Geoderma 314 (2018) 27–36
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Land use and land cover dynamics in Dendi-Jeldu hilly-mountainous areas in the central Ethiopian highlands
MARK
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Muluneh Mintaa,b, , Kibebew Kibretb, Peter Thornec, Tassew Nigussied, Lisanework Nigatub a
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Holetta Research Center, Holetta, Ethiopia Haramaya University, School of Natural Resources Management and Environmental Science, Harar, Ethiopia c International Livestock Research Institute, People, Livestock and Environment, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia d Geomark System Plc., Addis Ababa, Ethiopia b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Yvan Capowiez
The central Ethiopian highlands where most human and livestock populations concentrated have experienced a drastic change in land use and land cover (LULC) of the landscapes. This study was aimed to define the rate and pattern of LULC changes in Dendi-Jeldu hilly-mountainous areas in the central Ethiopia. Aerial photographs of years 1957 and 1995, and Landsat images taken at 1995 and 2014 were used to analyze the historical land use and land cover (LULC) changes. The study covered an area of about 438 km2. The analysis extracted from these remote sensing data revealed that, in 1957, the dominant LULCs were pastureland, cultivated land (cropland) and forestland covering 49, 25 and 20% of the total area, respectively. Remarkable LULC change dominated by cultivated land expansion (now covering 68% of the total area), however, claimed vast areas under pastureland (main), forestland and woodland. Deforestation in particular, would have been greater if Chilimo forest (remnant afro-montane forest) was not under state control. Plantation forestry exclusively dominated by eucalyptus species also showed substantial expansion into pastureland in the period between 1957 and 1995, and cultivated land between 1995 and 2014. In the period 1957 to 2014 cultivated land, plantation land and settlement were increased by 170%, 13,674% and 172% respectively, while pastureland, forestland and woodland declined by 67%, 73% and 100%, respectively. Change from natural habitat (pastureland, forestland and woodland) to other land uses (cultivated, plantation and settlement lands) is likely to have a large impact on biodiversity, land degradation and beyond.
Keywords: Land use Land cover Remote sensing GIS Central Ethiopian highlands
1. Introduction Since time immemorial, humankind has modified the natural environment to obtain food, fiber, freshwater, medical products and other essential materials. The extent and pace of human alterations of land surface increased rapidly over the last three centuries, and accelerated over the last three decades (Ramankutty et al. 2006; Lambin et al. 2001; Agarwal et al. 2000). Changes in land use (human purpose or intent applied to biophysical attributes of the earth's surface) and land cover (biophysical attributes of the earth's surface) are key forms of human impacts on the natural environment driven by multiple interacting factors including demographic, social, economic, political, economic, technological and institutional variables (Braimoh and Vlek 2008; Mather 2006; Brookfield 1999). Changes in any of these drivers (underlying factors) usually result in changes in one or more of the proximate factors (recurrent set of activities such as land clearing, cultivated land expansion, and urbanization) (Geist et al. 2006). The driving
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factors thereby LULC change varies in time and space depending on the specific human-environment conditions. Land use and land cover change is generally a concern due to its pervasive effects on loss of biodiversity, soil degradation and a reduced ability of the landscape to sustain natural resources and ecosystem services (Muriuki et al. 2011; Ellis and Pontius 2007; Chhabra et al. 2006). Since the past few decades, significant LULC change has been taking place in the Ethiopian highlands (> 1500 m.a.s.l). Several studies pointed out that deforestation and expansion of cultivated land into marginal areas are the principal forms of LULC change in most upland areas of the country (Lemenih et al. 2005; Feoli et al. 2002; Zeleke and Hurni 2001). Despite some authors (Nyssen et al. 2004; Melaku 1992) are skeptical about often cited 40% forest cover of the Ethiopian landscape in 1900 (EFAP 1994) and estimates of forest cover are inconsistent (Pankhurst 1995; Von Breitenbach 1961), several research reports dealing with LULC changes and evidences from the local communities affirm widespread deforestation from the highlands in search
Corresponding author at: Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Holetta Research Center, Holetta, Ethiopia. E-mail address:
[email protected] (M. Minta).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.10.035 Received 10 May 2017; Received in revised form 22 September 2017; Accepted 26 October 2017 0016-7061/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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elevation areas around Ginchi. Oat (Avena sativa L.) and enset1 (Enset ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman) are also grown in most areas of the study site. Cattle, sheep and horses are dominant livestock species used by the smallholder farmers. Forest encroachment has been the major problem (Mowo et al. 2006) and natural woodlands are almost extinct with the exception of the remnant dry afromountane Chilimo forest (about 2400 ha) and, on agricultural land. Eucalyptus globulus is the dominant tree species widely used for construction and to meet the energy needs of the rural community. Based on projected estimate (CSA 2013), population density in the study area is estimated to be 170 persons per square kilometer.
