices developed by students immersed in a generation where ICTs, specifically social networks work as centerpiece of their daily lives. Most of the literature of the practices of young internet users is made up of studies carried out in Spain which prolife rate since the beginning of this century (Tapscott, 2001; Cendros-Urdaneta, 2006; Rubio, 2010; Garmendia, Garitaonandia, 2007). One of the most relevant studies both for its originality and for its relevance of data to this research, is the publication of Eduardo Weiss called “The students as young, the process of subjectivation” published in the magazine Perfiles in 2012. It addresses the situation that higher education students live and it discusses how they socialize through identifying tastes, interests and abilities. It provides a number of essential elements to know and/or recognize the new identities associated with rules, norms and understood values and concludes the need to recognize the new social patterns closely linked to the use of time. Other studies referenced by Weiss (2012) and consulted for analysis are those of Feixa (1999) and Reguillo

Gladys Hernández Romero, Ed.D., Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco; research areas/interests: educational innovation, technological innovation. E-mail: [email protected]. Rosario Cruz Solís, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. E-mail:[email protected]. 837

Network Life: The Identity of Adolescent High School Students

(2000) on youth cultures. The authors analyze the role of young people in times of social immediacy, young respondents to emerging situations internalize new rules on rigid boundaries that deny the need for change. In this regard, Dubet and Martucelli (1998) analyze the behavior of young people in schools and argue that most of the experiences that are lived, depend on three types of logical interaction which they call: interaction rules; development of subjectivity and instrumental action. The authors encrypted their analysis in a calculation of profits earned by the investment of school work. These results become interesting when they show how young high school students manage their school obligations as strategists (Weiss, 2012). The studies reviewed have as a common denominator, the recognition in the young people of the subjectivation processes that emerge from the interaction with others. The results presented show that this interaction is currently mediated by technological devices such as cell phones and/or high-level computers. Information and Communication Technologies have been increasing during the last year, their rapid progress and social diffusion indicate that it is a steadily growing process. Castells (1996) believes that nowadays no one doubts that the use of these technologies is producing a deep and ongoing technological revolution, is transforming the different social and personal domains and causes the information and knowledge to be applied to creation, prosecution and dissemination processes and thereby the innovation and practical use are being fed and reinforced. The global model among his most evocative mechanisms brought the so called Information and Communication Technology (ICT), which have the peculiarity that once incorporated into the subject’s daily life they are indispensable and in some cases they create reliance among its users. Unlike authors who have cataloged these new ways of being and acting of young high school students as a fashion or who have minimized their impact by stating that this is only a manifestation of freedom of young people, a boost of the inner self of the younger generation or even believing that they are only an instrument of self-assertion and youthful rebellion, we adhere to the remark made by Bauman (2008). In his book Consuming Life, he argues that this fondness for networks cannot be explained as a proper factor of age, but rather it is a growing need of the consumer´s liquid world. Our students have suffered a transformation, difficult to explain but easy to verify. The problems that overwhelm the generation solder than 40 years are not concerning to them, hence the concept of immediacy refers to the unpredictable, precarious, immediate or temporary that tends to be the point of interest of new generations into something that obstructs and / or bothers them in their daily development. That is why currently the Educational Institutions must develop ways of incorporating the use and appropriation of ICTs as a support in the teaching and learning processes, this implies teacher’s information not only in humanistic, pedagogical-didactic fields, but also in technology and research field, allowing them be at the level of the demands of today's world.

2. Methodological Proposal The research in question was conducted in the Instituto Tabasco, one of the top private schools in the south-southeast of Mexico. The empirical study was based on an intentional or convenience sample of 220 students from a total of 350, who at the time of administering the questionnaires, were studying high school. The questionnaires were filled out by the students themselves and the open questions were the result of an in-depth interview with the most significant cases, which served to give sense to closed questions and build the

838


facts analytically. It is therefore a quantitative study aided by qualitative tools so it could be classified as mixed. It presents results of the frequency, skill, purpose and type of use that middle school students make of the information and communication technologies and how they have mediated in shaping their identities. 2.1 Sample The criteria for determining the sample was based on the choice of 220 regular students, with average ages in the range of 15 to 18 years regardless of gender and with the understanding that all come from middle class families whose parents are professionals or entrepreneurs of small and medium business. All study participants with overall grade point average of eight. 2.2 Data Collection Instruments The instruments used for the measurement were two semi-structured questionnaires and applied at different times during the months of May to December 2013. The initial questionnaire consisted of 25 multiple choice questions and was used to detect the population with the characteristics required: students enrolled in a semester of high school and frequent users of the network. In the second stage a second questionnaire with ten semi-structured questions was applied to students who responded positively to 70% of the questions in the initial survey. The study reports aspects of the following categories: digital skills for school use, change in family dynamics and patterns of leisure and consumption, which together contributed to the creation of the so called new youth identities.

3. Data Analysis and Results Knowing how high school young use technology, becomes the main tool to determine their membership in social groups, how it organizes their everyday life and thereby knows some features of their identity. The data obtained from the last questionnaire were the basis for the preparation of the written work presented. To systematize them, the SPSS program was used to cast the tables necessary for subsequent theorizing. The open questions were reviewed through analysis of narrative, identifying and linking the central categories with hard data. It is therefore a quantitative study aided by qualitative tools, so it could be classified as mixed. It presents results of the frequency, skill, purpose and type of use that high school students give to the information and communication technologies and how they have mediated the shaping of identities. The data discussed below recognizes the use that young people give to new technologies in relation to school, leisure and consumption, three factors are closely interrelated. All of those who participated in the study claim to be familiar with computer equipment and likewise agree to be users of video games. Their habits are mediated by the coexistence with technology; 95% have a computer at home, 98% of them performed at least three tasks simultaneously: chating with friends (several at once), watching TV series and performing tasks related to school work. Which implies a symbolic and physical transformation of the reality as we conceived it until very recently, [...] social relations are different and [there is an ever-accelerating] adaptation of people to machines, its time, immediacy, versatility, tasks arrangements, etc. but especially all digital systems contribute since the beginning of modernity to redefining the notions of public and private (Rubio, 2010, p. 210).

839


Table 1

Counts with A Computer at Home

Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

209

95

No

11

5

220

100

Total Source: Own compilation

The Net generation experiences the company or the feeling of being accompanied of a sui generis form. They connect with each other in the solitude of their private spaces that are at the same time public, since they observe and are being observed. The paradox, therefore, is that young people are connected to computers, but disconnected from physical contact with those around them. The forms of communication among young people generate a series of patterns, logic and codes so it is conceivable that we are facing a meta language consisting of symbols and signs loaded with intentionality: Some examples that illustrate the latter are pointed out by young at the in-depth interviews. “...we typically use symbols because messages only allow a certain amount of characters, so we have to say more with less.” (Tania, 17 years). “...long messages are generally used by adults and we tend to answer briefly because we are bored of reading too much. When I have my mom or my dad online I rather not answer” (Rodrigo, 18 years). “Oh, it’s better to use symbols or codes between us... if your mom checks you cell she will hardly understand, so you’re out of danger.” (Margaret, 16). “…it’s better to use images, sometimes you just take a picture and there you go, with that you explain more, it's very boring to be writing.” (Carlos, 18 years).

