Land use history and historical soil erosion at

Catena 77 (2009) 107–118

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Catena j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / c a t e n a

Land use history and historical soil erosion at Albersdorf (northern Germany) — Ceased agricultural land use after the pre-historical period Stefan Reiß a,⁎, Stefan Dreibrodt b, Carolin Clara Marie Lubos b, Hans-Rudolf Bork b a b

Ministry of Science, Research and Culture of the state Brandenburg, Potsdam, Germany Ecology Centre, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Germany

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 28 September 2007 Received in revised form 16 October 2008 Accepted 14 November 2008 Keywords: Historical soil erosion Soil erosion rates Landscape history Geoarchaeology Geomorphology Northern Germany

a b s t r a c t The Holocene landscape history and historical soil erosion were reconstructed at Albersdorf (SchleswigHolstein, Germany) from soils and colluvial layers. In contrast to many landscapes in central Europe, agricultural land use and soil erosion were more frequent during pre-historical times, whereas it has almost ceased after the advent of history. Pre-historical soil erosion rates from about 0.1 to 6.9 t ha− 1 a− 1 were reconstructed with no significant differences between the prehistoric cultural phases. The study of buried soils within the soil/soil-sediment-sequences provided evidence for an acceleration of soil formation processes probably as a consequence of excessive prehistoric woodland pasture on poor sandy soils. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The development of the central European landscapes under the influence of man reaches far back. In particular the onset of agriculture with the domestication of animals and the cultivation of plants caused a strong impact of man on the environment (Goudie,1994). Hence, central European landscapes can not be understood without knowledge about historical land use practices, provided by the archaeological research (e.g. Kalis et al., 2003). Climate change and its impact on the vegetation and the genesis of the floodplains were in the focus of research. Especially through palynological methods, Holocene vegetation history was reconstructed (e.g. Firbas, 1949, 1952; Behre and Kucan, 1994; Küster, 1998, 2001; Dörfler, 2001; Kalis et al., 2003). Additionally, geomorphological and geoarchaeological investigations on sequences of colluvial layers and soils provide inside into the history of the environment in high spatial resolution (e.g. Bork et al., 1998). Embedded and buried artefacts often enable a direct linkage between settlement and environment history. Combined with appropriate excavation methods (selection of catchments, dimension of exposures) and dating techniques, investigations on colluvial deposits allow the reconstruction of values of past soil erosion rates and soil formation at a local scale.

Successful applications of the interdisciplinary landscape analyses were proved by Bork et al. (1998), Bork and Lang (2003), Dotterweich (2003), Dotterweich (2005), Dreibrodt and Bork (2005), Reiß et al. (2006), Schmidtchen and Bork (2003) for sites in Germany. Mieth et al. (2002) Mieth and Bork (2003) applied this method very successful on Eastern Island and Bork et al. (2001) in China. Hence, with the application of the routine employed at the investigation sites, data can be compared worldwide. Similar works with a geoarchaeological approach were published amongst others by Bell and Boardman (1992), Bell and Walker (2005), David et al. (1998), Fuchs et al. (2004), Kaiser et al. (2007), Lang et al. (2003) or Rommens et al. (2007). In England many studies have investigate the causes and consequences of recent soil erosion on agricultural used land (e.g. Boardman,1990; Boardman et al.,1996; Foster et al., 2000; Walling et al., 2002; Wilkinson, 2003; Boardman, 2003). Such data are needed if one considers about timing, intensity and causes of environmental change associated with human activities as geomorphologic agent (Hooke, 2000; Wilkinson, 2005). The results from Albersdorf are compared with data from other sites in Germany in this paper to test whether they are significant on a local or regional scale. 2. Investigation area

⁎ Corresponding author. Ministry of Science, Research and Culture of the state Brandenburg, Dortustr. 36, 14467 Potsdam, Germany. Tel.: +49 331 866 4868; fax: +49 331 866 4702. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Reiß). 0341-8162/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2008.11.001

The investigation area is located in the “Dithmarscher Geest” of Schleswig-Holstein (northern Germany) approximately 65 km westward of Kiel. The present relief and the parent material were formed

108

S. Reiß et al. / Catena 77 (2009) 107–118

during the middle and younger Pleistocene age (Walter, 1992). The material which provides the substrate for Holocene soil formation was deposited during the Saalian Glaciation (180,000–128,000 BP) (Ehlers, 1990; Fränzle, 2004). During the Weichselian Glaciation (117,000– 11,560 BP, Streif, 2002) periglacial processes changed the surface morphology (Fränzle, 2004). A thin discontinuous cover of drifting sands was deposited above the glaciofluvial deposits during this period. The distance between the ice shield of the Brandenburger–Stadial and the investigation area amounted to approx. 25–30 km (cf. Strehl, 1986). Fränzle (2004) found mainly poor clayed and acidic Cambisols, Podzols and Luvisols (all according to FAO, 1998) in this substrate under forest. He concludes that the mighty poor clayed subsurface soil, the deep decalcification and strong trend to podzolisation of the Luvisols are the results of the long exposure of the material spanning two interglacial periods. The recent annual temperatures averages out to 8.2 °C with an annual precipitation of 851.6 mm (station Helse, 53°58″N, 9°01″E, 2 m a. s. l., Müller-Westenmeier et al., 1999). Deschampsia flexuosa–Fagus sylvatica woods dominate as potential natural vegetation on oligothrophic habitats in the Saalian Geest of Dithmarschen. Quercus robur dominates low and middle woods (in the region called Kratts) with absence or a very low presence of Fagus sylvatica (Dierßen, 2004). The three investigations sites (Bredenhoop, Falloh and Reddersknüll) in vicinity of the Archaeological Ecological Centre of Albersdorf (AÖZA) are situated at the outlets of trough-shaped periglacial valleys into the recent valley of the river Gieselau (Fig. 1). Preceding studies were carried out on colluvial layers and soils in a small watershed (Schmidtchen et al., 2003) as well as on pollen from a peat profile of an adjacent fen (Dörfler, 2005). Both sites are in vicinity to our investigation sites and the results are included in the discussion.

3. Methods 3.1. Field methods The three investigated watersheds (Bredenhoop, Falloh and Reddersknüll, cf. Fig.1) are small, easy to delineate and apparently closed with respect to Holocene sediment export into adjacent systems. The first is important to minimize the probability of repeated reworking and redeposition, which often occurs in larger catchments (e.g. Lang and Hönscheid, 1999). The second enables the estimation of the area contributing to sediment production during the Holocene. The third is important with respect to the completeness of the sediment record. All investigation sites are situated in large periglacial valley bottoms with low slope angles. Assuming that the Holocene erosion processes have been less intensive compared with those of glacial times; the selected locations were expected to have been sediment sinks during the Holocene. This was tested via extensive excavations and additional auger cores. With an excavator 13 exposures of appropriate dimensions were opened at the three investigation sites (6 exposures at Bredenhoop, 3 exposures at Falloh and 4 exposures at Reddersknüll). At each site the base of Holocene deposits was reached. After thoroughly cleaning and smoothing the profiles, the layers and soil horizons were separated. A lithological discontinuity with a rather sharp border to the underlying material or horizon, a growing thickness to the deepest part of a depression, a certain amount of organic matter and higher contents of charcoals and or artefacts were the criteria used for the identification of colluvial layers. The colluvial layers and soil horizons were described with the following field methods. The colour was determined according to the Munsell system (Munsell, 2003). Texture, stone content, bulk density and soil formation processes were estimated according to the German