of new cultivated and grazing lands. It appears that, agriculture is the greatest forces of land transformation in the highlands. Due to favorable climatic and ecological conditions, the Ethiopian highlands (43% of the total area) have a long history of settlement and sedentary agriculture, thereby hosting and supporting the greatest proportion of the country's population (Pankhurt and Piguet 2009; Amsalu et al. 2007). Currently, agriculture occupies the majority of the land area in the highlands (FAO 2006; Sonneveld and Keyzer 2003). However, the growth of the sector is not keeping up with rapid population growth (CSA 2014; Minale 2013). Such a dynamic tension between the increasing population and agricultural productivity has forced the continued expansion of cultivated land into increasingly steeply sloping landscapes under natural habitats (Hurni 1993; EFAP 1994; Sanchez et al. 1997; Nyssen et al. 2009). Despite concerns about LULC change emerged in the research agenda on global environmental change several decades ago (Lambin et al. 2003), in Ethiopia studies on LULC change has received research interest very recently. The evidence base is very limited and spatially concentrated in specific areas, mainly in the Northern highlands (Blue Nile river basin) and some in rift valley lake basins (Tefera et al. 2002; Muluneh 2010). However, resource availability, their dynamics and management vary considerably over time and from area to area (Veldkamp and Lambin 2001). In the study area, there is no previous data that would help to understand historical LULC change and related issues with the exception of a study made on deforestation of Chilimo forest (Melaku 2003). Several studies in the different parts of the country are required for a profound understanding of the dynamics in the human-environment interactions at different spatial and temporal scales (Veldkamp and Verburg 2004). This would be useful to make better “generalities” on patterns of LULC change and likely impacts on ecosystem functioning in Ethiopia. Therefore, this research addressed the rates and patterns of LULC change (1957–2014) in Dendi-Jeldu mountainous areas in the central Ethiopian highlands and provides information on the implications to environmental sustainability and the livelihoods of farming communities.
2.2. Land use and land cover classification and measure of changes The spatial and temporal dynamics of the different LULC classes were investigated using remote sensing data (aerial photos and satellite images) of the period from 1957 to 2014, covering 57 years. The study period was divided into three time intervals, (1957–1980, 1980–1995, 1995–2004) based on the availability of reliable remote sensing data. These periods did not superimpose exactly on the three ruling regimes [monarchic (1930–1974), socialist Derg (1974–1991) and Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front EPRDF (since 1991)] but there was a significant overlap between periods and regimes. The three regimes are distinct in their economic policies and land tenure system (Rashid et al. 2007). For time series LULC change analysis, aerial photographs (1957 and 1980) and satellite images (1995 and 2014) were used in combination. The two sets of panchromatic aerial photographs taken during the dry seasons (December) of 1957 and (January) 1980 at a scale of 1:50,000 obtained from Ethiopian mapping authority (EMA); and multispectral satellite images (Landsat TM (1995) and ETM+ (2014)) with a pixel size of 30 m × 30 m obtained from USGS.gov. Orthographic correction on the aerial photographs (scanned at 1016 dpi) was carried out using 90 m Aster DEM data. Aerial photos of 1980 were geo-referenced according to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system using a 1:50,000 topographic map (series: ETH 4; sheet: 0938 C3; edition: 1 EMA 1982) of the study area. The 1957 aerial photographs were georeferenced using referenced 1980 aerial photos. Satellite images of 1995 and 2014 were also geometrically rectified and registered to a 1980 aerial photos. Before classification, different LULC classes were extracted from the aerial photos. For satellite images, pre-processing was carried out using color composites in RGB transformation. To classify LULC types, a false color grid composite image was developed using ERDAS virtual Geographical Information System (GIS) analyzer. First, unsupervised classification was made to get the major land parcels which then used for supervised classification. Training sites and ground verification using Geographical Positioning System (GPS) were employed to verify the accuracy of the LULC map of 2014 with field points. About 750 random ground control (truths) points were used for verification of LULC classification outputs. Some inaccessible control points were taken from high resolution images of Google earth. The classification was done using the maximum likelihood classifier as described by Lillesand and Kiefer (1999). Finally, the LULC maps of the respective reference years (1957, 1980, 1995 and 2014) at a scale of 1:120,000 and temporal changes in LULC were determined and analyzed for interpretation. Due to quality problems in some aerial photographs and satellite images, six LULC classes were distinguished (see the LULC classes and their description in Table 1). These include: cultivated land, pastureland, forestland, woodland, settlement and plantation (eucalyptus) land. Others such as degraded/bare lands, long-term fallow
2. Methods 2.1. Location The study area falls in three districts (Weredas) of West Shewa Zone, namely Dendi, Jeldu and Elfata in Oromia National Regional State, central Ethiopian highlands. The location lies between 9° 00′ 54″–9° 15′ 18″ N latitude and 38° 02′ 10″–38° 13′ 35″ E longitude covering about 438 km2 (Fig. 1). The altitude ranges between 2200 and 3100 m above sea level. Geographically the study area is characterized by extensive plateau of undulating landscape dissected by mountain ranges and incised river valleys highly vulnerable to land degradation (Mowo et al. 2006). The majority of the area represents tepid-cool highlands agroecological zones of Ethiopia most suitable for human settlement and livestock production (EIAR 2011). The rainfall is bimodal with an average annual rainfall of 1400 mm in high elevation areas while low elevation areas receive 1042 mm (Adimasu et al. 2012; Mekonnen 2007). Sixty five percent of the total annual rainfall occurs during the main rainy season (June–September), while the short rains (March–May) and dry-period (October–February) receive 24% and 10% respectively. The average minimum and maximum temperature of Dendi areas (southern parts of the study site) is 8.6 °C and 24.2 °C respectively, while that of high elevation areas is 4.9 °C and 19.9 °C respectively (Source: Holeta Agricultural Research Center/HARC). The dominant soil type is Haplic Luvisols (Mekonnen et al. 2008) in association with Eutric Nitisols (FAO/UNESCO 1995). Rain-fed cropping, integrated with livestock production, is the mainstay of smallholder farmers. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) are crops widely cultivated in high elevation areas, while tef, wheat and chickpea are dominant crops grown in the lower
1 Enset is an herbaceous monocot, large, banana like plant that grows 4–8 m in height (Tsegaye and Struik 2001). It is drought tolerant (Adimasu et al., 2012), and its leaves are often used as feed during the dry seasons.
