Kindergarten Social-Emotional Competence: Developmental ... - UniCH

Early Child Development and Care, 2002, Vol. 172, pp. 451–462

Kindergarten Social-Emotional Competence: Developmental Predictors and Psychosocial Implications MICHELLE E. SCHMIDTa,*, ELIZABETH K. DEMULDERb and SUSANNE A. DENHAMb a

Department of Psychology, Moravian College, Bethlehem, PA 18018; bGeorge Mason University

(Received 16 June 2002) Forty-nine children (Mage ¼ 46.36 mths) participated in a study of the predictors of social-emotional competence in kindergarten. This study longitudinally examined relations among child-mother attachment at age 3, family stress at ages 3, 4, and 5, and social-emotional outcomes in kindergarten. Attachment was measured using the Attachment Q-Set and family stress was determined using the Life Experiences Survey. At kindergarten age, mothers completed the Child Behavior Checklist=4--18, teachers completed the Preschool Socioaffective Profile, and focal children’s peers completed a sociometric task to determine peer popularity. Results suggest that less secure children are more aggressive and less socially competent in kindergarten, and children who experience more family stress in their preschool years are more aggressive and anxious and less socially competent in kindergarten than their peers who experience less family stress in those same years. Teachers report that boys are more aggressive and anxious in the kindergarten classroom than are girls. Key words: Attachment, Stress, Gender, Behavior

Developmental theorists have long recognized the importance of peer relationships (Erikson, 1950; Piaget, 1973). In fact, the notion that peer relations are a significant component of social competence in early childhood is well documented (see Rubin et al., 1998). Interaction with peers provides challenges in a social learning context distinct from those challenges in interaction with adults (DeMulder, 1995). Through this peer interaction, children develop social skills based on reciprocity (Hartup, 1983). Peers also provide a basis for comparison, thus, aiding in the development of a sense of self in relation to others. Children who experience poor peer relations are more likely to engage in aggressive and disruptive behaviors and may experience loneliness, low self esteem, and an inability to successfully develop social skills (e.g., Asher et al., 1982; Coie and Koeppl, 1990; French and Waas, 1985). Studying peer relations during early childhood is particularly important because it is during this period of development that children develop social knowledge of the peer group and differentiate friends from playmates (Howes, 1987). Because deficiencies in peer relations are associated with behavioral problems and have long-term, developmental implications (e.g., Ainsworth et al., 1978; Ladd et al., 1997; Parker and Asher, 1987), it is * Corresponding author. Tel.: 610-861-1606; Fax: 610-625-7879; E-mail: [email protected]

ISSN 0300-4430 print; ISSN 1476-8275 online # 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd DOI: 10.1080=0300443022000034979