The new generations undergo life experiences that have shaped the habits and customs which had been traditional, it’s enough to remember that two generations ago, the time to do homework involved both the parent and the teacher and the student left all sorts of distractions aside in order to achieve the concentration needed. 80% of participants expressed having their own computer or having a computer available with internet connection; this coincides with the socio-economic level of the surveyed students who attend a private school; 15% have a PC but no internet connection or in the process of hiring the service; 5% report not having a PC but often go the so-called internet cafe in search of service. This means that all of the students are network users. Table 2 Answer

Has Its Own Computer Frequency

Percentage

Pc with internet connection

176

80

Pc without internet connection

33

15

Does not have Pc and goes to internet-café

11

5

220

100


Most of them have internet service (176) and the few ones who do not have internet connection, use alternatives such as the ones called internet-café or their relatives´ home equipment who have internet connection. In any case neither the intervention of parents is indicated in the regulation of internet neither the services it provides.

840


Arturo Garcíaand Laura Hernández (2012) in their publication in the Jornada journal say that according to the AMPICI (Mexican Internet Association), the number of internet users in Mexico were 40.6 millions in 2011, which represents and increase of 14% over 2010. Most connections between 2010 and 2011were made from mobile devices such as cell phones, music players, portable video games console and tablets. Table 3

Copies and Pastes Information without Receiving Any Warning or Remarks

Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

150

68

No

70

32

220

100.0


68% of those interviewed admitted that most of their academic work that involves doing research to present in front of the class, is the result of the widespread practice of “copy and paste”, integrating intact paragraphs, without receiving any warning or remarks from their teachers. This shows what is widely known and documented in our country (Gutierrez, 2005; Velenti, 2002), that citizens have serious deficiencies in their reading skills, which becomes a constraint to face the ever-increasing information provided by network. The process of unlearning is increasingly widespread and its dynamic ever faster. One example is enough: a high percentage of contemporary teenagers, no longer write according to the accepted canons of Spanish grammar, instead, they do it the same way they do it on Facebook on the Internet: without syntactic rules, mixing jargon with common words and performing a mass of signs, numbers and single syllables between expressive faces and profanity. The problem is not that such sui generis cyber code exists and that the young people master it, the problem is that they increasingly use it as a substitute to their native language. A person who has entered such type of dynamic, in the short term will tend not to make sense neither in the traditional reading nor in the narrative contents. Instead of reading skills, students will have developed skills in interpreting visual images, user-friendly information and simultaneous attention. For today's students “doing homework” may lengthen the time necessary without causing them any concern, since the activity is interleaved with other tasks, so the space for homework and recreation is the same, potentiated with electronic equipment required for stablishing ongoing communication. Beck (2006) finds that the school is no longer a mediating entity that prepares youth for social life by transmitting knowledge. Tapscoot (2007) identifies the internet as a place where youngsters can learn, experience and grow and therefore need the freedom to navigate the digital world and not otherwise. The empirical study confirms this; 89% of those interviewed agreed to perform simultaneous activities such as watching videos, downloading movies, sending messages by phone, or purchasing applications or items online, accessing their blog or entering forums, without affecting their academic performance. Of the 220 participants only 11%, which translates into 24 students, claims not to perform other activities simultaneously to the completion of their academic tasks.

841


Table 4 Performs Simultaneous Activities Without Affecting Their Performance Answer

Frequeny

Percentage

Yes

196

89

No

24

11

220

100.0


For young people, homework has turned into a challenge towards the development of strategies that allow them to save time and motion, in a similar manner to the old Taylorist model. Young people, therefore, have become true strategists who copy, paste, transform, paraphrase, maim or break down what's done in order to comply in the shortest time and with the minimal effort. Lipovetsky and Juvin (2011) clearly summarize this time-space relationship in this new reality, when they point out that the space has somewhat shrunk and the time has accelerated. The young along with the adults have entered the era of space-time worldwide, the global cyberspace, which does not mean in any case, the disappearance of cultural distances. They dedicate a range that goes from 20 minutes up to two hours or even all day to school work. Table 5 Answer

Time Dedicated to School Work Frequency

Percentage

10 10 20 minutes

0

0

20 to 40 minutes

88

40

40 minutes to 1 hour

66

30

More than an hour

22

10

All day

44

20

Total

220

100.0

Source: Own compilation

In relation to school, another interesting fact is the opinion held by students about educational spaces or virtual online training. Usually, we tend to attribute to adolescents preference for online learning spaces, however, to the specific question of their preference for receiving this modality, 96% expressed a preference for maintaining face interaction, face to face with their peers and teachers although they do not deny the importance of maintaining an extracurricular online support, i.e., they exhibit a strong preference for blended learning (b-learning). In this regard, Georgina Diaz (2006) notes that the appropriate use of information technology can facilitate participation productively and responsibly at all times of the learning activity and stimulate the development of their cognitive independence and creativity, having to face in different ways, the search for the necessary information that allows them to guide their own learning in accordance with their individual characteristics, limitations and potential. This optimistic view, however, does not always proceed in an environment where users of information technologies have other priorities, not necessarily related to the use of the devices in the discrimination of valuable information. The speed of the network connectivity, the communication style and the consumption patterns foster a

842


dynamic and fragmented thinking, taking into account that the notion of time only implies here and now. Due to these, the topics of interests that typically occupy the young are related to issues that concern their daily lives. For example, knowing what their friends are doing right when they login, monitoring the lives of their artists, music groups and in a much lower degree, political or economic issues that affect their environment. Table 6 Preference for Online Education Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

9

4

No

211

96

220

100.0


58% frequently use the educational platform of the institution to perform their school activities. The Internet facilitates the creation of a social reality based on simulation, which is powerfully signified and represented in an environment of risk and uncertainty regarding the information found in it. Anyone with a computer and a modem can be presented as a researcher or electronic publisher with the ability to disseminate information to a global audience. Table 7