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Fig. 1. Map of the study area.
Table 1 Description of land use and land cover (LULC) classes used to measure the changes in periods 1957 to 2014. Land use land cover class
Description
Cultivated land Pastureland
Includes land areas under cropland with visible patterns on aerial photographs and satellite imageries. This represents areas under natural pasture and very scattered trees used for grazing. Degraded and abandoned farmlands and seasonally waterlogged areas used for grazing when recedes are included in this category. Includes areas under scattered remnant indigenous trees such as Juniperus procera and Podocarpus falcatus, bushes and shrubs with less canopy and ground cover. These land areas are also used for livestock grazing. This represents areas mainly under eucalyptus trees planted on visible plots of varying size but appear dense trees and rough on aerial photographs and imageries. Homestead plantations following fences are not considered in this study. Land areas covered by dense trees and thick vegetation forming a closed canopies, appears rough, clumped and thick in imageries and photographs. Includes residential areas (emerging rural towns, villages) occupied by living houses including backyard.
Woodland Plantation land Forestland Settlement
size and Zonal statistics in ArcGIS Spatial Analyst's tool was used to compute change in the area by cross tabulating pairs of time intervals i.e. 1957 and 1980, 1980 and 1995, 1995 and 2014. Transitions between different land use/land covers were evaluated to measure areas converted among the different land uses. Quantified values of the changes between the different LULC classes were used for statistical analysis to reveal the extent of the dynamics in the study areas. The percentage of change within the same LULC class between two time points is calculated as:
lands and seasonal wetlands were clustered under pastureland to avoid ambiguity between confusing classes. The classification accuracy assessments of the resulting LULC layers of satellite images were carried out by comparing the sample LULC class of the classified layer and the reference layer. The overall accuracy and Kappa analysis were computed to evaluate the degree of classification accuracy of the error matrix (Congalton et al. 1999 cited in Sherefa 2006). Overall accuracy is the sum of correctly classified values (diagonals) divided by the total number of randomly generated reference values of the error matrix (Lillesand et al. 2004). The Kappa coefficient, which measures the difference between the actual agreement of classified map and chance agreement of random classifier compared to reference data, was also calculated as:
Khat =
K K N ∑i = 1 X ab − ∑i = 1 (X a × K N 2 − ∑i = 1 (X a × Xb)
Change (%) =
(Atn − Atn − 1 ) ∗ 100 Atn − 1
(2)
where:
Xb)
Atn - area of specific land use land cover class at time tn Atn − 1 - area of the same land use land cover class at time tn − 1 Change (%) - percent change in the area of specific land use land cover class between times tn and tn − 1
(1)
where: Khat = Kappa coefficient; N is total number of values; ∑i = 1KXab is observed accuracy; and ∑i = 1K(Xa × Xb) is chance accuracy. Post classification, all LULC maps were clipped to a common area using the ArcMap GIS. The vector data was rasterized using 15 m cell
A “land use and land cover shift index (LUSHI)” was calculated to assess LULC type contributing most to specific LULC class expanded remarkably. The index is calculated from the following equation: 29
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LUSHI =
∆LCi − j
Settlement area, sparsely distributed (1% of the total area) in 1957, has also increased by 172.2% between 1957 and 2014, at a rate of 3% per annum (Table 3). The dynamics in the settlement area was irregular, and might be attributed to reduced size of backyards and use for other purposes (plantation, grazing, and crop). Accelerated expansion at a rate of 7% per annum was occurred in period between 1995 and 2014. The limitations from the quality of remote sensing data, especially coarse resolutions (30 m × 30 m pixel size) of satellite images can affect the precision to describe small size features like houses and we expect high probability of generalization. Pastureland which falls under a variety of tenure system and access also experienced a remarkable decline over the last 57 years. In period between 1957 and 1980, conversion of pastureland was slow at a rate of 0.4% per annum. However, 60% of the total area under pastureland in 1957 was converted in period between 1980 and 1995 at