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important to understand early risk conditions that may be associated with these developmental problems. The current study longitudinally examines the roles of attachment and maternal reported stress in predicting peer relations and social competence in early childhood, and investigates different developmental processes for boys and girls. Although the nature and quality of relationships with peers are distinct from those with adults, they are not independent. Parent-child relationships generally precede the development of peer relationships, and therefore play a role in influencing the child’s experiences in subsequent relationships (Hinde, 1987). With respect to attachment relationships and peer interaction, this influence is seen as a major underlying determinant. Attachment theory proposes that the quality of attachment between mother and child will have significant implications for later relationships and behaviors (Bowlby, 1969=1982; 1973; 1980). Early secure attachment relationships lay the foundation for a sense of trust in others that will carry him or her confidently and successfully into future relationships. There is a large body of empirical evidence that supports the theoretical assumption of links between early attachments with caregivers and subsequent social relationships and behavior (e.g., Cohn, 1990; LaFreniere and Sroufe, 1985; Lyons-Ruth et al., 1993; Main and Cassidy, 1988; Main and Weston, 1981; Sroufe and Fleeson, 1986; Youngblade and Belsky, 1992). In fact, researchers have found that children who are more securely attached with mother during infancy tend to engage in more positive social interactions with peers (e.g., Kerns and Barth, 1995; Rose-Krasnor et al., 1996) and show fewer behavioral problems (e.g., Wartner et al., 1994). Securely attached children also are likely to engage in more successful play and achieve more friendships with agemates (e.g., Park and Waters, 1989; Youngblade and Belsky, 1992; Waters et al., 1979), be more cooperative and able to regulate tempo of play (Kerns and Gruys, 1995), and receive more positive responses from peers in play (e.g., Jacobson and Wille, 1986). Studies suggest that securely attached children are more ego-resilient (Arend et al., 1980) and are more likely to solve conflict by themselves (Suess et al., 1992) than are their insecure counterparts. Attachment theory proposes that early insecure attachment relationships give rise to negative expectations and beliefs of self and of attachment figures (Bowlby, 1969=1982; 1973; 1980). These expectations and beliefs may lead to a personality characterized by mistrust, leading to relationships characterized by interpersonal hostility, insensitivity, and lack of empathy. Studies of mother–child attachment have provided supporting evidence that insecure attachment is related to more problem behaviors (e.g., Erickson et al., 1985; Goldberg et al., 1995; Shaw and Vondra, 1995; Sroufe et al., 1990; Suess et al., 1990) and lower ratings of popularity and competence by both peers and teachers (Cohn, 1990). Insecurely attached children also have been found to engage in fewer positive emotional interactions with their peers (Fagot, 1997; Steele et al., 1999) and express either restrained or exaggerated expressions of negative affect (Blokland and Goldberg, 1995; Lyons-Ruth et al., 1993). A variety of theories have been proposed to explain why hypothesized connections between attachment with caregivers and relationships with peers are sensible assumptions (see Bretherton, 1992; Thompson, 1999; Waters and Cummings, 2000). Thompson (1999) provided a comprehensive discussion of theories that help to explain why these relationships should exist, as well as why they may not always exist. First, in support of these relations, borrowing from object relations theory, Thompson cited Bowlby’s internal working model concept to describe how individuals develop unconscious representations of their caregivers and of themselves, and use these developing, self-perpetuating representations as models when choosing their own behaviors, understanding others’ behaviors, and seeking out partners. Second, using an Eriksonian stage theory explanation, Thompson considered how earlier experiences and the successful or unsuccessful resolution of previous psychosocial