Fig. 1. Location of the study sites with a detailed 3D-view on the Falloh catchment area.


soil survey instructions (AG Boden, 2005). All exposures were documented in scaled drawings and photographs (Figs. 2 and 3). Additional auger cores (n = 128) between the exposures and within the watersheds were used for the mapping of all colluvial layers (Fig. 4). Charcoals large enough to contain a satisfactory carbon content for AMSradiocarbon dating (≥1 mg C) were selected from the profiles and stored in plastic bags in the refrigerator until analysis. The position of all charcoals was documented in the scaled drawings (Fig. 3). Structures, suspected to be of bioturbate origin or root structures were avoided. To gain further information about the substrates and soil formation processes, selected samples of soil horizons or sediment layers were taken for standard soil analysis. 3.2. Laboratory methods 3.2.1. Radiocarbon dating Radiocarbon dating of charcoal particles was applied to gain numerical age information about phases of either slope stability or soil erosion. In the Leibniz-Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and Stable Isotope Research (Kiel, Germany) all samples were checked for impurities under the microscope. Subsequently, the charcoal particles were purified with 1% HCl,1% NaOH (at 60 °C) and again with 1% HCl. The combustion of the samples was carried out at 900 °C in a quartz-furnace that was filled with CuO and silver-wool. The released CO2 was reduced with H2 at 600 °C in an iron-catalyst to produce graphite. The resulting iron–graphite-mixture was pressed into a sample holder for the AMSmeasurement. The measurement has been performed in comparison to standards (NIST Oxalic Acid standard 2 — OX II) and samples (coal) that

109

are free of 14C. The conventional radiocarbon ages were calibrated using the “CALIB rev 4.0 test version 6” routine (Stuiver et al., 1998). All radiocarbon data in the text are given in cal BC/AD regarding the 2σ confidence interval. Historical data are given in years BC/AD. 3.2.2. Standard soil analysis To characterise the substrate and soil formation the following standard soil analysis were applied on selected samples. The grain size distribution was measured via a combined wet sieving and Atterberg fractionation (cf. Schlichting et al., 1995). The total Carbon content and the total Nitrogen content were measured on an Element Analyser (Elementar — Vario EL III) that detected the CO2 and NOx content of the combustion gas with an infrared sensor. The pH values of the samples were determined in water according to Schlichting et al. (1995). The bulk density values estimated with field methods were confirmed by the measurement of undisturbed samples taken with steel tubes of 100 cm3 according to Schlichting et al. (1995). 3.2.3. Quantification of soil erosion rates The calculation of soil erosion rates were carried out by using the Holocene sediment record. Based on data from exposures and drillings we first estimated the volume of each sediment layer (cf. Fig. 4). The deposited sediment mass (t) was calculated by multiplying the volume of each colluvial layer with its bulk density. The connection between a respective colluvial layer and its source area (t ha− 1) was calculated by subtraction of the area of the respective colluvial layer from the total watershed area. Estimates of historical soil erosion rates (t ha− 1 a− 1) were then calculated with regard to the deposition chronology.

Fig. 2. Example photos of exposures and details from the sites.

110


Fig. 3. Detailed drawings of the various soil and sediment units from the tree researched sites.

There are some uncertainties adherent to the applied calculation. The record of colluvial layers might not be entirely complete. Subsequent soil erosion processes might have remobilized some centimetres of a previously existing colluvial layer (Lang and Hönscheid, 1999). Field observations of layer distribution and properties help to detect such processes. The delineated watershed is assumed to have been of constant extension during the Holocene. However, it is not clear which part of the watershed effectively contributed to sediment production for each colluvial layer. To minimize these errors small watersheds were selected in this case study. Maximum deposition intervals used for calculation of deposition rates were gained via a combination of radiocarbon data from the sequence of colluvial layers or in situ findings (e.g. fire pits), palynological results from an adjacent peat sequence (Dörfler, 2005) and the known duration of cultural phases in the region (Schwabedissen, 1961; Arnold, 1981; Lange, 1996; Witt, 2002; Arnold and Kelm, 2004; Kelm, 2004; Meier, 2004). Besides this maximum deposition interval a second, more reliable deposition interval was calculated for each colluvial layer, according to the following considerations. The radiocarbon data of charcoals found embedded within colluvial layers rather give information about the clearing of the forest for agricultural field use and therefore for the probable start of colluviation rather than for the duration of the process. As testified by numerous recent observations, soil erosion — given uncovered soil surfaces and an adequate amount of precipitation — is a comparatively fast process (e.g. Boardman et al., 1996). Therefore, the application of the maximum deposition intervals might overestimate the real deposition duration and consequently lead to an under-

estimation of historical soil erosion intensities. Furthermore, the site specific conditions and the prerequisite that measured colluvial volumes can be related to erosion rates have to be regarded. In general the substrate deposited during the Saalean Glaciation is rich in sand and comparatively poor in nutrients. Therefore, the duration of field use was probably limited by the loss of fertility during prehistoric times. Probably, slash and burn cycles, deduced from palynological data at other sites in northern Europe (e.g. Malmros, 1986; Göransson, 1993, 1994) had to be applied, to maintain soil fertility. According to Schmidtchen et al. (2003), slash and burn cycles with an average relation of 1/5 of agricultural use and 4/5 extensive land use were assumed during prehistoric times. After three years of agricultural field use, a period of 15 years of soil regeneration would ensue according to this assumption. Consequently, the maximum deposition times of the respective prehistorical colluvial layers shorten to 1/5 in length. The results of calculations regarding the preceding considerations probably result in more reliable data of historical soil erosion intensity (maximum soil erosion rates). 4. Results 4.1. Field methods All Holocene colluvial layers were found to be limited to the bottom of the periglacial valleys. No indication was found for an extension of Holocene sediment layers into the adjacent recent valley of the brook Gieselau.


111

Fig. 4. Location of the exposures and the auger samples at sites Bredenhoop, Falloh and Reddersknüll.

4.1.1. Site Bredenhoop At the site Bredenhoop six exposures and 29 additional auger cores were investigated. In general the texture of the soils and sediments is loam. The base was formed by a loamy till deposited during the Saalean Glaciation. No soil horizons were found within the loam. In the deepest part of the trough shaped valley the colluvial layer M1 with a mean thickness of 20–30 cm was deposited. It was of dark yellowish brown colour (10YR 3/4) and contained few charcoal particles. After its deposition soils have developed within M1. Whereas in the deepest part a Podzol with a grey E-horizon and an associated Bs-horizon has formed, a Cambisol (Bw-horizon) has developed in the periphery of the valley bottom. In particular, the AE-horizon contained abundant

charcoal particles. Two disturbance structures that resembled rotated replicates of the upper part of the glacial material and M1 were detected in one exposure. The second colluvial layer M2 was deposited with a thickness of approx. 20 cm and covered a larger area of the valley bottom than M1 (Fig. 3). It has a dark brown colour (10YR 3/3) and contained few charcoal particles. After its deposition a Cambisol (Bw-horizon) has formed within M2. The colluvial layer M3 of a very dark brown colour (10YR 2/2) was deposited in a thickness of approx. 40 cm at the top of the sequence. It shows a slight enrichment of stones and covers the largest area of the Holocene sediments within the valley bottom (Fig. 3). After its deposition a Cambisol has formed within M3. Young disturbance structures associated with drainage constructions were found within