an alarming rate of 4% per annum. The rate of conversion, however, decreased to 0.4% between 1995 and 2014 (Table 3). Recent minimal rate of conversion and position of most areas (70%) on landscapes (bottomlands) most vulnerable to seasonal waterlogging suggest the exhaustion of suitable land under pastureland for other uses. A drastic decline in pastureland showed that sustained increase in livestock population was not based on the availability of grazing resources. In addition to partly existing Chilimo forest (one of the few remnant dry Afro-montane forests in Ethiopian plateau), patches of dense forest were common on the landscapes in 1957 (Fig. 5a). The forest cover of the landscape was reduced by almost three fourth (from 20.5% to 5.6%) in periods between 1957 and 2014 (Table 2). In the same period, the woodlots that account for about 6.3% (2744.7 ha) were vanished from the landscape leaving behind few remnant trees (Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus procera, Podocarpus falctus, Olea europaea) in valleys, homestead and sacred areas (Figs. 3 and 4). The highest rate of deforestation took place in two separate periods, 1957–1980 and 1995–2014, at the rate of 1.9% and 2.7% per annum, respectively. During the first period (1957–80) intensive timber production and population pressure induced expansion of grazing and cultivated lands in the later period (1995–2014) were the causes for extensive deforestation in the area. But, forest conversion was lagged from 1980 to 1995. This is attributed to a better state control of the forest resources during the Derg regime (1974–1991). Over six decades, patches of forest cover in the study area denuded and currently only state controlled Chilimo forest which covers about 2470 ha remained. The overall accuracy of the classified images was 91% with a Kappa accuracy of 88% (Table 2). Values of overall accuracy and Kappa values were > 80% indicting that, the classification performance is satisfactory (Lillesand et al., 2004).
(3)
Mean∆LC
where: LUSHI = land use shift index ΔLCi = area of land use land cover class i converted to land use land cover j in period between time 1 and time 2, i.e., period between target reference years Mean ΔLC = mean of areas of all land use land cover types converted to land use land cover type j in period between time 1 and time 2 Note: Land use land cover types contributing most to the expansion of land use land cover j have LUSHI > 1 while less preferred ones have LUSHI < 1. 3. Results 3.1. Land use and land cover dynamics (1957–2014) Landscapes of the study site have experienced a marked change in land use and land cover over the last six decades (Tables 2 and 3; Figs. 2, 5a–d). In 1957, the landscapes were dominated principally by pasture that covered 48.5% of the total area (43,810 ha). However, analysis of four-time periods (1957–1980–1995–2014) revealed progressive expansion of cultivated land during periods between 1957 and 1995, and became a dominant land use type since early 1980s (Fig. 2). Currently, more than two third (67.6%) of the total area is under cultivation, while pastureland occupies only 15.8%. Over the entire study period the coverage of cultivated land, plantation land and settlement area increased by 170.3%, 13,673.8% and 172.2%, respectively, while pastureland, forestland and woodland declined by 67.4%, 100% and 72.5%, respectively (Table 3). The rate and trend of changes varied markedly between land uses, and intervals of the study period. Cultivated land expanded slowly between 1957 and 1980, at a rate of 1.9% per annum. But, accelerated expansion at a rate of 5.9% per annum occurred between 1980 and 1995. Since mid-1990s cultivated land did not change appreciably. Unlike periods before 1995, a decline in cultivated land was seen at a minimal rate of 0.02% per annum. Plantation land occupied only 0.1% (26.2 ha) in 1957, has shown a dramatic increase and reached 8.2% (3609.8 ha) of the total area in 2014. Plantation area increased sustainably with rates exceedingly higher than any other land use and land cover type in the same time periods (Table 3). Plantation land expanded at a rate of 20.5%, 34.5%, and 15.3% per annum in periods 1957–80, 1980–95 and 1995–2014 respectively. In about six decades, plantation area almost occupied by eucalyptus species has increased by 13,673.8%, at a rate of 240% (62 ha) per annum. Assessment on farmers' perception on the causes of rapid expansion revealed its increasing economic significance (fuelwood, construction, income source), land degradation, change in land tenure system and policy stimuli during the Derg regime.