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conflicts affect future development. For example, Erikson describes the task of developing trust over mistrust in infancy. A child who succeeds in developing a sense of trust in his environment will likely have an easier time becoming a more autonomous toddler with a greater sense of initiative as a preschooler. Although a large number of studies have reported the relations among attachment and peer variables, it is only a small proportion of these studies that have longitudinally examined these relations. In order to gain a fuller understanding of these relations, a goal of our current work was to explore longitudinal associations between child-mother attachment and mother-rated child behavior, teacher-rated child behavior, and peer-ratings of popularity. Specifically, it is proposed that the more securely attached preschooler will experience greater popularity with peers, fewer externalizing and internalizing problems, and higher levels of social competence with peers than the less securely attached preschooler. A second major goal of this study was to examine how the presence of family stress can affect the relations between attachment at age 3 and emotional and social competence at age 5. Stress has been cited as an impetus for interruption in the expected course of development in children’s lives. For example, family stressors such as divorce and marital discord have been related to problem behaviors in childhood (e.g., Emery, 1982; Hetherington and Martin, 1979; Lyons-Ruth, 1996). It is believed that more securely attached children will be better able to handle stress when it occurs in their lives because of stronger cohesion, communication, and stability within the family. In contrast, those children who are less securely attached may be at an increased risk for negative consequences when faced with stressful life circumstances (Egeland and Sroufe, 1981; Erickson et al., 1985; Sroufe, 1983). Although our examination of stress does not focus on one specific stressor, we will examine the presence of a variety of stressful life events that may affect the child’s development. This approach is consistent with the multiple risk framework which indicates that as the number of risk factors increases, the likelihood of problems also increases (e.g., Garmezy, 1987). It is predicted that preschoolers in families in which mothers report higher incidents of stress will suffer more negative outcomes in kindergarten, particularly if they had an insecure attachment relationship with mother at age 3. The third major goal of this project was to examine gender differences that might exist between attachment, behavior, and peer relations. Gender differences have been documented in studies that examined relations between attachment and behavior (e.g., Cohn, 1990; DeMulder et al., 2000; LaFreniere and Sroufe, 1986; Turner, 1991). For example, Turner (1991) found that insecure boys were more likely to exhibit behaviors characterized as externalizing in nature, whereas insecure girls were more likely to exhibit internalizing behaviors. Cohn (1990) found significant relations between infant attachment and later popularity, behavior problems, and social competence for boys only. DeMulder, Denham, Schmidt, and Mitchell (2000) found stronger relations among family stress, child–mother insecurity, and concurrent preschool difficulties for boys than for girls. These gender differences make developmental sense because it is during the preschool years that children focus their social lives within same-sex groups or dyads (Maccoby, 1999). Within these same-sex groups, preschoolers extend what they learned during early socialization within the family unit and consequently differ in their play styles, activities, and interests; in fact, Maccoby (1999) describes boys’ and girls’ groups as two distinct cultures. Researchers have found empirical support for parents’ different socialization practices with their sons and daughters (e.g., Fagot et al., 1992; Garner et al., 1997), and for different socialization practices associated with different attachment classifications (Fagot and Kavanagh, 1993; Turner, 1993). Due to both theoretical and empirical evidence for the existence of gender differences generally, we will examine gender differences in the proposed relations.

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METHOD Participants The sample was comprised of 49 preschool children (M ¼ 46.36 months; 26 boys, 23 girls) followed for 2 years. The participating families were predominately Caucasian and middle to upper-middle class, and recruited through preschools and day cares in Northern Virginia. Measures and Procedures Attachment q-sort In order to assess attachment behavior with mother in the home, the Attachment Q-sort (AQS; Waters and Deane, 1985) was completed for each child at age 3. A total of 3 home visits took place for approximately 6 hours of total observation time over a period of 2–3 weeks. On the first home visit, the visitor interacted with the child in an attempt to make the child comfortable with a stranger in the home. During the next two visits, there were fewer interactions between the observer and the family as the visitor tried to remove him or herself from the mother–child interaction. The home visitor took extensive notes on the observations immediately after each home visit was completed. After the home observations were completed, the home visitor completed the 90-item q-sort. The 90 behavioral items of the Attachment Q-sort were sorted into nine piles (4-7-11-15-16-15-11-7-4), forming a normal distribution. The obtained sort was then correlated with a sort of the ‘‘hypothetically most secure child’’, provided by Everett Waters. A security coefficient, with a potential range of 1.00 (least secure) to þ1.00 (most secure), was obtained for each child. Attachment observers were trained and reliability was conducted on 6 reliability tapes provided by G. Posada. Composite reliability for all raters with the reliability criterion sort ranged from 0.68 to 0.84. The average security coefficient for the current sample was 0.37 (see Tab. I). This score was used to separate the sample into ‘‘low secure’’ and ‘‘high secure’’ groups because this dichotomization resulted in 38% of the sample classified as ‘‘low secure’’ and 62% of the sample classified as ‘‘high secure’’. These percentages are similar to the 37% insecure and 63% secure reported in Ainsworth’s original research (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Life Experiences Survey Families were asked to complete the Life Experiences Survey (LES; Sarason et al., 1978) at the start of the study ( preschool), as well as one year later and two years later

TABLE I Descriptive Statistics for Independent and Dependent Variables. Variable Security Coefficient (AQS) Total Stress (LES) Angry=Aggressive (CBI) Anxious=Withdrawn (CBI) Social Competence (CBI) Internalizing Problems (CBCL) Externalizing Problems (CBCL) Peer Popularity (sociometrics)