112


M3. At the top a ploughing horizon has formed due to agricultural field use of the site. 4.1.2. Site Falloh At the site Falloh three exposures and 38 auger cores were investigated. In general, the texture of the soils and sediments is sand. At the base a sandy material of yellowish brown colour (10YR 5/8) of Saalean Age that was probably reworked by periglacial processes during Weichselean Times was exposed (Fig. 3). Within this sand a Regosol (Ahorizon) has developed until the first Holocene slope instability. The colluvial layer M1 was deposited at the bottom of the investigated valley. Two Fire pits were dug into M1. On top, a colluvial layer M2 was deposited with a thickness of approx. 15–20 cm. After the deposition of M2 a Podzol with E- and Bs-horizons developed within M1 and M2 (colours: M110YR 3/6 — Bs-horizon, M2 10YR 4/4 — Ah-horizon, 10YR 5/2 — E-horizon). To the slopes, the E-horizons are eroded. M3, a colluvial layer rich in humus of dark yellowish brown colour (10YR 3/6) and a mean thickness of 40 cm was deposited above M2. Whereas M1 and M2 are limited to the deepest part of the valley M3 is deposited at a larger area (Fig. 4). A colluvial layer M4 is of yellowish colour (10YR 5/6), has a mottled structure and was deposited above M3. From the surface of M4 three fire pits were dug through M4 and M3. After the deposition of M4 a Cambisol with a slight trend of lessivage developed in the sediment. On the top of the sequence M5 was deposited with a thickness of approx. 30–35 cm. Therein, a tendency to podzolisation is observable. 4.1.3. Site Reddersknüll At the site Reddersknüll four exposures and 65 auger cores were investigated. The texture of the soils and sediments is generally sand. At the base a sequence of Pleistocene gravels and sands (colours: 10YR 5/5, 10YR4/4) was exposed. The colluvial layer M1 of a dark yellowish brown colour (10YR 3/4) has a thickness of approx. 20 cm. After its deposition a Lammelic Luvisol has formed therein. Three fire pits were dug into M1. They were slightly altered by the following soil formation.

M2 a colluvial layer was deposited with a thickness of approx. 20– 25 cm. After its deposition a Podzol (E- and Bs-horizon of 10YR 5/4 respectively 10YR 3/6 colour) has formed in M2. From the surface of M2 two fire pits were dug. The fire pits were altered by the following soil formation. At the top of the sequence the colluvial layer M3 was deposited with a mean thickness of 40 cm. Recently in M3 a Cambisol with a tendency of podzolisation has developed (colours: 2,5YR 2,5 (Ah), 2,5YR 2,5 (E), 10YR 4/4 (Bw)). 4.2. Laboratory methods 4.2.1. Radiocarbon dating The radiocarbon ages of 25 charcoals and 2 peat samples were measured to gain information about the time of soil erosion processes (Table 1). Two samples fall into the window of the Late Weichselean Glaciation, respectively the Early Holocene. One charcoal age falls into the time-frame of the 8.2 climatic deterioration period. Eight charcoal pieces are of Neolithic age, three of them are slightly older than the onset of agriculture is assumed hitherto within the region. Six charcoals date to the Bronze Age, three into the Iron Age, one into the Migration Period, two into the Medieval Times and two into Modern Times. 4.2.2. Standard soil analysis The results of selected soil standard analysis are given in Table 2. The stone content (N2 mm) of the sites Bredenhoop and Falloh is comparatively low, at site Reddersknüll it reaches the highest amount (18.4%). The grain size distribution of the parent material and the soils and sediments at the sites Falloh and Reddersknüll is characterised by sand. At site Bredenhoop, the soils and sediments are of sandy loam, whereas at the base a silty material was exposed. The pH-values are low and the samples contain no measurable carbonate content. Total Carbon and soil organic matter contents show typical values for colluvial sediments of sandy sites in central Europe. At all sites the recent surface horizons contain the highest amount of organic matter. In comparison to

Table 1 AMS 14C-data from site of Bredenhoop, Falloh, Reddersknüll (⁎AMS-radiocarbon dating, 2σ calibrated with “CALIB rev. 4.0, test version 6”, Stuiver et al., 1998) Exposure, sample

Lab. number

Stratigraphic position/unit

Radiocarbon age (BP)

Calibrated age (2σ)⁎

δ13C (‰)

Bredenhoop BA4, 3 BA4, 8 BA5, 4 BA5, 2 BA5, 1 BA6, 1

KIA18784 KIA21747 KIA18782 KIA20596 KIA18783 KIA25018

M1 Windfall A-Horizon, base M2 M3 Ditch fill

3344 ± 44 1630 ± 27 5178 ± 33 145 ± 24 95 ± 32 2470 ± 30

BC 1738–1709, 1694–1521 AD 382–474, 476–532 BC 4043–3942 AD 1718–1779, 1826–1885,1912–1945 AD 1681–1735, 1806–1933 BC 763–676, 674–481

− 30.07 ± 0.21 − 24.88 ± 0.04 −27.02 ± 0.19 −27.52 ± 0.07 −28.48 ± 0.14 − 25.36 ± 0.14

Falloh FA2, 4 FA2, 19 FA3, 1 FA3, 3 FA3, 4 FA3, 5 FA3, 6 FA3, 8 FA3, 9 FA3, 14 FA3, 19 F36-1 F36-2

KIA25019 KIA20597 KIA20588 KIA20592 KIA20593 KIA20594 KIA20591 KIA20590 KIA20589 KIA21746 KIA25020 KIA21745 KIA21744

M1 Gully fill Fire pit Fire pit M5 A-Horizon, base M1 M2 M3 Fire pit Fire pit Peat Peat

8795 ± 40 2170 ± 29 2908 ± 31 5770 ± 33 1880 ± 29 5837 ± 32 7966 ± 41 4549 ± 30 4590 ± 30 5771 ± 36 4130 ± 40 758 ± 85 3176 ± 30

BC 8060–8044, 8004–7728, 7695–7681 BC 359–273, 260–236, 235–149 BC 1255–1244,1193–1138, 1133–1001 BC 4765–4761, 4712–4535 AD 69–225 BC 4795–4785, 4783–4745, 4744–4600 BC 7050–6746, 6740–6731 BC 3367–3306, 3238–3167, 3164–3101 BC 3500–3450, 3441–3434, 3378–3330, 3215–3179 BC 4713–4760, 4713–4534, 4533–4524 BC 2875–2797, 2788–2616, 2613–2579 AD 1153–1332, 1340–1398 BC 1517–1405

− 25.09 ± 0.06 −23.48 ± 0.19 − 28.90 ± 0.18 − 26.29 ± 0.16 −27.24 ± 0.21 −25.41 ± 0.09 − 23.53 ± 0.04 −26.44 ± 0.17 −25.66 ± 0.04 −25.06 ± 0.07 − 26.94 ± 0.34 −41.03 ± 0.11 − 22.56 ± 0.42

Reddersknüll RA11,14 RA11,15 RA11,10 RA12, 2 RA12, 7 RA12, 6 RA12, 1 RA12,10

KIA21751 KIA21750 KIA21526 KIA21749 KIA21080 KIA21081 KIA21528 KIA21527

M3 Fire pit Fire pit Gully fill Gully fill M3 Gully fill M1

1073 ± 26 3509 ± 37 4159 ± 29 2834 ± 39 2960 ± 43 1252 ± 22 3560 ± 68 7520 ± 45

AD 897–922 ,942–1019 BC 1923–1739,1706–1699 BC 2877–2830, 2822–2660 BC 1127–897 BC 1367–1362, 1313–1021 AD 686–823, 841–858 BC 2128–2083, 2042–1737, 1711–1693 BC 6443–6329, 6320–6246