Use of School Platform

Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

128

58

No

92

42

220

100.0


The Internet as a powerful vehicle for publication expands and exploits the information. The question that every internet user makes himself is: How to evaluate the quality and accuracy of this information? Just because a document appears online on the internet does not mean it contains valuable information, and that is precisely what young people responded when they were asked how many hours they spend in front of computer, they invest doing their homework: 15% use one hour, in contrast with 13% which employ three to four hours a day chatting, in addition 89% of those surveyed said they are unable to discriminate dubious information and locate reliable sources. Lets recall that the global model, among his most evocative mechanisms brought along the so called Information and Communication Technologies, which have the peculiarity that once incorporated into the daily life of the subject, they are indispensable and in some cases create dependence among its users. Table 8

Importance of the Physical Presence of the Teacher to Acquire Knowledge

Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

187

85

No

11

5

Sometimes

22

10

220

100.0


843


85% of participants believe that their teachers are important in order for them to be able to obtain the proper knowledge. While the remaining 15% felt different, this is due to the fact that the abundance of information available to them online deprives the teacher from their task of transmitting knowledge. Majó and Marqués (2002) consider it necessary to make a change in the education system and therefore the main actors, students and teachers, as a reflection of society and of the generations that live in it, as well as progress in Pedagogy and Psychology science (learning styles, constructivism among others), which go towards a student-centered learning; what becomes clear is that the roles of the participants must be modified, some of the professors who teach at this institution are not entirely familiar with the use of technology when delivering their classes. Let us remember that some of the characteristics of information and communication technologies, according to Orlando Arratia (2006), is the interactivity, defined as the responsiveness of the user through an interface that mediates between him and the computer, since one of the most important changes in the new information society is a break from the space-time coordinates as single framework from human activity. Computer networks eliminate the need that existed for many years to coincide in space and time for participation in activities.

4. Conclusions Today young people under 19 make up more than 40% of all internet users in the country, which is why, studies aimed toward understanding the behavior, attitudes and uses given to the network become research lines necessary for decision-making at all levels. The data provided in the study confirm that the young high school students, population under study, have incorporated the internet to most of their daily activities thereby changing behaviors, attitudes and values towards the family and school, institutions that had been socially considered as symbols of tradition and identity. Identity understood as the sense of belonging and identification with interests and motivations in an individual and collective level have been diversifying and instead new forms of collaboration, transference and identification with different groups, subjects and circumstances have appear. What compels us to think about the creation of new identities mediated by situations that respond to the immediacy that individuals face day to day. The habits of the vast majority of young people are mediated by coexistence with technology. Some features attributed to those participating in this study are: all respondents possess digital skills and almost all have their own computer equipment; activities related to school tasks are performed simultaneously with actions such as talking with friends on facebook (several at once), following the TV shows, listening to music and attending competitive games online. This translates into a new way of looking at reality and therefore, in the formation of new paradigms of explanation of their social existence. In the world of the young, where everything is new, computers do not seem, as in the case of adults, extraordinary events. The attitudes of students toward the information and communication technologies, are generally positive when they have had a rewarding experience; while the attitudes of adults seem less positive, both before and after the experience. This situation represents a challenge for all Educational Institutions, especially for the Instituto Tabasco which, as private school is committed to parents and school authorities to submit updated curriculum maps and that are related to the reality that each of its students has to live; if we assume that the information is the raw material for the generation of knowledge and the internet puts it within reach of our young high school students,

844


and in a new format that is digital, which can be accessed easily, quickly and comfortably it is obvious that the capabilities they must develop and the skills that they must acquire will have to be related to the selection, search, evaluation, storage and handling processes of that information. With the arrival of technology in the daily lives of the participants in this study, new lifestyles and ways of perceiving the world are incorporated. Technology and digitalization make up much of their social life. It is undeniable that this institution is facing an urgent need to update and redesign their plans and curricula in order to train its students for the challenges that life might present them. It is a fact that all participants in this study belong to the Net Generation. The blackboard and chalk should no longer occupy the central place, they must be replaced by electronic whiteboards, to thereby achieve more dynamic classes, always ensuring that the technology is at the service of the teaching and learning processes, preventing the teacher and the students from being preoccupied with the technology and thus causing these processes to be distorted. References Arratia O. (2006). “Young.com: Internet in the neighborhoods of conchabamb”, Bolivia: Fundation PIEB. Beck U. (2006). “Sons of liberty”, México: Fund Economic Culture. (Orig. 1997) Baumann Z. (2008). “Consumer life”, México: National Council for Culture and the Arts. Castells M. (1996). The Information Age: The Network Society, Vol.1, Madrid: Publishing Alliance. Cendros J. and Urdaneta E. (2006). “Internet icon of postmodernism”, Frenesís, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 134-152, available online at: http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2317589. Diaz G. (2006). Theoretical and Methodological Concept for Computer Use in the Teaching-Learnig Process from A Developer Perspective, Havana City: Higer Institute Teaching “José Varona”. Dubet F. and Martucelli D. (1998). In School: Sociology of the School Experience, Buenos Aires: Publishing Losada. Feixa C. (1999). “Youth, bands and tribes”, cited by Weiss E., “Students as young: The process of subjetivation”, Educational Magazine Profiles, Vol. 34, No. 135, pp. 134–148, available online at: http://scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0185-26982012000100009&script=sci_arttex&tlng=en. Garmendia and Garitaonandia (2007). “Eukids on line: A Project for children and youth safety online”, Barcelona, presentation at Congress FEF. Gutiérrez A. (2005). Reading: An Essential Ability of Citizens of the Century XXI— The Case of Mexico, Spain: University of Murcia. La Jornada (2012). “Grown100% in five years the number of internet users in the country”, National Journal, Friday may 18, p. 21, Mexico D.F. Lipovetsky G. and Hervé J. (2011). The Globalized West: A Discussion of the Planetary Culture, Madrid: Anagrama. Majó J. and Marquéx P. (2002). The Educational Revolution in the Internet Age, Barcelona: Cisspraxis. Reguillo R. (2000). Apparition Youth Cultures: Strategies Dissapointment, Bogota: Norma Editorial Group. Rubio A. (2010). “Digital generation: Internet consumption patterns, youth culture and social change”, Journal of Youth Studies, Vol. 88, pp. 201- 221, available online at: http://www.injuve.es/contenidos.diwnloadatt.action?id=290289448. Tapscott D. (2001) “Digital natives and learning: Approach to the development of the concept”, Icono, Vol. 14, No. 12, available online at: http://www.icono14.net. Valenti P. (2002). “The information society in Latin American and the Caribbean: ICT and new institutional framework”, Latin American Journal of Science, Technology and Innovation of the OEI, available online at: http://www.campus-oei.org/revistactsy/numero2/valenti.htm. Weiss E. (2012). “Students as young: The process of subjectivation”, Educational Magazine Profiles, Vol. 34, No. 135, pp. 134–148, available onlien at: http://scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0185-26982012000100009&script=sci_arttex&tlng=en.