M

SD

0.37 13.77 18.77 21.30 45.63 46.51 47.16 6.42

0.25 14.19 11.22 7.55 8.94 5.17 6.50 2.20


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(kindergarten age). The LES presents 50 life events, ranging from a minor law violation to the death of a close family member. Mothers were instructed to indicate whether any of the events occurred over the last year and what impact that event had on her life. Impact is rated on a scale ranging from extremely negative (3) to no impact (0) to extremely positive (þ3). DeMulder, Denham, Schmidt, and Mitchell (2000) reported stress as the sum of the negative ratings of stress for the previous year. When predicting the current kindergarten outcomes measures, stress was calculated in the same way (i.e., the sum of the negative ratings across the three years reported). For the current sample, Year 1 stress ranged from 0 to 30 (M ¼ 4.99), Year 2 stress ranged from 0 to 18 (M ¼ 4.41), and Year 3 stress ranged from 0 to 21 (M ¼ 4.38). When summed, the range for the sums was 0 to 62 (M ¼ 13.78) (see Tab. I). The median (MDN ¼ 10) was used to split the scores into ‘‘low stress’’ and ‘‘high stress’’ groups. Internal consistency reliability alphas for Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3 stress were 0.79, 0.66, and 0.60, respectively. Preschool Socioaffective Proﬁle Kindergarten teachers were asked to complete the Preschool Socioaffective Profile (La Freniere et al., 1992) in order to assess children’s behaviors in the classroom. The questionnaire contains 30 questions, scaled from 1 (not like the child) to 6 (very much like the child). Three variables are obtained (La Freniere et al., 1992): angry=aggressive behavior (e.g., forces other children to do things; hits teacher when angry); anxious=withdrawn behavior (e.g., inhibited or uneasy in a group; timid, afraid, avoids new situations); and social competence (e.g., negotiates solutions to conflicts; comforts or assists children in difficulty). High internal consistency reliability was obtained for each of the three factors (angry a ¼ 0.87; withdrawn a ¼ 0.88; social competence a ¼ 0.90). Child Behavior Checklist At kindergarten age, children’s mothers were contacted by mail and asked to complete the Child Behavior Checklist=4–18 (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991). The CBCL contains 113 behavioral norm-referenced items (e.g., argues a lot; demands a lot of attention) that are answered on a scale of 0 (not true) to 2 (very true or often true). Syndrome scales from the CBCL were used. These scales include the Externalizing scale, which incorporates the Delinquent and Aggressive Behavior scales, and the Internalizing scale, which includes the Withdrawn, Somatic Complaints, and Anxious=Depressed scales. Achenbach reported intra-class correlations in the 0.90 range for inter-interviewer and testretest reliabilities; test-retest reliabilities of the problem scales were 0.89 over a 7-day period; and interparent agreement for the problem scales had mean rs ranging from 0.65 to 0.75. Sociometrics At kindergarten age, each participating child’s peers who had parental permission completed a sociometric task in the kindergarten classroom (revised version of Asher et al., 1979). A member of the research team made approximately 3 visits to the kindergarten for the purpose of getting to know the children in the class. After the initial visits, each child in the class, whose parent had given active consent, was taken out of the classroom on one occasion for approximately 10 minutes to complete the sociometric measure. Each child sorted cards with classmates’ names into 5 piles, ranging from sad=dislike (1) to neutral (3) to happy=like a lot (5) faces. Each child’s popularity score was obtained in the following manner: ((# in pile 4 þ # in pile 5) 7 (# in pile 1 þ # in pile 2))=(number of ratings). This formula produced a

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popularity score by adding up the positive ratings, subtracting out the negative ratings, and eliminating the neutral ratings. Test-retest reliability of the sociometrics over a one-year period was 0.56 ( p < 0.001).