−26.04 ± 0.07 − 25.95 ± 0.09 − 24.96 ± 0.14 −27.13 ± 0.08 − 26.87 ± 0.15 −25.14 ± 0.08 −26.14 ± 0.23 − 23.69 ± 0.08


113

Table 2 Soil and sediment properties of different sediment units at site Bredenhoop, Falloh and Reddersknüll Sample

Depth [cm]

Weight percent total sample

Grain size distribution [wt.% b 2000 μm]

N2000 μm

b 2000– 1000 μm

b1000– 500 μm

pH [H2O]

b 500– 250 μm

b 250– 125 μm

b125– 63 μm

b 2000– 63 μm

b63– 2 μm

b2 μm

[wt.% b 2000 μm] CaCO3

TC

SOM

Bulk density [g⁎ cm− 3]

Site Bredenhoop M3Bw 20–30 45–55 M2Bw 60–65 M1E 75–85 M1Bs Bw1 95–105 115–125 Bw2

3.9 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.0

1.1 1.3 0.8 0.4 9.0 0.0

7.8 5.8 3.2 3.0 1.0 0.2

21.9 16.3 12.8 13.3 10.0 1.9

22.5 20.4 19.9 23.8 19.1 7.2

11.6 14.2 15.1 19.9 16.7 17.4

65.0 58.0 51.7 60.4 55.9 26.7

32.7 39.2 35.1 42.5 46.7 77.1

5.3 6.4 16.4 0.9 1.6 3.2

5.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.5

b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1

1.4 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.1 0.2

2.5 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.0 0.4

1.4 1.4 1.3 1.5 – –

Site Falloh 0–5 M5A 15–25 M5E 30–40 M4Bw M3Bw 45–55 65–70 M2A 75–85 M2E 90–100 M1Bs A 105–110

2.8 1.3 2.4 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.2 0.2

2.2 3.6 2.1 2.3 9.5 0.3 1.3 1.1

6.4 7.7 5.3 4.8 1.1 2.9 3.8 4.6

17.0 17.5 15.8 11.7 6.5 11.6 12.8 12.2

28.1 24.0 24.8 20.0 16.7 19.9 23.4 21.1

18.6 17.6 21.2 21.6 28.3 28.2 29.9 25.9

72.2 70.3 69.1 60.4 62.1 62.8 71.1 64.9

26.5 25.7 29.9 36.2 35.2 34.0 28.3 31.7

1.3 4.0 1.1 3.4 2.6 3.1 0.6 3.5

4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.0 4.5

b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1

2.6 0.8 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.7

4.5 1.3 1.1 1.6 1.1 0.8 1.4 1.3

– 1.4 1.4 1.3 – 1.5 1.3 –

Site Reddersknüll 0–5 M3A M3E 10–15 25–35 M3Bw 40–43 M2E 45–55 M2Bs 62–65 M1A 65–68 M1E 70–80 M1Bw 90–100 C1 C2 11–120

18.4 11.0 10.3 5.8 3.5 5.8 8.6 12.5 0.0 1.8

7.2 4.4 7.0 4.7 1.5 0.3 1.8 1.3 8.7 1.4

11.6 13.4 18.0 13.6 8.0 2.9 9.1 5.5 2.5 4.5

20.6 24.6 26.8 25.4 18.2 13.5 20.7 21.5 8.0 19.2

18.2 19.1 16.0 23.3 17.5 19.3 28.2 18.3 18.7 27.2

8.2 9.7 8.6 12.4 15.4 15.9 16.0 16.4 22.3 13.2

65.7 71.3 76.4 79.4 60.5 51.9 75.8 63.1 60.2 65.6

19.6 20.0 20.6 18.7 33.3 39.8 24.0 35.0 38.5 27.3

14.7 8.7 3.1 1.8 6.2 8.3 0.2 2.0 1.3 7.1

4.0 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.5

b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1 b 0.1

9.3 1.2 1.2 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.1

16.0 2.0 2.0 0.4 0.9 0.9 0.7 1.3 0.5 0.2

– – 1.4 – 1.3 – 1.5 – – –

the other sites, the sediments of site Bredenhoop contain the highest amount of organic matter. 4.3. Soil formation and soil erosion at the investigated sites 4.3.1. Bredenhoop At the site Bredenhoop the remnant of a Saalean till was found at the base. Clay bands preserved within the loam indicate, that a Lammelic Luvisol has formed until the onset of soil erosion at the site. A first colluvial layer M1 was dated via a charcoal into the Bronze Age (~1700– 1500 cal BC). Although we found evidence for additional land use activity (ditch was dug and filled during Pre-Roman Iron Age, ~800– 500 cal BC) no additional prehistoric colluvial layer was deposited at the site. Meanwhile, within M1 a Podzol formed. A charcoal from a windfall was dated to the Migration Period (~400–500 cal AD), indicating a forest cover during this period. After slope stability of several centuries two additional colluvial layers (M2, M3) were deposited during Modern Times. A charcoal from M2 indicates, that these soil erosion phase started between 1700 and 1900 cal AD and ended as a permanent extensive pasture was established in the watershed in the year 1997. Within the colluvial layers M2 and M3 a Cambisol has formed, that was homogenised in one part of the watershed due to ploughing (Aphorizon). 4.3.2. Site Falloh At the base of site Falloh a Regosol developed within the sand. A charcoal from the Ah-horizon was of Mesolithic Age (~4700–4600 cal BC). A first slope sediment was deposited in the Mesolithic until ~4500 cal BC as testified by a pit dug into M1. Neolithic field use enabled the deposition of a second colluvial layer M2 until ~3400–3100 cal BC. A phase of slope stability but intensive soil formation led to the development of a podzol within the colluvial layers. Two additional Neolithic colluvial layers M3 and M4 were deposited after ~3300 cal BC (due to an embedded charcoal). Within these sediments a Cambisol has

formed. During Bronze Age (~1100–1000 cal BC) fire pits were dug into the sediments, testifying settlement activity within the watershed. But no colluvial layer was found to be deposited during Bronze Age. The pits were buried by sediments from the Iron Age. A small gully incised and was filled after ~350–150 cal BC attested by an embedded charcoal. A colluvial layer covering M5 the whole sequence of sediments and the gully fill contained a charcoal of Roman Emperor Times (~70–200 cal AD). In the following no indication for settlement or slope instability was found at the site Falloh. Cambisols formed under a forest, with a recent tendency to podzolisation in the surface horizons. 4.3.3. Site Reddersknüll At site Reddersknüll no early Holocene soil has been found at the base. A first slope sediment M1 was deposited during the Mesolithic. It contained a charcoal of an age of ~6400–6250 cal BC. After its deposition a Cambisol has formend in M1. Neolithic settlement was testified via a fire pit (~2900–2700 cal BC) and an associated ploughing horizon. A second colluvial layer M2 was deposited. After the formation of a typical Podzol within M2 a fire pit of late Neolitic Age was dug into at (~1900– 1700 cal BC). During the Bronze Age a gully incised in the center of the depression. Charcoals of ages between ~1300 and 900 cal BC gave maximum ages of the fill. A Bw-horizon in the upper part of the fill indicates, that the formation of a Cambisol during a phase of slope stability followed the incision and fill of the gully. A third colluvial layer M3 was deposited during Medieval Times (~700–1000 cal AD). Until today, slope stability and soil formation lead to the development of a Cambisol within the M3, with a recent tendency to podzolisation in the upper horizons. 4.4. Quantification of soil erosion rates The mass of colluvial layers was utilised to calculate historical soil erosion rates (Table 3). This method delivers reliable data at the sites, since no indication was found for Holocene sediment transfer into the