845


Health Care, Care Provider and Client Satisfaction: Transforming Health Care Delivery System for Improved Health Care Seeking Behaviour Francisca Chika Anyanwu, Sylvester Reuben Okeke  (Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria)

Abstract: Health care seeking behaviour is central to the health status of individuals and groups in any society. All nations of the world rely on its human capital to drive national developmental effort. Societal growth and development cannot be guaranteed if the human resources needed to drive developmental effort are not operating at their zest. Seeking health care is greatly influenced by factors at the individual and the health care delivery system levels. This study investigated the influence of quality of health care, cost and convenience on the health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan. The study employed the descriptive survey research design and simple random sampling technique was used to select 1122 accommodated undergraduates as respondents. Data were collected using a self developed and validated questionnaire which yielded a reliability index of 0.78 on the Cronbach alpha scale. Collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentages as well as inferential statistics of simple and multiple regressions at 0.05 alpha level. Findings indicated that quality of care, cost and convenience significantly influenced health seeking behaviour. Transformation of the health care delivery system to improve on the quality of care as well as make care accessible through affordability and convenience was recommended. Key words: health care seeking, cost of care, quality of care, development, transformation

1. Introduction Development constitutes one of the greatest aspirations of every country of the world. With emerging challenges, there is corresponding developmental need. Development is said to be sustainable when present developmental effort does not jeopardize future development. For individuals and groups in the society to maximally contribute their quota to developmental effort, they must be healthy. This assertion is premised on the fact that one can perform only to the extent to which his health status supports. The human system can be likened to the machine which can and does break down. Accumulated stress, hazards, infection or even genetic material can impinge on an individual’s health status thereby exposing him to a health problem. Absolute health status is considered utopian as an individual can hardly maintain a state in which he can be said to be totally “whole”. Man therefore operates on a health continuum that ranges from poor health to optimum Francisca Chika Anyanwu, Ph.D., Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, University of Ibadan; research areas/interests: school and community health. E-mail: [email protected]. Sylvester Reuben Okeke, Master, Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, University of Ibadan; research areas/interests: sexual health and health seeking behaviour of in-school adolescents and young people. E-mail: [email protected]. 846

Health Care, Care Provider and Client Satisfaction: Transforming Health Care Delivery System for Improved Health Care Seeking Behaviour

health. Movement towards the right hand side of the continuum is desirable and tends to optimum health while when movement is in the reverse case; it tends to morbidity and mortality. When there is movement in the continuum towards the negative side, there is always a corresponding response by the individual concerned. Various responses shown during this situation can be categorized into three. First, efforts are made to restore balance without prompting and this effort can be desirable or otherwise. Second, action is delayed by the individual as he tends to ignore the signs and symptoms and third, actions are taken based on the direct advice or cohesion of a significant other or one’s perception of what action a significant other would have taken. The responses of individuals when their health is threatened is known as health seeking behaviour. The issue of health care-seeking behaviour is central to health systems and status of people in all society. Ward, Mertens, and Thomas (1997) defined health seeking behaviour as any action undertaken by individuals who perceive themselves to have a health problem or to be ill for the purpose of finding an appropriate remedy. Where, how and when health care is sought determine to a great extent the level to which a diseased individual survives. Foster and Anderson (1980) contributed immensely to unraveling the process of health seeking behaviour. While tracing the process of health seeking behaviour, they tied it to the explanatory model. According to them, the explanatory model of a particular illness consists of signs and symptoms by which the illness is recognized; presumed cause of the illness and prognosis established. Accordingly, these are in turn interpreted by individuals and or significant others on labeling the problem; proceed to address it appropriately through recommended therapies. The factors determining health seeking behaviours, according to Shaikh and Hatcher (2005) may be seen in various contexts: physical, socio-economic, cultural and political. There is a growing literature on health seeking behaviours and the determinants of health services utilization especially in the context of developing countries. Shaikh and Hatcher (2005) thus opined that the utilization of a health care system, public or private, formal or non-formal, may depend on socio-demographic factors, social structures, level of education, cultural beliefs and practices, gender discrimination, status of women, economic and political systems environmental conditions, and the disease pattern and health care system itself. The issue of the health care system as it is presently in Nigeria needs serious overhaul. This overhauling which needs to be multifaceted has health care providers’ attitude as a very significant facet if health seeking in hospitals is to be improved. The problem of care providers’ poor attitude to work and provision of care is not totally unconnected with the fact that many, if not most of these hospitals are grossly understaffed. As such, these centres are meant to carry more load in terms of provider-consumer ratio as well as facilities/equipment and consumer ratio. It might not also be unconnected with the low level of motivation especially among health care providers in public hospitals who vent the spleen of their work stress and frustration on ailing consumers who in no least way has purposely contributed to their plight. When attitude towards work is poor, the quality of care provided is greatly affected. In health care provision, even nostrums can work wonders when the right attitude is employed in administering them. Cases abound where clients manifest preference to a particular provider in a given facility and would not want to be attended to by any other provider. This, in some instances, is built on the provider-client rapport which may lie in the hands of the provider to build. In a similar vein, Shaw, (2001) noted that for seeking health care, people must consider the symptoms of a health threat and have resources available. Meanwhile, Shaikh and Hatcher (2007) added that health care seeking behaviour is not only a matter of knowledge about the cause and treatment of the disease, but also of perceived