RESULTS Correlations Correlations indicate that lower security of attachment with mother at age 3 predicted higher aggression and lower social competence; higher stress over the preschool years predicted higher aggression and anxiety; and boys were more aggressive and anxious than girls in the kindergarten classroom (see Tab. II).

Analyses of Variance Six 2 2 2 ANOVAs were run to assess the individual and combined effects of attachment with mother at age 3 (Low Secure=High Secure), stress over the course of the preceding 3 years (Low Stress=High Stress), and child gender (Male=Female) on the following kindergarten outcome ratings: (a) maternal reports of internalizing and externalizing problems, (b) teacher reports of anger-aggression, anxiousness, and social competence, and (c) peer rated popularity (see Tab. III). Teacher Reported Child Behavior There were main effects of stress on teacher ratings of aggression (F(1,49) ¼ 7.31, p 0.01), anxiety (F(1,49) ¼ 5.64, p 0.05), and social competence (F(l,49) ¼ 4.59, p 0.05); main effects of gender on teacher ratings of aggression (F(1,49) ¼ 6.66, p 0.01) and anxiety (F(1,49) ¼ 8.46, p 0.01); and a main effect of attachment on aggression (F(1,49) ¼ 5.44, p 0.05) and social competence (F(1,49) ¼ 3.89, p ¼ 0.05). These results suggest that children who experienced more family stress in their preschool years are more angry=aggressive and anxious=withdrawn, and less socially competent in the kindergarten classroom than their peers who experienced less family stress in those same years. Boys, as rated by teachers, are more angry=aggressive and anxious=withdrawn than girls in the kindergarten classroom. Finally, children who were rated as lower on security of attachment with mother at age 3 are more aggressive and less socially competent in the kindergarten classroom.

TABLE II Correlation Coefficients Between Variables and Attachment, Stress, and Gender. Outcome Variables Angry=Aggressive Anxious=Withdrawn Social Competence Internalizing Problems Externalizing Problems Peer Popularity **p 0.01; *p 0.05; {p 0.10.

Kindergarten

Outcome

Attachment (r)

Stress (r)

Gender (r)

0.42** 0.07 0.32* 0.05 0.15 0.02

0.32* 0.29* 0.24 0.07 0.11 0.03

0.32* 0.33* 0.25 0.11 0.09 0.03

KINDERGARTEN SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE TABLE III Variables.

Analyses of Variance for CBCL, CBI, and Sociometric

Source

df

F

p

Externalizing Problems Attachment Stress Gender Attachment Stress Attachment Gender Stress Gender Attachment Stress Gender Error Internalizing Problems Attachment Stress Gender Attachment Stress Attachment Gender Stress Gender Attachment Stress Gender Error

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 41

1.09 0.38 0.84 1.13 0.08 0.11 0.47

0.30 0.53 0.36 0.29 0.77 0.73 0.49

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 41

0.08 0.26 0.28 0.01 0.16 0.05 0.74

0.77 0.60 0.59 0.92 0.68 0.81 0.39

Anger=Aggression Attachment Stress Gender Attachment Stress Attachment Gender Stress Gender Attachment Stress Gender Error

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 41

5.44 7.31 6.66 3.12 0.82 1.35 0.33

0.02* 0.01* 0.01* 0.08{ 0.36 0.25 0.56

Anxious=Withdrawn Attachment Stress Gender Attachment Stress Attachment Gender Stress Gender Attachment Stress Gender Error

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 41

0.00 5.64 8.46 0.56 3.15 0.17 1.32

0.95 0.02* 0.00** 0.45 0.08{ 0.67 0.25

Social Competence Attachment Stress Gender Attachment Stress Attachment Gender Stress Gender Attachment Stress Gender Error

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 41

3.89 4.59 1.61 1.90 1.55 0.00 1.01

0.05* 0.03* 0.21 0.17 0.21 0.94 0.31

Peer Popularity Attachment Stress Gender Attachment Stress Attachment Gender Stress Gender Attachment Stress Gender Error

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 37

0.29 0.26 0.37 1.52 7.42 1.52 2.83

0.58 0.61 0.54 0.22 0.01** 0.22 0.10{

**p 0.01; *p 0.05; {p 0.10.

457

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FIGURE 1 Interaction effect of attachment gender on peer popularity.