3.2. Trends in transitions between land uses and land cover As discussed in previous section, between 1957 and 2014 pastureland and forestland experienced a remarkable decline by 67.4% and 72.5%, while cultivated land, plantation and settlement area grew by 170.3%, 13,673.8% and 172.2% respectively in period between 1957
Table 2 Area of land use and land cover (LULC) classes for the periods 1957, 1980, 1995 and 2014 in Galessa and the surrounding mountain areas in central Ethiopian highlands. Land use/cover
Cultivated land Pastureland Plantation land Forestland Woodland Settlement Total
1957
1980
1995
2014
Area (ha)
%
Area (ha)
%
Area (ha)
%
Area (ha)
%
10,955.4 21,260.7 26.2 8984.7 2147.0 436.0 43,810
25.0 48.5 0.1 20.5 4.9 1.0 100
15,814.0 19,106.2 149.5 5068.0 2744.6 927.7 43,810
36.1 43.6 0.3 11.6 6.3 2.1 100
29,728.0 7556.3 923.2 5094.1 0.0 508.4 43,810
67.9 17.2 2.1 11.6 0.0 1.2 100
29,608.0 6935.2 3609.7 2470.6 0.0 1186.5 43,810
67.6 15.8 8.3 5.6 0.0 2.7 100
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Table 3 Land use and land cover (LULC) changes for the periods 1957–80, 1980–95 and 1995–2014. Land use/cover
CL PSL PL FL OWL ST
Net change in area (%)
Annual rates of change
1957–80
1980–95
1995–2014
1957–2014
1957–80
1980–95
1995–2014
44.3 − 10.1 470.4 − 43.6 27.8 112.8
88.0 −60.5 517.6 0.5 − 100 −45.2
− 0.4 − 8.2 291.0 − 51.5 − 100 133.4
170.3 − 67.4 13,673.8 − 72.5 − 100.0 172.2
1.9 0.4 20.5 1.9 1.2 4.9
5.9 4.0 34.5 0.03 0 3.0
0.02 0.4 15.3 2.7 0 7.0
CL = cultivated land; PSL = pastureland; PL = plantation land; FL = forestland; WL = open wood land; ST = settlement area.
growth of eucalyptus on degraded lands and increasing prices of fuelwood and construction materials have led farmers to consider plantation as part of their farm diversification and income generation strategies. Field assessment showed that > 34.6% of the respondents planted eucalyptus as part of their farming system and livelihood source. Recently, economic gains, even more than the main crops growing in the area, led to fast expansion and even a surge in eucalyptus plantations into potential arable lands in the cool central Ethiopian highlands. According to farmers' views, the expansion of eucalyptus plantations, especially in potential land is for economic reasons. In addition, severe land degradation further stimulate plantation as a last option land use. Increasing modification of natural forest, and woodland until denuded by eucalyptus and few other species was also seen. This is attributed to replacement effort after commercial use in earlier periods, afforestation program during the Derg regime and plantation by local communities for sale following a new forest management approach “devolved forest governance” in recent decades.
and 2014. Transitions between LULCs constitute the replacement of one type by the other. Human and livestock open access to woodland derived an indiscriminate loss of indigenous wood lots from the entire area between 1980 and 1995 (Table 3). Over the entire period, conversion of pastureland to cultivated land was significant (conversion index ≥ 3.81) compared to other LULC types (Tables 4 and 5). Even if still high, a remarkable decline in the conversion index (2.59) since 1995 was a signal for limited prospect of cultivated land expansion into pastureland (Table 5). Forestland (1957–1980 and 1995–2014) and woodland (1980–1995) were also important sources of land for cropland expansion. Large-scale conversion of cultivated land back to grazing land in earlier period (1957–1980) suggests the prevalence of medium to longterm fallow practice to restore soil fertility. However, in recent decades conversion of cultivated land to grazing and other land cover was increasingly forced by low productivity of land. Another important aspect of LULC conversion is rapid expansion of plantation forestry, a new competitive farm activity withdrawing massive land area from cultivated land throughout the study period, and pastureland between 1957 and 1995 (Table 6). The drivers for growing interest of smallholder farmers in allocating more land for plantation can be viewed in two distinct periods. In the period from 1957 to 1995, expansion of eucalyptus plantations into pastureland was in response dwindling forest resources and increasing shortage of fuelwood. Farmers simply identified fuelwood shortage as the driver of expanding plantations in the area. After 1995, eucalyptus plantation expansion into cultivated land, however, is mainly an economic driver due to land degradation induced low agronomic productivity of most lands in the areas. Successful
4. Discussion 4.1. Land use and land cover dynamics (1957–2014) Cropland expansion into grazing land and forestland in the central Ethiopian highlands is an old phenomenon (Minta et al. 2014; Dercon and Hill 2009; Tesfaye et al. 2008; Zeleke and Hurni 2001). In the study area, accelerated cropland expansion in the period between 1980 and 1995 corresponds with fast population growth (ca. 3.2% per annum). But the case in the late 1970 to 1980s when the country entered into Fig. 2. Trend in land use and land cover change in the uplands of the central Ethiopian highlands (1957–2014).
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Fig. 3. Partial scene of the remnant Chilimo dry Afro-montane forest and typical human activities (cultivated and grazing lands expansion) behind widespread deforestation.
widespread problems of land degradation and feed shortage. Re-conversion of cropland back to either grazing or eucalyptus plantation are apparent indicator of severe land degradation. In local context, disparities in forest conservation policy (BirdLife International 2016; Zerihun and Backéus, 1991 as cited in Bekele 1993)
land reform in 1974 (from feudal arrangement to land to the tillers) possibly stimulated crop agriculture by large disadvantages classes. In particular, cropland expansion into natural ecosystems that occupied steep slope areas without appropriate soil and water conservation measures in the period between 1980 and 1995 has resulted in
Fig. 4. Remnant woodlots in homestead, sacred places and recent cultivated lands and reverine areas indicating historic forest cover of most areas surrounding Chilimo forest.