847


seriousness and duration, cultural practices and socio-economic status while Shaikh, Haran, Hatcher and Iqbal (2007) indicated that perceived quality of the health care expected, availability and cost of medicine, distance to hospital, and user fees charged are factors determining health seeking behaviour. However, Olenja (2003) believed that health seeking behaviour is preceded by a decision making process that is further governed by individual and/or household behaviour, community norms and expectations as well as provider related characteristics and behaviour. For this reason the nature of health seeking is not homogenous depending on cognitive and non-cognitive factors that call for a contextual analysis of care seeking behaviour. A health care seeking model will therefore involve recognition of symptoms, perceived nature of illness, followed initially by appropriate home care and monitoring. This may necessitate seeking care at the health facility, medication and compliance. Treatment failure may require a return to the health facility or an alternative care provider. Thus client based factors, provider-based factors, caretaker perceptions; social and demographic factors, cost, social networks and biological signs and symptoms work synergistically to produce a pattern of health seeking behaviour (Olenja, 2003). Citing Foster and Anderson (1980), Olenja (2003), established that underutilization of modern health services is rarely due to the influence of local beliefs or an aversion of western medicine but rather, it depends on the cost and availability of those services. In the University Health Services (Jaja Clinic) which is the health facility for staff and students in the University of Ibadan, the former (cost) is less likely to be a factor since health care services are received without cost after payment of school fees by students. Whereas availability and physical access is important, it has become apparent that students’ perspectives on the quality of care as experienced through the client (student)-provider encounter is assumed to play a major role in health seeking behaviour of students. An essential factor in determining whether a person seeking health care complies with treatment and maintains a relationship with the health facility and/or provider is client satisfaction. Client satisfaction may be described as the subjective assessment of quality of services received by the client. The assessment of client satisfaction, according to Ringheim (2002) is based on the verbal and non-verbal interaction that occurs between the health provider and individuals seeking information or services. Depending on the nature of the interaction, the physical environment and the provider attitude, this experience may influence the student’s perspective of the quality of services and ultimately influence the subsequent health seeking behaviour of the student. As stated earlier, all nations rely on its human capital in the creation and pursuit of growth and development. Bourne (2009) observed that the human capital will be able to accomplish societal objectives for growth and development only on the fundamental premise that the people are in good health. There is little or nothing one can achieve in a diseased state or in a state of low health status. At school, good health status is fundamental and germane to excellent academic performance, general well being and wholesome living. When health is threatened, there is corresponding response in form of health seeking. A cursory look at the health seeking behaviour of individuals and groups in the community reveals poor health seeking behaviour as self-medication is a common practice. The health care delivery system in Nigeria needs total transformation to ensure that quality health care service is provided at a cost that clients are able and willing to pay. It is also important to ensure that accessing health care at the various formal health care service centres is done without undue stress and hassle. When clients are not satisfied with the quality of care they receive or consider the cost in resources, time and effort in accessing such care not commiserate with the service; they resort to seeking health in other settings. Various factors influence the health seeking behaviour of people in the community as earlier enunciated. For 848


improved health care seeking behaviour, the formal health care delivery system must be transformed and repositioned to provide quality service at a cost that individuals and groups in the community can afford without undue stress. With improved health care seeking behaviour, societal growth and development is guaranteed as the impact of morbidity on productivity will be greatly reduced. This study therefore examined the influence of quality of care, cost and convenience on the health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan.

2. Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are: (1) To examine the settings where undergraduates in the University of Ibadan seek health care. (2) To examine the influence of quality of health care on the health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan. (3) To examine the influence of cost of care on the health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan. (4) To examine the influence of convenience on the health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan.

3. Research Question The study sought answer to the understated question: What are the various settings where undergraduates in the University of Ibadan seek health care?

4. Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested: (1) Quality of care will not significantly influence health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan. (2) Cost of care will not significantly influence health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan. (3) Convenience will not significantly influence health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan.

4. Methodology The descriptive survey research design was used in this study. The population comprised all accommodated undergraduates in the University of Ibadan in the 2011/2012 academic session in which the study was conducted. 1200 undergraduates were sampled across the halls of residence using simple random sampling technique. The research instrument was a self structured questionnaire with three sections and 23 items. The first section was on demographic data of respondents while the second was concerned with generating data on the health seeking behaviour with the last section focusing on factors that influence the health care seeking behaviour of respondents. The research instrument was subjected to experts’ judgment for content and construct validity. The reliability estimate of the instrument yielded 0.78 index on the Cronbach alpha scale which was used to test the reliability of

849


the instrument. However, analysis was based on 1122 questionnaires that were completely filled and returned. Collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequency counts and simple percentages and inferential statistics of linear regression at 0.05 significance level.

5. Result 5.1 Research Question What are the various settings where undergraduates in the University of Ibadan seek health care? Table 1

Percentage Distribution of Respondents’ Health Seeking Settings

SETTINGS WHERE HEALTH CARE IS SOUGHT

YES

NO

Public hospital (e.g., University Health Services)

963 (85.83%)

159 (14.17%)

Private hospital

554 (49.48%)

568 (50.52%)

Traditional healers’ home

38 (3.39%)

1084 (96.61%)

Chemist shop (Patent medicine shops)

1044 (93.05%)

78 (6.95%)

Prayer houses

209 (18.63%)

913 (81.37%)

Table 1 revealed that patent medicine dealers enjoyed more patronage than the government owned hospital which is even located right inside the university community. The table revealed that a greater percentage of the respondents (93.05%) stated that they patronize patent medicine shops with a lesser percentage (85.83%) stating that they patronize government hospital. Findings indicated that traditional healers’ home recorded the least patronage with a percentage of 0.31%. 5.2 Hypothesis One Quality of care will not significantly influence health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan Table 2

Regression Table Showing Influence of Quality of Care on Health Seeking Behaviour

R

0.065

R Square

0.004

Adjusted R Square

0.003

Std. Error of the Estimate

1.54172

ANOVA Model

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Regression

11.475

1

11.475

4.828

.028

Residual

2664.519

1121

2.377

Total

2675.995

1122

a. Predictor: (Constant), QUALITY OF CARE b. Dependent Variable: HEALTH CARE SEEKING BEHAVIOUR

Table 2 revealed that quality of care has significant influence on health care seeking behaviour of the respondents (R = 0.65, p < 0.05). The table further revealed that 0.3% (Adj. R2 = 0.003) of the variance in health care seeking behaviour among undergraduates in the University of Ibadan were accountable for by quality of health care. Furthermore, the ANOVA results from the regression analysis showed that there was significant

850


influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable; F (1, 1121) = 4.828, P < .05. 5.3 Hypothesis Two Convenience will not significantly influence health care seeking behaviour of undergraduates in the University of Ibadan Table 3

Regression Table Showing Influence of Convenience on Health Seeking Behaviour

R

0.234

R Square

0.055

Adjusted R Square

0.054

Std. Error of the Estimate

1.50219

ANOVA Model

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Regression

146.373

1

146.373

64.865

.000

Residual

2529.621

1121

2.257

Total

2675.995

1122

a. Predictor: (Constant), CONVENIENCE b. Dependent Variable: HEALTH CARE SEEKING BEHAVIOUR

Table 3 revealed that convenience has significant influence on health care seeking behaviour of the respondents (R = 0.234, p < 0.05). The table further revealed that 5.4% (Adj. R2 = 0.054) of the variance in health care seeking behaviour among undergraduates in the University of Ibadan were accountable for by convenience of seeking health. Furthermore, the ANOVA results from the regression analysis showed that there was significant influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable; F(1, 1121) = 64.865, p < .05.