Mother Reported Child Behavior There were no significant main effects or interactions for Externalizing Problems or Internalizing Problems. Peer Reported Popularity There was a significant two-way interaction of attachment gender (F(1,45) ¼ 7.42, p 0.01) on peer popularity. The two-way interaction suggests that there is an important difference between insecure girls and insecure boys, where insecure boys are able to achieve a higher level of popularity than insecure girls (see Fig. 1).

DISCUSSION The goals of this longitudinal study were (a) to examine attachment security with mother measured at age 3 in relation to mother ratings of internalizing and externalizing behavior=problems, teacher ratings of child behavior in the classroom, and peer ratings of popularity at kindergarten age; (b) to determine how family stress experienced over the three years prior to kindergarten impacts the aforementioned relations; and (c) to examine whether these relations are different for boys and girls. The current study showed that differentiating between low and high security of attachment with mother, low and high family stress, and boys and girls, provides meaningful information about the social-emotional competence at kindergarten age. Consistent with attachment theory and previous research, the current study found support for the relation between security of attachment and outcome measures two years later. Specifically, the relation between child–mother security of attachment measured during preschool and teacher ratings of anger=aggression and social competence measured during kindergarten demonstrate that children who have less secure relationships with their mothers are at a social-emotional disadvantage by the time they reach kindergarten. These findings


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replicate earlier studies indicating predictive relations between attachment and behavior (e.g., Cohn, 1990; Turner, 1991). The current study’s limited relations between attachment and subsequent behavior is consistent with some other studies that failed to find associations with early child–mother attachment (e.g., Booth et al., 1994; Oppenheim et al., 1988). The absence of some expected findings could be related to the fact that the measure of attachment security using the q-sort methodology was specific to the child–mother relationship, yet the five-year-old has been exposed to a number of different caregivers. It is necessary to consider the integration of influences from multiple caregivers (Oppenheim et al., 1988). Further investigation is necessary in this area in order to understand how child outcomes are related to the child’s multiple attachment relationships. It also is possible that the nature of the mother–child relationship changed over the course of the two years after it was measured. Additionally, beyond attachment, there is a myriad of other factors that could influence development. Future longitudinal studies might examine attachment each year of data collection, in combination with other predictors, in order to establish a multi-point comparison of attachment status and behavior. Overall, researchers must work to understand inconsistent results relating to attachment, as well as to investigate factors that might combine with attachment status to influence development. There is an accumulating literature citing the negative impact of stress on child development. The current findings provided additional support for this literature. Higher levels of mother reported family stress over the preschool years were associated with higher ratings of anger=aggression and anxiety=withdrawal and with lower ratings of social competence in the kindergarten classroom. These reports of problem behavior demonstrate the heightened risk for children exposed to the effects of family stress. The current study revealed a number of gender differences for the variables under investigation. As would be expected, teachers rated boys as significantly less socially competent, and more angry=aggressive and anxious=withdrawn than girls. These findings are consistent with other studies that report more problems among boys than girls early in life. Fagot and Kavanagh (1993) suggested that parents may be engaging in more instructional interactions with girls than with boys, thus, leaving boys to continue their undesirable behaviors in the absence of active teaching aimed at reducing those behaviors. Interestingly, attachment, stress, and gender were related only to teacher and peer reports of the child’s social-emotional competence, and not to mother ratings of child behavior. Although counterintuitive at first glance, discrepancies in mother and teacher ratings on variables that are theoretically related (e.g., externalizing problems and anger=aggression) are not uncommon (Sattler, 1992). In fact, these discrepancies may reflect the child’s different behaviors based on the situation or the environment. Rater differences also may reflect the rater’s familiarity with the child, level of tolerance for behavior problems, personality, and expectations of the child. It also is possible that in the current study, the absence of significant findings for mothers’ reports of internalizing and externalizing problems might be better understood when qualified by the fact that less than 10% of the children in this sample reached clinical levels on the Child Behavior Rating Scale. Therefore, the behaviors represented by mother reports did not reach ‘‘problem’’ levels for an overwhelming majority of the sample, and thus, resulted in limited variability in the variables indicating internalizing and externalizing problems. The current study used a strong design to provide useful information about the connections between children’s family lives during early childhood and subsequent behaviors and relationships at kindergarten age. It is meaningful to predict child behavior when taking into account multiple behaviors, in multiple settings, rated by multiple reporters, and studied longitudinally over a period of several years. Specifically, children were examined at three