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Chilimo forest
Fig. 5. a–d. Land use land cover Dynamics (1957–2014) in some parts of Dendi-Jeldu-Elfata districts, Central Ethiopian highlands.
1980 and 1995. After the downfall of the socialist Derg in 1991, the state control over the forest was again weakened and new legislation (in 1994 & 2007) on forest management has allowed local population to involve in forest governance (Kassa et al. 2009; Mohammed and Inoue 2014). During these periods, again vast areas of the Chilimo forest were denuded and currently only about 2470 ha remain under forest cover. A recent forest management approach of “devolved forest governance” is thought to best suit Ethiopia's decentralization agenda and rural development strategies that involve the participation of local
and population pressure (Amha et al. 2013) are drivers of deforestation in the uplands of Dendi-Jeldu districts. Extensive timber production from state controlled areas in periods before 1973 (Mohammed and Inoue 2013; Soromessa and Kelbessa 2013; Negassa and Wiersum 2006; Bekele 1993); and post 1973 (after ban of timber production) deforestation by local peoples, especially during the transition periods of regime changes are critical for forest resources dwindling. Better state control during the socialist Derg regime (Kassa et al. 2009), however, contributed to the maintenance of forest areas in the period between 33
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Table 4 Transitions between major land use and land cover (LULC) between 1957 and 2014, Central Ethiopian highlands.
Land use/land cover 1957–1980 CL FL PSL PL STL OWL Total (ha) 1980–1995 CL FL PSL PL STL OWL Total (ha) 1995–2014 CL FL PSL PL STL OWL Total (ha)
Land use land cover (2nd ref. year)
Total (ha)
CL (ha)
FL (ha)
PSL (ha)
PL (ha)
STL (ha)
OWL (ha)
5567.0 1434.2 7866.6 10.3 191.9 743.9 15,813.9
204.8 4092.4 696.5 0.0 9.8 64.6 5068.1
4484.0 2110.1 11,269.9 10.7 182.3 1049.2 19,106.2
41.0 15.2 77.4 3.3 3.1 9.4 149.4
308.7 86.2 460.3 1.6 36.3 34.8 927.9
349.9 1246.6 889.9 0.4 12.6 245.2 2744.6
10,955.4 8984.7 21,260.6 26.3 436.0 2147.1 43,810.1
12,832.0 1312.7 12,890.7 114.5 732.7 1845.5 29,728.1
499.3 3174.4 1051.0 14.7 37.6 317.3 5094.3
2004.4 422.4 4576.5 15.5 113.3 424.3 7556.4
283.4 116.1 383.7 1.6 13.9 124.4 923.1
194.9 42.5 204.5 3.2 30.2 33.2 508.5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
15,814.0 5068.1 19,106.4 149.5 927.7 2744.7 43,810.4
23,713.2 1177.8 3823.1 527.4 366.6 0 29,608.1
56.3 2376.0 13.3 20.0 5.1 0 2470.7
2623.8 850.3 3220.5 184.0 56.5 0 6935.2
2420.4 616.8 392.6 161.1 18.9 0 3609.8
914.4 73.3 106.7 30.8 61.5 0 1186.6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
29,728.1 5094.2 7556.3 923.2 508.5 – 43,810.4
Note: CL = cultivated land; FL = forestland; PSL = pastureland; PL = plantation land; STL = settlement; OWL = open woodland. Values in shaded cells represent land area remained under that same land use or land cover type.
communities in a “win-win approach for conservation and livelihoods” (Thomas and Bekele 2003) but can also be regarded as a threat. This
nutrients are points of controversy (Chanie et al. 2013; FAO 2011; Oballa et al. 2005). One group describes eucalyptus as ‘ecological fas-
Table 5 Index of different land use and land cover (LULC) conversion to cultivated land in periods 1957–80, 1980–95, and 1995–2014.
Table 6 Index of different land use land cover (LULC) classes conversion to plantation land in the periods 1957–80, 1980–95, and 1995–2014.
Source
Forestland Pastureland Plantation Settlement Woodland Meana
1957–1980
1980–1995
1995–2014
Area converted to cultivated land (ha) 1434.2 1312.7 7866.6 12,890.7 10.3 114.5 191.9 732.7 743.9 1845.5 2049.4 3379.2
1177.8 3823.1 527.4 366.6 – 1473.7
Source
Cultivated land Pastureland Forestland Settlement Woodland Mean*
1957–1980
1980–1995
1995–2014
Area converted to plantation land (ha) 41.0 283.4 77.4 383.7 15.2 116.1 3.1 13.9 9.4 124.4 29.2 184.3
2420.4 392.6 616.8 18.9 – 862.2
Indexes of different land use land cover conversion to cultivated land Forestland 0.70 0.39 0.80 Pastureland 3.84 3.81 2.59 Plantation 0.01 0.03 0.36 Settlement 0.09 0.22 0.25 Woodland 0.36 0.55 –
Indexes of different land use land cover conversion to plantation land Cultivated land 1.4 1.5 2.8 Pastureland 2.6 2.1 0.5 Forestland 0.5 0.6 0.7 Settlement 0.1 0.1 0.02 Woodland 0.3 0.7 –
a
* Mean of all land LULC changed to plantation land during each time intervals.