6. Discussion of Findings Findings of the study revealed that although a substantial proportion of the respondents seek health care at the university clinic, self medication seem to be on the high side. Findings revealed that the percentage of respondents who seek health care at patent medicine shops surpasses those that use available health care service. This has serious implication for stakeholders as the negative effect of self medication to health is colossal. It is of utmost importance to reposition the health care system in order to maximize utilization among the populace. Client satisfaction is at the heart of service utilization as subsequent utilization might be forestalled by unsatisfactory service. Effort aimed at ensuring client satisfaction transcends delivery of quality service to the attitude of the service provider. The finding of this study corroborates the observation of Shaikh, Haran, Hatcher and Iqbal (2007) in which quality of care was reported as a significant determinant of health care seeking behaviour. With regards to quality of care, the result indicated that quality of care has significant influence on the health care seeking behaviour of respondents. This confirms the fact that man as a rational being would always act purposefully. An individual in need of health care would normally consider all options open to him and make decision based on a thoughtful consideration of these options. The formal health care delivery system (hospitals) will enjoy patronage if individuals are convinced that the quality of care provided at a particular hospital is of high

851


quality. People tend to make thoughtful decision in expending their hard earned cash and as such, no one would want to waste resources to access care that is not commiserate with the cost in time, resources and effort expended in accessing such care. Again, purchasing power is central to health seeking behaviour as an individual might be deterred from seeking care in a formal setting or a particular formal setting due to lack of resources to foot the bill of such care. This finding of the study which established cost as a significant factor influencing health care seeking behaviour is in line with the findings of Shaw (2001) and Olenja (2003) which among other factors identified cost of accessing care as a major determinant of health care seeking behaviour. It also confirms the findings of Nyamongo (2002), Ha, Berman and Larson (2002) as well as the views of Park (2007) that purchasing power plays crucial role in utilization of health care services. Furthermore, the result of this study revealed that convenience of seeking health care significantly influenced health care seeking among the respondents. Convenience is denoted by the ease with which health care is accessed. The present status of health care delivery system in Nigeria greatly falls short of this factor. This is not unconnected with the fact that most public hospitals are made to bear larger load as they could carry. This over stretches both the facilities and the number of care providers. For instance, accessing health care at the university health centre takes a whole lot of time and at the pre-study interview, a sizeable number of students cited time wasting as a major factor why they do not utilize the centre. It is therefore important to make health service accessible to people by transforming the health care delivery system through improved service delivery.

7. Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, it is concluded that health care seeking behaviour of the respondents will be greatly improved if there is improved quality of care at an affordable cost. Transforming the health care delivery system would make health care available and accessible without hassle and this would also greatly improve health care seeking behaviour of the respondents.

8. Recommendation An extensive sensitization campaign needs to be embarked upon to create awareness among the population on the dangers of self medication. The university community radio could serve as a good medium to this end. Apart from the university community radio, hand bills and posters could be distributed and strategically placed to carry the message of the dangers of self medication. It is also important to sensitize the population in particular and the university community in general on the need of seeking health care once any abnormally is sensed. This is built on the fact that the survival level of anyone experiencing a health threat is to a great extent built on where, how and when health care is sought. The University Health Services, the Office of the Dean of Students and departments and units in the university concerned with public health must as a matter of utmost necessity ensure that this sensitization is a reality as health is wealth. Effort must be made to reposition the University Health Services for greater efficiency. The only room that can never be filled in life is the room for improvement, as such; the University Health Services must therefore spare no cost and effort in ensuring that it improves on its services. On the part of the university administration and the Federal Ministry of Health, the centre can be transformed to a centre of excellence to provide health care to members of the university community and beyond. Expansion in form of addition of more units and recruitment of more care providers might also prove very helpful in repositioning the centre. The University Health Services 852


must instill confidence in members of the university community in terms of quality of care, cost in time and effort as well as cost of drugs that are not in stock. Effort must be made to remove bureaucratic bottlenecks bedeviling the provision of health care that is of high quality at an affordable cost and care that can be accessed without undue stress. The University Health Services as a primary health care centre must strive to uphold the declaration of Alma Ata Conference of 1978 in which simplicity, acceptability and affordability were enshrined as basic tenets of first level health care service. References Bourne P. A. (2009). “Socio-demographic determinants of health seeking care-seeking behaviour, self reported illness and self-evaluated health status in Jamaica”, International Journal of Collaborative Research on Internal Medicine and Public Health, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 101–130. Foster G. M. and Anderson B. G. (1980). Medical Anthropology, New York: John Wiley K Sons John Wiley and sons Inc. Ha N. T., Berman P. and Larsen U. (2002). “Household utilization and expenditure on private and public health services in Vietnam”, Health Policy Plan, Vol. 17, pp. 61–70. Nyamongo I. K. (2002). “Health care switching behaviour of malaria patients in a Kenyan rural community”, Soc Sci Med, pp. 377–386. Olenja (2003). Health Seeking Behaviour in Context, Editorial: East African Medical Journal. Park K. (2007). Preventive and Social Medicine, Jabalpur: Bhanot Publishers. Ringheim K. (2002). “When the client is male: Client-provider interaction from gender perspective”, International Family Planning Perspective, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 170–175. Shaikh B. T. and Hatcher J. (2005). “Health seeking behaviour and health service utilization in Pakistan: Challenging the policy makers”, Journal of Public Health, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 49–54. Shaikh B. T., Haran D., Hatcher J. and Iqbal A. S. (2007). “Studying health seeking behaviour: Collecting reliable data, conducting comprehensive analysis”, J Bio Soc Sci., Vol. 40, pp. 53–68. Shaw C. (2001). “A review of the psychosocial predictors of help-seeking behaviour and impact on quality of life in people with urinary incontinence”, J Clin Nurs., Vol. 10, pp. 15–24. Ward H., Mertens T. and Thomas C. (1997). “Health seeking behaviour and the control of sexually transmitted diseases”, Health Policy and Planning, Vol. 12., pp. 19–28.

853


Dokuz Eylul University Graduate School of Health Sciences: Does It Meet The Basic Standards of ORPHEUS/AMSE/WFME? A Self-Evaluation Tuğba Yardimci1, Canan Demir Barutcu2, Gül Güner Akdoğan2, İbrahim Astarcıoğlu2  (1. Department of Internal Medicine Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey; 2. Graduate School of Health Sciences, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey)

Abstract: The mission of doctoral education in Dokuz Eylül University (DEU) is to train independent researchers, capable of transferring their knowledge and skills to different environments, globally. DEU is reknown, in Turkey and abroad, for its reforms in doctoral education. The university has made intensive efforts to collaborate with international organizations involving doctoral education. For evaluation, the self-evaluation questionnaire was used to test compliance to the Standards for PhD programmes and the level of a PhD degree in biomedicine and health sciences prepared by ORPHEUS, the Association of Medical Schools in Europe (AMSE), and the World Federation for Medical Education (WFME). It is observed that the Graduate school meets the majority of these standards. The graduate school is strong in the definition and transparency of the main procedures of PhD training, the guidelines of which are developed by the Higher Education Commission (YOK) act in Ankara. Some of the points which need amendment and/or further progress, on the basis of this evaluation are; the supervisor should not be a formal member of the thesis jury, the number of credited formal courses need to be reduced and the equivalence of the thesis to 3–4 in extenso international papers should be more clearly defined. Key words: PhD, education, Turkey, Orpheus, basic standards