114


Table 3 Calculated colluvial deposition rates for the three research sites and of the site from Schmidtchen et al. (2003) Site

Catchment Colluvium Density Volume Erosion area

(ha) Bredenhoop Falloh

12.99 2.16

Reddersknüll

1.15

Reddersknüll (old) 1.46 (Schmidtchen et al., 2003)

M1 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M1 M2 M3 M1 M2 M3 M4

Deposition time, max. (stratigraphy)

Mean soil erosion

Deposition Max. soil erosion time, probable (slash–burn)

(g/cm3)

(m3)

(m3 ha− 1) (t3 ha− 1) (a)

(m3 ha− 1 a− 1) (t ha−1 a−1) (a)

(m3 ha−1 a−1) (t ha−1 a− 1)

1.4 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

378 169 115 62 253 338 88 282 405 107 30 1.8 369

30 78 53 29 117 156 77 245 351 73 21 1.4 253

0 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.1 1.0 0.9 0.2 0 – –

0.2 2.0 0.8 0.2 1.7 2.2 0.6 4.9 4.4 0.7 0.2 1.4 8.4

42 109.2 79.5 40.6 163.8 218.4 115.5 343 491.4 109.5 31.5 2.1 379.5

valley of the Gieselau, neither in the exposures nor in the auger cores (results of field methods). The calculation yielded in mean soil erosion rates of 0.1 to 6.9 t ha− 1 a− 1. No trend is visible between the age of the respective prehistoric soil erosion phases and the soil erosion intensity. Within the smaller watershed areas higher prehistoric soil erosion rates were calculated. 5. Discussion and interpretation The charcoal data reflects the settlement history within the region, that is known form archaeological data (Arnold, 1981; Arnold and Kelm, 2004). The clearance of small areas enabled the first erosion events to occur. Initiated by humans, a phase of changing landscape and relief began. At site Falloh unusually early human activity could be confirmed by several radiocarbon dates. Our results permit the following possible interpretations: The dated charcoal could originate from a mature stand of trees (approximately 500 years old). The central parts of the trunks could give a date for the time of the clearance, to which the age of the oldest wood, i.e. the age of the tree, has been added. With this time interval included, the date would correspond to generally accepted date for the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition. But the dated charcoal samples were from fire pits, where whole trunks were usually not burned. They were split before burning, thus moving the oldest wood from the central parts of the trunks outward (V. Arnold, Museum for Archaeology and Ecology, Dithmarschen, pers. comm.). Accordingly, the existence of an old stand of trees can hardly explain the early date for the first erosion event. On the other hand, the method of the interdisciplinary landscape analyses could have succeeded in demonstrating that the first traces of the earliest human interference with the landscape were earlier than previously assumed. To date, it has not been possible to prove the existence of agricultural activity in the region during this period (Küster, 1998; Dörfler, 2005). Arnold (pers. comm.), however, reports a relative scarcity of finds in the Albersdorfer Geest at the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic. Furthermore, the first occurrence of cereal pollen has been established palynologically at 5426–5256 BC in Tostedt (Harburg County, 35 km south of Hamburg). This result can only be understood as being the influence of southern cultures in a still Mesolithic cultural environment (Lüning, 2000). During the Neolithic Period and Bronze Age there was a peak of settlement, whereas later on the region was populated rather sparsely. The radiocarbon data of the peat samples give information about the onset (Bronze Age) and cease (Medieval Times) of peat growth in a fen within the valley of the Gieselau. From our results it is not possible to decide if this switch in the hydrological regime was induced by regional changes in land use and vegetation cover or triggered by a change of

1000 (~ 1500–500 BC) 200 (~ 4700–4500 BC) 600 (~ 4200–3600 BC) 350 (~ 3350–3000 BC) 350 (~ 3000–2650 BC) 350 (~ 50–400 AD) 600 (~ 3800–3200 BC) 250 (~ 2750–2500 BC) 400 (~ 800–1200 AD) 500 (~ 3300–2800 BC) 550 (~ 1800–1250 BC) – (about 500 BC) – (about 500 BC)

0 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.2 1.4 1.2 0.2 0.1 – –

200 40 120 70 70 70 120 50 80 100 110 1 30

0.2 2.8 1.1 0.4 2.3 3.1 1.0 6.9 6.2 1.1 0.3 2.1 12.7

climate. On the one hand studies from some sites in central Europe have documented, that closed depressions were transformed into ponds or fens after the forests within their watersheds were cleared (e.g. Klafs et al., 1973; Behre, 1991). Then a rise of groundwater table occurred, because the total evapotranspiration decreased. On the other hand, palaeoclimatic data exists, that suggests a climate shift to colder and wetter conditions during that time (e.g. Patzelt, 2000; Magny, 2004; Negendank, 2004). As we found no strong increase in colluviation as an indicator for forest clearings during the Bronze Age compared to the Neolithics at the studied region, it is more probable that the onset of peat growth is triggered by a climate shift at the site. The pH-values and the absence of a measurable carbonate content indicate a long exposure of the substrates deposited during the Saalean Glaciation (Fränzle, 2004) and the rapid acidification due to soil formation in a comparatively humid climate. Besides the surface soils and sediments the silty till found at the base of Breedenhoop is decalcified too. Furthermore a tendency to somewhat higher values of the stone content in the youngest sediment layers is observable at all sites. 5.1. Holocene landscape history of the region south of Albersdorf In the following, a short stratigraphy of Holocene soils and sediments in the investigated region is given. Additional information from archaeological, palynological, historical and palaeoclimate investigations and an earlier study on Holocene soils and sediments (Schmidtchen et al., 2003) are included. Fig. 5 shows the phases of Holocene landscape development at the investigated site Falloh and is given as an example. More detailed information is given by Schmidtchen et al. (2003), Reiß (2005) and Reiß and Bork (2004). The early Holocene warming enabled the settlement of humans in the region (cf. Schwabedissen, 1961; Lange, 1996; Küster, 1998). Soil formation started with humus accumulation under forest vegetation (cf. Bork et al., 1998; Bork, 2001). We found buried Regosols (site Falloh) and Cambisols (Schmidtchen et al., 2003) as early Holocene soils in the area. At two sites first local Holocene forest clearing activity has happened during the late Mesolithic and enabled soil erosion and the deposition of slope sediments. One of them has apparently formed within the 8.2 ka interval of climatic deterioration as has been reported at some sites in southern Germany by Lang and Wagner (1996) and Lang et al. (2003). The growing number of sediments dated to this age raises the question if slope sediments exhibit a sensibility for climatic events. As it is an outlier within the investigated watersheds and an influence of Mesolithic settlers can not be excluded, we are not able to respond to this question here.


115

Fig. 5. Idealized landscape evolution model as example for site Falloh.