Mean of all LULC changed to cultivated land during each time intervals.
approach leads to polarized deforestation under the title “income generation”, but without proper replacement and management of trees (Mohammed and Inoue 2014). The continuing decline of forested areas highlights the poor functionality of the strategy which needs further improvement. The progressive expansion of eucalyptus plantation into cultivation land deserves special attention. Despite eucalyptus remaining the most controversial tree in Ethiopia, its expansion at higher rates continues in the highlands since its introduction back in 1895 (Jagger and Pender 2003; Getahun 2002). The allegations that eucalyptus consumes large amounts of water and also out-competes other vegetation in mining soil
cism’ that destroys the hydrological balance, impoverish soil nutrient and reduce biodiversity (Teketay 2000; Lemenih et al. 2004; Mengist 2011). Such a thought is the base for most countries and even the regional government of Tigray in Ethiopia to officially ban eucalyptus plantation on farmland, around lakes, ponds and wetlands. On the other hand, some research outputs have indicated that eucalyptus can improve soil chemical properties and because of its socio-economic contribution suggest the allegations may be “exaggerated” (Yitaferu et al. 2013; Jenbere et al. 2012; Mekonnen 2010).
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4.2. Transition between land uses
Indiana University, and USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, South Burlington, VT, USA, pp. 90. Amha, Y., Bekele, K., Alebachew, M., 2013. Innovation platforms for establishment and management of community nurseries in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Afr. Crop. Sci. J. 21, 693–703. Amsalu, A., Stroosnijder, L., Graaff, J.D., 2007. Long-term dynamics in land resource use and the driving forces in the Beressa watershed, highlands of Ethiopia. J. Environ. Manag. 83, 448–459. Bekele, T., 1993. Vegetation ecology of remnant Afromontane forests on the central plateau of Shewa, Ethiopia. In: Acta Phytogeographica Suecica. vol. 79. pp. 61 Uppsala. Bewket, W., 2007. Soil and water conservation intervention with conventional technologies in north western highlands of Ethiopia: acceptance and adoption by farmers. Land Use Policy 24, 404–416. BirdLife International, 2016. Important Bird and Biodiversity Area Factsheet: ChilimoGaji Forest. Downloaded from. http://www.birdlife.org, Accessed date: 6 July 2016. Braimoh, A.K., Vlek, P.L.G., 2008. Impact of land use on soil resources. In: Braimoh, A.K., Vlek, P.L.G. (Eds.), Land Use and Soil Resources. Springer Science and Business Media. Brookfield, H.C., 1999. Environmental damage: distinguishing human and geographical causes. Global Environ. Change B. Environ. Hazard 1, 3–11. Chanie, T., Collick, A.S., Adgo, E., Lehmann, C.J., Steenhuis, T.S., 2013. Eco-hydrological impacts of Eucalyptus in the semi-humid Ethiopian Highlands: the Lake Tana Plain. J. Hydrol. Hydromech. 61 (1), 21–29. Chhabra, A., Geist, H.J., Houghton, R.A., Habrel, H., Braimoh, A.K., Vlek, P.L.G., et al., Lambin, E.F., 2006. Multiple impacts of land use/cover change. In: Geist, H.J. (Ed.), Land-use and Land-cover Change: Local Processes and Global Impacts. Springer, Berlin, New York, pp. 71–116. CSA, 2013. Population projection of Ethiopia for all regions at Wereda level from 2014–2017. Central Statistical Agency, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. CSA, 2014. Reports on land utilization. In: Agricultural Sample Survey. Statistical Bulletin, vol. IV. Central Statistical Agency, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 446. Dercon, S., Hill, R.V., 2009. Growth from agriculture in Ethiopia: identifying key constraints. In: Paper Prepared as Part of a Case Study on Agriculture and Growth in Ethiopia, pp. 69. EFAP, 1994. The Challenge for Development. vol. 2 Ministry of natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection. Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. EIAR, 2011. Coordination of National Agricultural Research System. English and Amharic Version. Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ellis, E., Pontius, R., 2007. Land use and land cover change. In: Cleveland, C.J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Earth. Washington, D.C. Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment. FAO, 2006. Guidelines for Soil Description, 4th edition. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. FAO, 2011. Eucalyptus in East Africa, socio-economic and environmental issues. In: Planted Forests and Trees Working Paper 46/E, Forest Management Team. Forest Management Division. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. FAO/UNESCO, 1995. The Digital Soil Map of the World. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Feoli, L., Vuerich, G., Woldu, Z., 2002. Processes of environmental degradation and opportunities for rehabilitation in Adwa, Northern Ethiopia. Landsc. Ecol. 17 (4), 315–325. Geist, H., McConnell, W., Lambin, E.F., Moran, E., Alves, D., Rudel, T., 2006. Causes and trajectories of land use/cover change. In: Lambin, E.F., Geist, H.J. (Eds.), Land-use and Land-cover Change: Local Processes and Global Impacts. Springer, Berlin, New York, pp. 40–70. Getahun, A., 2002. Eucalyptus Farming in Ethiopia: The Case for Eucalyptus Woodlots in the Amhara Region. Ethiopian Society of Soil Science, pp. 137–153. Hurni, H., 1993. Land degradation, famines and resource scenarios in Ethiopia. In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), World Soil Erosion and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 27–62. Jagger, P., Pender, J., 2003. The role of trees for sustainable management of less-favored lands: the case of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia. Forest Policy Econ. 5, 83–95. Jenbere, D., Lemenih, M., Kassa, H., 2012. Expansion of eucalypt farm forestry and its determinants in Arsi Negelle District, South central Ethiopia. Small-scale. Forestry 11 (3), 389–405. Josephson, A.L., Ricker-Gilbert, J., Floraz, R.J.G.M., 2014. How does population density influence agricultural intensification and productivity? Evidence from Ethiopia. Food Policy 48, 142–152. Kassa, H., Campbell, B., Sandewall, M., Kebede, M., Tesfaye, Y., Dessie, G., Seifu, A., Tadesse, M., Garedew, E., Sandewall, K., 2009. Building future scenarios and uncovering persisting challenges of participatory forest management in Chilimo Forest, central Ethiopia. J. Environ. Manag. 90, 1004–1013. Lambin, E.F., Turner, B.L., Geist, H.J., Agbola, S.B., Angelsen, A., Bruce, J.W., et al., 2001. The causes of land-use and land-cover change: moving beyond the myths. Glob. Environ. Chang. 11, 261–269. Lambin, E.F., Geist, H.J., Lepers, E., 2003. Dynamics of land-use and land-cover change in tropical regions. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 28, 205–241. Lemenih, M., Gidyelew, T., Teketay, D., 2004. Effect of canopy cover and under story environment of tree plantations on richness, density, and size of colonizing woody species in southern Ethiopia. For. Ecol. Manag. 194, 1–10. Lemenih, M., Karltun, E., Olsson, M., 2005. Soil organic matter dynamics after deforestation along a farm field chronosequence in southern highlands of Ethiopia. Agric.
Evidences from this study showed that substantial portion of the landscapes in the study area experienced changes in land use and land covers. Cropland expansion, the most prominent phenomenon, is most associated with large-scale decline in grazing lands. This is possibly a different trend in that, most studies pointed out cropland expansion to be at the expense of forestland in most areas in the Ethiopian highlands (Lemenih et al. 2005; Zeleke and Hurni 2001; Tekle and Hedlund 2000). In fact, deforestation was also high, particularly in areas which are not under state control. The trajectory of forestland conversion was different before and after 1990s. Before 1990s, grazing land expansion into forestland was apparent and was an intermediate step for later conversion into cropland. Post 1990s, however, most forest areas were converted to cultivated land. In the later periods, the overwhelming expansion of cropland into forestland and also pastureland is to support the population grown at a rapid rate during these periods (Josephson et al. 2014; Bewket 2007). Eucalyptus plantation into pastureland and cultivated land is among the most important land use transitions. In 1950s, areas under plantation were very minimal. However, progressive increase was associated with fuelwood shortage, while recently economic significance and ease of production on degraded lands are most important drivers. Rate size and form of transitions between land uses and land covers depends on several factors including policy, socioeconomic and ecological factors (Moran 2005). In general, land use and land cover transitions are multiple and revisable dynamics (Lambin et al. 2003; Martens and Rotmans, 2002). 5. Conclusion Time series analysis extracted from remote sensing data revealed substantial change in LULCs in the central Ethiopian highlands since the second half the 20th century. Broad-scale expansion of cultivated land at the expense of natural habitats (pastureland, forestland and woodland) is the most important change that reflects a long-standing human influence on natural resources. Varying rate of conversion/modification of land use and land cover in different periods is likely to occur in response to resource availability, population pressure, socio-economic and policy environments. Rapid encroachment of eucalyptus plantation into other LULC including in areas with better agricultural potential is the second most apparent change in the uplands of central Ethiopia. Land use and land cover change in the study area remarkable and probably the most important phenomenon behind the prevalent problems of land degradation in the uplands of central Ethiopia. Inappropriate use of land, mainly for cultivation is a widespread problem of traditional farming system threatening agricultural sustainability. In Ethiopia, better use of existing land resources needs land use policy reform and strategic planning that ensure both economic and environmental benefits. Acknowledgement The authors are grateful for financial support from German Academic Exchange Services (DAAD). Our thank further goes to the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) for logistic, financial support and facilitation of this study. Generous support from Abera Tafa, Mesfin Tefera and Birhanu during field data collection is highly appreciated. References Adimasu, Z., Kessler, A., Hengsdijk, H., 2012. Exploring determinants of farmers' investment in land management in central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Appl. Geogr. 35, 191–198. Agarwal, C., Green, M.G., Grove, J.M., Evans, T.P., Schweik, C.M., 2000. A Review and Assessment of Land Use Change Models: Dynamics of Space, Time, and Human Choice. Center for the Study of Institutions, Population, and Environmental Change.
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