1. Introduction The mission of doctoral education in Dokuz Eylül University is to train independent researchers, capable of transferring their knowledge and skills to different environments, globally. Dokuz Eylül University (Izmir) is one of the largest universities in Turkey, both with respect to undergraduate and graduate education. All institutional programmes have been adapted to the Bologna process, and the University has received the Bologna label. Dokuz Eylül University is reknown, in Turkey and abroad, for its reforms in doctoral education. The university has made intensive efforts to collaborate with international organizations involving doctoral education: The Graduate School of Health Sciences has been a member of ORPHEUS (Organization for PhD Education in Biomedicine and Health

Corresponding author: Tuğba Yardimci, Ph.D. Candidate, Research Assistant, Department of Internal Medicine Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, Dokuz Eylul University; research areas/interests: nursing science, cardiology, internal medicine, Ph.D. education. E-mail: [email protected]. Canan Demir Barutcu, Ph.D. Candidate, Research Assistant, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Dokuz Eylül University. Gül Güner Akdoğan, EUA-CDE-DEU Coordinator, Department of Molecular Medicine, Dokuz Eylül University. İbrahim Astarcıoğlu, Director of Graduate School of Health Sciences, Dokuz Eylül University. 854

Dokuz Eylul University Graduate School of Health Sciences: Does It Meet The Basic Standards of ORPHEUS/AMSE/WFME? A Self-Evaluation

Sciences in the European System) since 2007; the University, besides being a member of the EUA, is also among the five institutional members of the EUA-CDE (since 2008). Dokuz Eylül University is also represented in the FRINDOC project (EU Project for Internationalization of Doctoral Training). In its efforts to develop the quality of its PhD training, the Graduate School of Health Sciences has undertaken a self-evaluation to determine the extent to which it fulfils the requirements of ORPHEUS/AMSE/WFME PhD Standards.

2. Method For evaluation, the self-evaluation questonnaire which was prepared by the ORPHEUS the Association of Medical Schools in Europe (AMSE), and the World Federation for Medical Education (WFME) standarts document was used. The document proposed a set of standards for PhD programmes and the level of a PhD degree in biomedicine and health sciences. Self-evaluation questionnaire requested to complete about 60 items. The standards are about research environment, outcomes, admission policy and criteria, PhD training programme, supervision, PhD thesis, assesment and structure. For each item, the completed questionnaire should provide sufficient detail to allow evaluation of the extent to which the institution appears to comply with the ORPHEUS PhD standards. About 50 words were expected for the response to each item.

3. Results Following is the results of a self-evaluation based on the ORPHEUS/AMSE/WFME PhD Standards Document. Here is presented only the Basic Standards that should be met from the outset.

Theme

“Basic standard”

Table 1 Basic Standards What DEU Graduate school offers

1. Research environment Strong research environment around every PhD project. Facilities must be compatible with the requirements of completing the PhD project

Research consistent with international ethical standards

The research environment offered includes the department where the Doctoral training is pursued, the Graduate school of health sciences, the entire university, and the strong universities in the country as well as abroad, with which there are established links. The research facilities offered depends on the specific area where the research is pursued. The Health campus offers a Research and Innovation Centre supported by a governmental grant, an R-Lab (Central Research Facility), and the departmental laboratories for research. The projects are supported by the University, as well as by TUBITAK and the EU. Every research project proposal has to be firstly approved by an appropriate Ethical Committee. On Dokuz Eylül University health campus, there are three functioning Ethical Committees: Ethical Commitee for Clinical Research, Ethical Committee for Non-Invasive Research, and an Ethical Committee for Research on Laboratory Animals. These ethical committees are structured and functioning in line with the international ethical standards.

2. Outcomes PhD programmes must provide students with competences to be qualified and independent researchers, according to principles of good research practice

The aim of doctoral programmes in the Graduate school of Health Sciences is to train independent researchers equipped with the scientific knowledge, methodology, and skills which are prerequisite for an established scientist. The principles of good research practice are acquired in the research environment offered, under qualified supervision and facilitated with the structured courses on core knowledge and generic skills. (Table 1 to be continued)

855

Dokuz Eylul University Graduate School of Health Sciences: Does It Meet The Basic Standards of ORPHEUS/AMSE/WFME? A Self-Evaluation (Table 1 continued) A PhD degree must also be of benefit in a career outside academic or clinical research (problem solving, analysis, evaluation, technology transfer etc.)

In order to enable a career outside academic or clinical research, an array of courses for generic skills are offered to the PhD candidate such as: Writing a Project Proposal, Writing a Scientific Article, Biostatistics, Creative Thinking, How to Structure a Biotech Company, Principles of Innovation, etc. DEU campus is hosting a technopark which presents an excellent opportunity for technology transfer.

3. Admission policy and criteria PhD students must be selected on the basis of a competitive and transparent process

Applicants for PhD programmes must have an educational level corresponding to a master’s degree Before enrolment or at clearly defined times during the programme, the institution must evaluate and approve: - Scientific quality of the project - The likelihood that the project can result in a thesis of the required standard within the timeframe - Innovation and creativity in the project - Qualifications of the nominated supervisors A PhD programme must only be initiated when the resources for completion are available

4. PhD training programme Programmes must be based on original research, courses and other activities which include analytical and critical thinking Programmes must be performed under supervision Programmes must ensure that students have substantial training in ethics and responsible conduct of research Programmes must have clear 3-4 year timeframe. Extensions should be possible but limited and exceptional. Programmes must include courses totalling about 30 ECTS. A substantial part must be concerned with training in transferable skills There must be arrangements that allow students to perform part of their programme in another institution, national and abroad Programmes that are performed in parallel with (clinical/professional) training must have the same time for research and course work as any other PhD Progress of PhD students must be continuously assessed throughout the PhD 5. Supervision Each PhD student must have a principal supervisor and when relevant at least one co-supervisor to cover all aspects of the programme