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time points, were assessed both at home and at school, were evaluated by three sources (teacher, mother, peers), and were assessed on a variety of social and behavioral outcomes. The results help to confirm the importance and predictive ability of early relationships and behaviors. Generally speaking, children who are less securely attached and who experience higher levels of family stress are at a heightened risk for compromised development in early childhood. Through identification of early risk factors, it is possible to devise preventive interventions that focus on children, their families, and their classrooms. These interventions would ideally provide additional support so that children could develop the competence needed to succeed both socially and academically in kindergarten. Future research should continue to examine how family environments and other social environments influence one another. Our research in this area should be extended to include more diverse samples that represent families of lower socioeconomic status, different racial backgrounds, and various family structures (e.g., divorced, blended, or single-parent homes). Additionally, this research should expand to include relationships beyond the mother–child relationship. Although several studies have reported that child–mother attachments are better predictors of behavior than child–father attachments (Main et al., 1985; Main and Weston, 1981), the literature on these relations is limited. With a better understanding of the risk factors in children’s development over the course of the first five years of life, better preventive strategies can be devised. Acknowledgements This work was supported by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health and the National Science Foundation, and by a faculty research grant from Moravian College. We thank the members of our research team at George Mason University for their help with data collection, and the families who welcomed us into their lives for three years. References Achenbach, T. M. (1991) Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist=4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E. and Wall, S. (1978) Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Arend, R., Gove, F. L. and Sroufe, L. A. (1980) Continuity of individual adaptation from infancy to kindergarten: A predictive study of ego resiliency and curiosity in preschoolers, Child Development, 50, 950–959. Asher, S. R., Renshaw, P. D. and Hymel, S. (1982) Peer relations and the development of social skills, In: Moore, S. G. and Cooper, C. R. (Eds.), The Young Child: Reviews of Research (Vol. 3). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children, pp. 137–158. Asher, S. R., Singleton, L. C., Tinsley, B. R. and Hymel, S. A reliable sociometric measure for preschool children, Developmental Psychology, 15, 443–444. Blokland, K. and Goldberg, S. (1995) Infant Attachment and Three Year Old Emotional Expression. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Indianapolis, IN. Booth, C. L., Rose-Krasnor, L., McKinnon, J. and Rubin, K. H. (1994) Predicting social adjustment in middle childhood: the role of preschool attachment security and maternal style, Social Development, 3, 189–204. Bowlby, J. (1973) Attachment and Loss (Vol. 2), Separation. New York: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (1969=1982) Attachment and Loss (Vol. 1), Attachment (2d). New York: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (1980) Attachment and Loss III: Loss, Sadness, and Depression. London: Hogarth. Bretherton, I. (1992) The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, Developmental Psychology, 28, 759–775. Cohn, D. (1990) Child-mother attachment of six-year-olds and social competence at school, Child Development, 61, 152–162. Cassidy, J. (1988) Child-mother attachment and the self in six-year-olds, Child Development, 59, 121–134. Coie, J. D. and Koeppl, G. K. (1990) Adapting intervention to the problems of aggressive and disruptive rejected children, In: Asher, S. R. and Coie, J. D. (Eds.), Peer Rejection in Childhood. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 309–337.


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