Indication of Neolithic settlers is given by fire pits and six colluvial layers in three of the compared watersheds. Radiocarbon dating perhaps indicate an earlier start of the Neolithic land use in the region than previously assumed (Reiß et al., 2006) or local soil erosion related to late Mesolithic forest clearings. It is also possible that the observed time offset is a result of the so called “old wood effect” (Warner, 1990), although this seems rather improbable when data of three different charcoals are being compared in one layer (M1 site Falloh).

The fast formation of Podzols within the Neolithic colluvia indicates an acceleration of soil development, probably due to wood pasture. The rapid development of Podzols is reflected in the pollen record of Dörfler (2001), were the content of pollen of Calluna increased during that time. A large number of fire pits indicate settlement activity during the Bronze Age. Five colluvial layers in three watersheds were deposited during that time. Since there is neither an increase in the number of colluvial layers nor in the intensity of soil erosion (historical soil erosion

116


rates) this is not in accordance to the archaeological data, which suggests an increase of settlement activity during the Bronze Age (Kelm, 2004). We argue that either the archaeological record of the Neolithic is incomplete or the economy of Bronze Age was different from that of the Neolithic. Perhaps field use was less important than animal breeding during the Bronze Age. At least to the end of the Bronze Age there is again a tendency to strong podzolisation. During the Iron Age (two colluvia) a trend of decrease in intensity of soil erosion and soil degradation starts within the study region. This is in accordance with the archaeological record (Meier, 2000). A stepwise abandonment of the sandy Geest region with its poor soils is documented and the start of a dense settlement within the fertile Marsh Region at the North Sea Coast, which during that time freshly emerged. In the following period the intensity of settlement and land use remained at comparably low level, although on a local scale some soil erosion is detectable (one colluvial layer during Medieval Times, two colluvial layers during Modern Times). Soil formation within the sediments changed its course: until the excessive plantation of conifer forests starting ~200 years ago, Cambisols developed at the surfaces. Since the establishment of pinus and picea forest a tendency to podzolisation is observable in the upper horizons. Summarising the development of soils in the Albersdorf region, besides soil erosion and associated colluviation in particular the acceleration of soil formation were indicative for strong human impact in prehistoric times. The early Holocene soils buried below Mesolithic

and Neolithic colluvial layers were Regosols or Cambisols. At site Bredenhoop a lammelic Luvisol was buried by the first colluvial layer during Bronze Age. Therefore, the formation of Podzols at the region was found to be limited to phases of excessive land use, probably woodland pasture that led to the development of heath lands (documented by the pollen record of Dörfler, 2001). 5.2. Comparison of historical soil erosion rates from Germany Historical soil erosion data of 10 additional research sites in Germany were gained with the methodology presented in this paper. A comparison of the results from Albersdorf (tree own sites and one from Schmidtchen et al., 2003) with these published data is given in Fig. 6. The record from Albersdorf is comparable in the soil erosion intensity values of prehistoric times with the data from the other sites. But afterwards in contrast to the record from Albersdorf, at almost all other sites repeated soil erosion phases with considerable soil erosion intensities were recorded. This illustrates the singularity of the landscape history at the study region compared with the usual history of central Europe. 6. Conclusions At the region of Albersdorf (Dithmarscher Geest) an imprint of human impact on soils was reconstructed that differs from many regions

Fig. 6. Comparison of colluvial sediment deposition rates for various sites in Germany. (The figure shows mean annually soil erosion rates, the timely arranging is only relatively because time windows are very different.) (Dotterweich, 2002; Schatz, 2000; Schmidtchen, 2002).


in central Europe in its timing. Soil erosion phases enabled by agricultural field use were more frequent during prehistoric times than after the advent of history. At least two colluvial layers have been deposited during the Mesolithic, one of them is possibly related to the climatic deterioration of 8.2 ka. There were no significant differences between the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in soil erosion intensity but we found increasing soil erosion rates with decreasing areas of the investigated watersheds. A result that is in accordance with results from other sites and models (e.g. Bork et al., 1998, 2003; Bork, 2006). Evidence for man made acceleration of soil formation processes was found in the studied soil and soils sediments. Podzols had formed very fast in colluvial layers probably triggered by excessive woodland pasture on the poor sandy substrate. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank for the permission to carry out the excavations to the families of Timm, Sund and Keldenich. For their support during the field campaigns we are grateful to Dr. R. Kelm, Dr. C. Russok and Dr. V. Arnold. Prof. Dr. P. Grootes from the Leibniz-Laboratory at the University of Kiel, Germany, and his co-workers we thank for the radiocarbon datings. Furthermore the authors would like thank to Dr. D. Meier, Dr. V. Arnold and Prof. Dr. J. Reichstein for dating of artefacts and pottery sherds as well as their helpful comments to the archaeological context. For financial support we give so. props to the Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt, Osnabrück. Last but not least we thank the two reviewers for their helpful comments. References Arnold, V., 1981. 700 Jahre Albersdorf — eine heimliche Jahrtausendfeier. Dithmarschen — Zeitschrift für Landeskunde und Heimatpflege, Heft, vol. 1/2. Boyens & Co, Heide, p. 7. Arnold, V., Kelm, R., 2004. Auf den Spuren der frühen Kulturlandschaft rund um Albersdorf — Ein Führer zu den archäologischen und ökologischen Sehenswürdigkeiten. Boyens & Co., Heide. AG Boden, 2005. Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung. 5. verbesserte und erweiterte Aufl. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart. Behre, K.-E., 1991. Die Entwicklung der Nordseeküsten-Landschaft aus geobotanischer Sicht. Berichte der Reinhold-Tüxen-Gesellschaft 3, 45–58. Behre, K.-E., Kucan, D., 1994. Die Geschichte der Kulturlandschaft und des Ackerbaus in der Siedlungskammer Flögeln, Niedersachsen, seit der Jungsteinzeit. Isensee Verlag, Oldenburg. Bell, M., Boardman, J., 1992. Past and present soil erosion — archaeological and geographical perspectives. Oxbow Monograph, vol. 22. Cambridge University Press, Exeter. Bell, M., Walker, M.J.C., 2005. Late Quaternary Environmental Change — Physical and Human Perspectives, Second edition. Pearson Education, London. Boardman, J., 1990. Soil erosion on the Sooth Downs: a review. In: Boardman, J., Foster, D.L., Dearing, J.A. (Eds.), Soil Erosion on Agricultural Land. John Wiley & Sons, West Sussex, pp. 87–106. Boardman, J., 2003. Soil erosion and flooding on eastern South Downs, southern England, 1976–2001. Transaction of the Institute of British Geographers. New series, vol. 28, pp. 176–196. 2/2003, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Boardman, J., Burt, T.P., Evans, R., Slattery, M.C., Shuttleworth, H., 1996. Soil erosion and flooding as a result of a summer thunderstorm in Oxfordshire and Berkshire, May 1993. Applied Geography, vol. 16, pp. 21–34. Bork, H.-R., 2001. Urgeschichtliche Bodenentwicklung und Bodenzerstörung. In: Kelm, R. (Ed.), Zurück zur Steinzeitlandschaft. Albersdorfer Forschungen zur Archäologie und Umweltgeschichte, vol. 2. Boyens &Co., Heide, pp. 20–26. Bork, H.-R., 2006. Landschaften der Erde unter dem Einfluss des Menschen. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt. Bork, H.-R., Lang, A., 2003. Quantification of past soil erosion and land use/land cover changes in Germany. In: Lang, A., Hennrich, K., Dikau, R. (Eds.), Long term hillslope and fluvial system modelling. Concepts and case studies from the Rhine river catchment. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences, vol. 101. Springer, Berlin, pp. 231–239. Bork, H.-R., Bork, H., Dalchow, C., Faust, B., Piorr, H.-P., Schatz, T., 1998. Landschaftsentwicklung in Mitteleuropa: Wirkungen des Menschen auf Landschaften. Klett-Perthes, Gotha. Bork, H.-R., Li, Y., Zhao, Y., Zhang, J., Shiquan, Y., 2001. Land use changes and gully development in the Upper Yangtze River Basin, SW-China. Journal of Mountain Research, vol. 19/2, pp. 97–103. Science Press, Chengdu. Bork, H.-R., Schmidtchen, G., Dotterweich, M., 2003. Bodenbildung, Bodenerosion und Reliefentwicklung mit Mittel- und Jungholozän Deutschlands. Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, vol. 253. Deutsche Akademie für Landeskunde, Flensburg.