PhD students are selected on a competitive and transparent process, the guidelines of which are developed by the Higher Education Commission (YOK) in Ankara. Namely, a candidate should present an MSc degree (equivalent to at least one year of research) or an MD degree, either present a GRE record or pass a central entrance examination organised by the Higher Education Commission (YOK) (similar to GRE), present a satisfactory result in an English exam (Toefl, etc) and successfully pass the departmental interview with an emphasis on the port-folio. YES YES. Before enrolment, the PhD student candidate’s mastery of the project for which he/she is admitted, undergoes an assessment. At the onset, the supervisor needs to meet the supervision criteria. During the training programme, there is assessment by the Thesis Committee every six months. The Committee submits a written assessment of the progress to the Graduate school. The PhD training programme can be initiated only after the approval of the following: The Graduate School Council-The University Senate- Higher education Commission in Ankara. The resources and the quality of the training programme are assessed. Original research is mandatory. Courses and other scientific activities support the training. The courses, workshops, etc attended by the PhD student are accepted for formal credits. Supervision is done by one or two supervisors and the Supervisory Committee (Thesis committee) In the training programme, the PhD student is introduced to ethics: a course on Ethics is given with formal credits; conferences/seminars are organised on selected topics of ethics In the Turkish system, the normal period is four years. However, the student can ask for extension under acceptable circumstances. The courses, presently total to about 120 ACTS. However, there is a project to decrease these courses, to focus more on what the specific student needs. Through the Erasmus scheme, and through other bilateral collaborations, PhD students, supported by different sources of funding, have the opportunity to pass part of their training abroad. YES The success of the students in the courses are assessed. The thesis is assessed at regular intervals by the Thesis (Supervisory) Committee. Yes. Normally, the second supervisor is from a different discipline, but this is NOT mandatory. (Table 1 to be continued)

856

Dokuz Eylul University Graduate School of Health Sciences: Does It Meet The Basic Standards of ORPHEUS/AMSE/WFME? A Self-Evaluation (Table 1 continued) The number of PhD students per supervisor must be compatible with the supervisor’s workload Supervisors must be scientifically qualified and active scholars in the field concerned Supervisors must have regular consultations with their students (annotation: varies during the programme but will normally mean several times per month) It must be ensured that training for all supervisors and potential supervisors is available. The supervisor-student relationship is key to a successful PhD programme. There must be mutual respect and shared responsibility 6. PhD thesis The PhD thesis must be the basis for evaluating if the student has acquired independent research skills and can evaluate work done by others The benchmark for the thesis must be the expected outcome from 3-4 years research. In health sciences this benchmark is equivalent of at least three in extenso papers in scientific peer-reviewed international journals. In addition to papers the thesis must include a full literature review and full account of aims, method, results, discussion and conclusion. If the thesis is presented in other formats (e.g., as single monograph), the assessment committee must ensure equivalence to the above benchmark A PhD thesis in clinical medicine must meet the same standards as other PhD theses 7. Assessment Acceptance of a PhD thesis must include acceptance of both written thesis and a subsequent oral defence PhD degrees must be awarded by the institution on the recommendation of assessment committee who have evaluated the thesis and the oral defence The assessment committee must consist of established and active scientists without connection to the milieu where the PhD was performed and without conflict of interest. Min. two should be from another institution The supervisor must not be a member of the assessment committee If the assessment of the thesis/defence is negative, the student must normally be given an opportunity to rewrite/an additional defence 8. Structure The graduate school must have sufficient resources for proper conduct of PhD programmes. This includes resources to: Support admission of students, implement the PhD programmes of the students enrolled, assess PhD theses and to award PhD degrees

In the DEU Graduate School of Health Sciences, a faculty member cannot supervise more than 5 PhD students Yes. The supervisor has to present proof of ongoing research project. The Research project administration department of the DEU Rector does not support projects of faculty whose former projects have not been finalised with scientific articvles published internationally. The rule is at least one formal meeting each week.

DEU Graduate school of Health Sciences is the only Graduate School in Turkey which has been offering Supervisor training courses since 2005. YES. The supervisor also supports the PhD student to be part of the scientific society and to plan his/her career.

The PhD thesis is the basis for these assessments. The thesis contains chapters including introduction, critical literature review, full account of aim and objectives, perspectives and plan, methodology, results a thorough discussion and conclusions. In many of the cases, this is so. However, there is no clear-cut criteria that the candidate should present in extenso papers published in international journals. YES It is mandatory that a thesis in clinical medicine, nursing, or physiotherapy meet the same standards. YES YES YES

NOT YET For a PhD thesis, a period of six months is allocated for rewriting the thesis. Additional defence is necessary.

The graduate School conducts the PhD training programmes according to the Higher Education Act of YOK. This includes the criteria for admission, PhD training programme, and PhD thesis assessment.

857

Dokuz Eylul University Graduate School of Health Sciences: Does It Meet The Basic Standards of ORPHEUS/AMSE/WFME? A Self-Evaluation

4. Discussion and Conclusions The self-evaluation of the graduate school of Health Sciences using the ORPHEUS/AMSE/WFME standards has permitted a critical review of the basic standards. It is observed that the Graduate school meets the majority of these standards. The graduate school is strong in the definition and transparency of the main procedures of PhD training, the guidelines of which are developed by the Higher Education Commission (YOK) act in Ankara. The points which need amendment and/or further progress, on the basis of this evaluation, are the following:  The supervisor should Not be a formal member of the thesis jury  The number of credited formal courses need to be reduced  The equivalence of the thesis to 3-4 in extenso international papers should be more clearly defined. References Bologna Process of Dokuz Eylül University, available online at: http://web.deu.edu.tr/bologna/. Institution of Higher Education, available online at: https://bologna.yok.gov.tr/?page=yazi&i=3. ORPHEUS (Organization for PhD Education in Biomedicine and Health Sciences in the European System) (2012). Standards for PhD Education in Biomedicine and Health Sciences in Europe, Aarhus University Press, available online at: http://www.orpheus-med.org. The Bologna Process, available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/education/.../doc1290_en.htm. 2012 Year of the European Higher Education Area: Bologna Process Implementation Report available online at: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice.

858

Journalof Modern Education Review

Journalof Modern Education Review

Suggest Documents

Journalof the - ASBA

Indian Journalof Community Medicine

journalof

Journalof BusinessandEconomics

ISESCO JOURNALof Science and Technology

A review of higher education reform in modern Japan | SpringerLink

ISESCO JOURNALof Science and Technology

Indian Journalof Community Medicine

ISESCO JOURNALof Science and Technology

ISESCO JOURNALof Science and Technology

Indian Journalof Community Medicine

Indian Journalof Community Medicine

New Journalof Chemistry Accepted Manuscript

International Journalof Fatigue - Library

Journalof MEDICINAL FOOD

Journalof the - ASBA

modern law review

MODERN | MANAGEMENT | REVIEW |

modern | management | review

Modern Learning Environments - CORE Education

Modern Technology in Education

JOURNALOF BUSINESS LOGISTICS,Vol.21, No.l ...

Journalof Materials Chemistry A Accepted Manuscript

Offprinted from MODERN LANGUAGE REVIEW