117

David, C., Dearing, J., Roberts, N., 1998. Land-use history and sediment flux in a lowland lake cathment: Groby Pool, Leicestershire, UK. The Holocene, vol. 8.4, pp. 383–394. Dierßen, K. 2004. Vegetation Schleswig-Holsteins. In: Vorstand des “Vereins zur Förderung der Ökosystemforschung zu Kiel e.V.” and “Direktorium des ÖkologieZentrums Universität Kiel” (Eds.), Streifzug durch 6000 Jahre Landnutzungs- und Landschaftswandel in Schleswig-Holstein — Ein Exkursionsführer. EcoSys Suppl. Band 41, Institut für Weltwirtschaft, Kiel, 36–60. Dörfler, W., 2001. Von der Parklandschaft zum Landschaftspark. In: Kelm, R. (Ed.), Zurück zur Steinzeitlandschaft, archäologische und ökologische Forschung zur jungsteinzeitlichen Kulturlandschaft und ihrer Nutzung in Nordwestdeutschland, vol. 2. Boyens & Co., Heide, pp. 39–55. Dörfler, W., 2005. Eine Pollenanalyse aus dem Horstenmoor bei Albersdorf. In: Kelm, R. (Ed.), Frühe Kulturlandschaften in Europa. Forschung, Erhaltung und Nutzung. Albersdorfer Forschungen zur Archäologie und Umweltgeschichte, vol. 3. Boyens & Co., Heide, pp. 86–103. Dotterweich, M., 2002. Holozäne Ökosystementwicklung in Franken. PhD Thesis, Christian-Albrechts-Universität, Kiel. Dotterweich, M., 2003. Land use change and soil erosion during the past 5000 years — case studies from northern Bavaria. In: Lang, A., Hennrich, K., Dikau, R. (Eds.), Long Term Hillslope and Fluvial System Modelling — Concepts and Case Studies from the Rhine River Catchment. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences, vol. 101. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, pp. 195–224. Dotterweich, M., 2005. High resolution reconstruction of a 1300 year old gully system in Northern Bavaria, Germany: modelling long term man induced landscape evolution. The Holocene 15 (7), 994–1005. Dreibrodt, S., Bork, H.-R., 2005. Historical soil erosion and landscape development at Lake Belau (North Germany) — a comparison of colluvial deposits and lake sediments. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 139, 1011–1128. Ehlers, J., 1990. Untersuchungen zur Morphodynamik der Vereisungen Norddeutschlands unter Berücksichtigung benachbarter Gebiete. Bremer Beiträge zur Geographie und Raumplanung, Heft, vol. 19. Zentraldruckerei Universität Bremen, Bremen. FAO, 1998. World Reference Base for Soil Resources. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Firbas, F., 1949. Spät- und nacheiszeitliche Waldgeschichte Mitteleuropas nördlich der Alpen. Allgemeine Waldgeschichte, Band 1. Gustav Fischer, Jena. Firbas, F., 1952. Spät- und nacheiszeitliche Waldgeschichte Mitteleuropas nördlich der Alpen. Waldgeschichte der einzelnen Landschaften, Band 2. Gustav Fischer, Jena. Foster, I.D.L., Mighall, T.M., Wotton, C., Owens, P.N., Walling, D.E., 2000. Evidence for Mediaeval soil erosion in the South Hams region of Devon, UK. The Holocene, vol. 10/2, pp. 261–271. Fränzle, O., 2004. Reliefentwicklung und Bodenbildung in Schleswig-Holstein. In: Vorstand des “Vereins zur Förderung der Ökosystemforschung zu Kiel e.V.” and “Direktorium des Ökologie-Zentrums Universität Kiel” (Eds.), Streifzug durch 6000 Jahre Landnutzungs- und Landschaftswandel in Schleswig-Holstein — Ein Exkursionsführer. EcoSys Suppl. Band 41, Institut für Weltwirtschaft, Kiel, 11–33. Fuchs, M., Lang, A., Wagner, G.A., 2004. The history of soil erosion and landscape degradation in the Phlious basin, NE Peleponnes, Greece. The Holocene 14/3, 334–345. Göransson, H., 1993. Elm, lime and Middle Neolithic cultivation — an interesting problem. Current Swedish Archaeology 1, 117–118. Göransson, H., 1994. Elm, lime and Middle Neolithic cultivation — a solvable problem. Current Swedish Archaeology 2, 123–139. Goudie, A., 1994. Mensch und Umwelt. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Berlin. Hooke, R.L., 2000. On the history of humans as geomorphic agents, vol. 28 (9), pp. 843–846. Kaiser, K., Schoch, W.H., Miehe, G., 2007. Holocene paleosols and colluvial sediments in Northeast Tibet (Qinghai Province, China): properties, dating and paleoenvironmental implications. Catena 69, 91–102. Kalis, A.J., Merkt, J., Wunderlich, J., 2003. Environmental changes during the Holocene climate optimum in central Europe — human impact and natural causes. Quaternary Science Reviews 22, 33–79. Kelm, R., 2004. Die ältere Besiedlungsgeschichte der Albersdorfer Geest, Kreis Dithmarschen — Ein Überblick zum Forschungsstand. In: Vorstand des “Vereins zur Förderung der Ökosystemforschung zu Kiel e.V.” and “Direktorium des ÖkologieZentrums Universität Kiel” (Ed.), Streifzug durch 6000 Jahre Landnutzungs- und Landschaftswandel in Schleswig-Holstein — Ein Exkursionsführer, EcoSys Suppl. Band 41, Institut für Weltwirtschaft, Kiel, 71–102. Klafs, G., Jeschke, L., Schmidt, H., 1973. Genese und Systematik wasserführender Ackerholformen in den Nordbezirken der DDR. Archiv für Naturschutz und Landschaftsforschung 13, 287–302. Küster, H., 1998. Geschichte des Waldes. Beck'che Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart. Küster, H., 2001. Natur, Umwelt, Landschaft. Definitionsversuche aus der Sicht der Vegetationsgeschichte. In: Kelm, R. (Ed.), Zurück zur Steinzeitlandschaft. Albersdorfer Forschungen zur Archäologie und Umweltgeschichte, vol. 2. Boyens & Co., Heide, pp. 11–19. Lang, A., Wagner, G.A., 1996. Infrared stimulated luminescence dating of archaeosediments. Archaeometry 38, 129–141. Lang, A., Hönscheid, S., 1999. Age and source of colluvial sediments at Vaihingen-Enz, Germany. Catena 38, 89–107. Lang, A., Niller, H.-P., Rind, M.M., 2003. Land degradation in Bronze Age Germany: archaeological, pedological, and chronometrical evidence from a hilltop settlement on the Frauenberg, Niederbayern. Geoarchaeology 18 (7), 757–778. Lange, U., 1996. Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Karl Wachholtzer, Neumünster. Lüning, J., 2000. Steinzeitliche Bauern in Deutschland — Die Landwirtschaft im Neolithikum. Universitätsforschungen zur Prähistorischen Archäologie, vol. 58. Habelt, Bonn.

118


Magny, M., 2004. Holocene climate variability as reflected by mid-European lake-level fluctuations and its probable impact on prehistoric human settlements. Quaternary International 113, 65–79. Malmros, C.,1986. A Neolithic road built of wood at Tibirke, Zealand, Denmark. Contribution to the History of Coppice Management in the Sub-Boreal Period, vol. 24, pp. 153–156. Meier, D., 2000. Siedlungsarchäologische Untersuchungen in Dithmarschen. In: Kelm, R. (Ed.), Vom Pfostenloch zum Steinzeithaus, Albersdorfer Forschungen zur Archäologieund Umweltgeschichte, vol. 1, pp. 23–42. Meier, D., 2004. Von steinzeitlichen Gräbern zum mittelalterlichen Dorf. In: Arnold, V., Kelm, R. (Eds.), Rund um Albersdorf — Ein Führer zu den archäologischen und ökologischen Sehenswürdigkeiten. Boyens & Co, Heide, pp. 15–22. Mieth, A., Bork, H.-R., 2003. Diminution and degradation of environmental resources by prehistoric land use on Poike peninsula, Eastern Island (Rapa Nui). Rapa Nui Journal 17/1, 34–41. Mieth, A., Bork, H.-R., Feeser, I., 2002. Prehistoric and recent land use effects on Poike Peninsula, Easter Island (Rapa Nui). Rapa Nui Journal 16/2, 89–95. Müller-Westenmeier, G., Kreis, G.A., Dittmann, E., 1999. Klimaatlas Bundesrepublik Deutschland. DWD, Offenbach. Munsell, 2003. Soil Color Charts. New Windsor, New York. Negendank, J.F.W., 2004. The Holocene: considerations with regard to its climate and climate archives. In: Fischer, H., Kumke, T., Lohmann, G., Flöser, G., Miller, H., von Storch, H., Negendank, J.F.W. (Eds.), The Climate in Historical Times. Springer, Berlin, pp. 1–12. Patzelt, G., 2000. Natürliche und anthropogene Umweltveränderungen im Holozän der Alpen. In: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. (Eds.), Entwicklung der Umwelt seit der letzten Eiszeit. Rundgespräche Kommission Ökologie 18, pp. 119–125. Reiß, S., 2005. Langfristige Wirkungen der Landnutzung auf den Stoffhaushalt in der Dithmarscher Geest seit dem Neolithikum. EcoSys Suppl. Bd. 44. Institut für Weltwirtschaft, Kiel. Reiß, S., Bork, H.-R., 2004. Landnutzung, Bodenerosion, Boden- und Reliefentwicklung — Ein Beitrag zur Landschaftsgeschichte in der Region um Albersdorf (Dithmarscher Geest). In: Kelm, R. (Ed.), Frühe Kulturlandschaften in Europa. Forschung, Erhaltung und Nutzung. Albersdorfer Forschungen zur Archäologie und Umweltgeschichte, Band 3. Boyens & Co, Heide, pp. 68–85. Reiß, S., Kelm, R., Bork, H.-R., 2006. Economics and environmental changes during the Funnel Beaker Culture — investigations in the valley of the Gieselau near Albersdorf, Schleswig-Holstein (Germany). Environmental Archaeology 11 (1), 7–17. Rommens, T., Verstraeten, G., Peeters, I., Poesen, J., Govers, G., Van Rompaey, A., Mauz, B., Packman, S., Lang, A., 2007. Reconstruction of late-Holocene slope and dry valley sediment dynamics in a Belgian loess environment. The Holocene 17/6, 777–788. Schatz, T., 2000. Untersuchungen zur holozänen Landschaftsentwicklung Nordostdeutschlands. ZALF-Bericht, vol. 41. Zentrum fuer Agrarlandschaftsforschung, Müncheberg.

Schlichting, E., Blume, H.-P., Stahr, K., 1995. Bodenkundliches Praktikum. Parey Verlag. Schmidtchen, G., 2002. Anthropogen beeinflusste langfristige Ökosystementwicklung in Norddeutschland. PhD Thesis, Christian-Albrechts-Universität, Kiel. Schmidtchen, G., Bork, H.-R., 2003. Changing human impact during the period of agriculture in central Europe. The case study Biesdorfer Kehlen, Brandenburg, Germany. In: Lang, A., Hennrich, K., Dikau, R. (Eds.), Long term hillslope and fluvial system modelling. Concepts and case studies from the Rhine river catchment. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences, vol. 101. Springer, Heidelberg, pp. 74–82. Schmidtchen, G., Bork, H.-R., Reiß, S., Kelm, R., 2003. Bodendegradation in der Dithmarscher Geest — Die Flur Reddersknüll bei Albersdorf. In: Bork, H.-R., Schmidtchen, G., Dotterweich, M. (Eds.), Bodenbildung, Bodenerosion und Reliefentwicklung im Mittel- und Jungholozän. Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, vol. 253, pp. 269–290. Deutsche Akademie fuer Landeskunde, Flensburg. Schwabedissen, H., 1961. Vom Jäger zum Bauern der Steinzeit in Schleswig-Holstein. Karl Wachholtzer, Neumünster. Strehl, E., 1986. Zum Verlauf der äußeren Grenze der Weichselvereisung zwischen Owschlag und Nortorf (Schleswig-Holstein). Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart, Nr. 36. Hannover, pp. 37–41. Streif, H., 2002. Nordsee und Küstenlandschaft — Beispiel einer dynamischen Landschaftsentwicklung. Akademie der Wissenschaften Hannover Veröffentlichung, vol. 20, pp. 134–149. Hannover. Stuiver, M., Reimer, P.J., Bard, E., Beck, J.W., Burr, G.S., Hughen, K.A., Kromer, B., McCormac, F.G., Plicht, J., Spurk, M., 1998. INTCAL98 radiocarbon age calibration 24,000–0 cal BP. Radiocarbon 40, 1041–1083. Walling, D.E., Russell, M.A., Hodgkinson, R.A., Zhang, Y., 2002. Establishing sediment budgets for two small lowland agricultural catchments in the UK. Catena, vol. 47, pp. 323–353. Walter, R., 1992. Geologie von Mitteleuropa. 5. Aufl. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart. Warner, R.B., 1990. A proposed adjustment for the “old wood effect”. PACT 29, 159–172. Wilkinson, K.N., 2003. Colluvial deposits in dry valleys of southern England as proxy indicators of paleoenvironmental and land-use change. Geoarchaeology 18 (7), 725–755. Wilkinson, B.H., 2005. Humans as geologic agents: a deep-time perspective. Geology 33 (3), 161–164. Witt, J.M., 2002. Früh- und Hochmittelalter: Die Entstehung Schleswigs und Holsteins. In: Witt, J.M., Vosgerau, H. (Eds.), Schleswig-Holstein von den Ursprüngen bis zur Gegenwart — Eine Landesgeschichte. Convent Verlag, Hamburg, pp. 71–110.