Late Prehistoric Burial Structures and Evidence of Spanish Contact at ...

Journal of Pacific Archaeology – Vol. 4 · No. 2 · 2013 – article –

Late Prehistoric Burial Structures and Evidence of Spanish Contact at Makira, Southeast Solomon Islands Natalie Blake1 & Martin Gibbs2 Abstract This paper provides an overview of results from surveys and excavations of a series of coral and stone-lined structures at the abandoned village site of Mwanihuki (SB-4-6), located on the island of Makira in the southeast Solomon Islands. It synthesizes data collected from 1971–75 by Green and Kaschko with new data collected by the authors in 2010–11. Preliminary results indicate the majority of the regularly sided coral structures are burial structures containing several different burial types. These are compared to ethnographically and archaeologically recorded examples of burials from adjacent regions. However, an anomalous structure may be associated with the AD 1595 visit to and possible occupation of the area by Spanish colonists associated with the failed Mendaña expedition. Keywords: Solomon Islands archaeology, Solomon Islands burial, late prehistory, Spanish colony, Mendaña expedition.

Introduction and Background Although the archaeological evidence for mortuary practices in the western Solomon Islands has been well researched (for example Nagaoka 1999, Sheppard et al. 2002, Thomas 2003,Walter et al. 2004, McKenzie 2007), the southeast Solomon Islands remains less well known. This report presents preliminary results from surveys and excavations of a series of stone structures, presumed to be associated with indigenous burial practices, situated at the abandoned village site of Mwanihuki (Solomon Islands National Museum Archaeological Site Register SB-4-6), located on the coastal flats behind Tauapuna Point on the mid-north coast of the island of Makira (Figure 1). These results are compared to ethnographically and archaeologically recorded stone structures and modes of burial in adjacent regions. A variety of stone structures, earth mounds and artefact scatters was first recorded at Mwanihuki by Roger Green, Jim Allen and Michael W. (Mikk) Kaschko in 1970– 1971 as part of the Phase 1 investigations for the South-East Solomon Islands Culture History Project (Green 1976b). In 1975 Kaschko returned to record and test excavate some of these features as part of his PhD research (Kaschko 1979, Spriggs 1997). In 2008–2011 the authors undertook 1 C/O SOPHI Archaeology Postgrad Mailbox, Building A14 Main Quad, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia 2 A18 – Brennan MacCallum, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia Corresponding author: [email protected] Submitted 28.3.13, accepted 24.5.13

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further investigations of the area as part of Gibbs’ Australian Research Council funded ‘Beyond the New World’ project on the early Spanish exploration of the Solomon Islands, of which Blake’s PhD research on the indigenous archaeology of Pamua is a component. Mwanihuki is located on a narrow, sandy and relatively flat coastal margin behind Tauapuna Point, with the seaward side subject to storm surges and cyclonic wash (Figure 2). The western half of the site has been owned by the Church of Melanesia and operated as a school (currently St Stephen’s School) since the first decade of the twentieth century. Most of this area has been cleared and is intensively rotation-gardened by the staff and students. The eastern side of the point is a mixture of registered (freehold) and kastom land, with smaller village gardens and varying levels of secondary growth forest. Although descendants of the original Pamua kastom land owners still live in nearby Rahu Rahu and Tauapuna villages, they profess limited specific knowledge of the Mwanihuki site, other than a general understanding that the headland is a tambu area. Much of the information they had on any features within the area appears to be derived from Green and Kaschko, who they remember well. A probable initial occupation date for Mwanihuki was originally established by Kaschko through the radiocarbon dating of excavated Canarium nut samples from the north-east corner of Feature 1 located in the largest of the anthropogenic mounds/middens (Feature 1) on the mid-western side of the site. The dating samples were submitted in 1975 with the results only previously available

Blake & Gibbs – Late prehistoric burial structures and evidence of Spanish contact at Makira, S.E. Solomon Islands

Figure 1. Solomon Islands with sites discussed in text

Figure 2. Major features SB-4-6 70

Journal of Pacific Archaeology – Vol. 4 · No. 2 · 2013

article as uncorrected dates (Kaschko 1979). Here the dates are presented as calibrated age ranges using the calibration program OxCal 4.2 (Table 1a). On the surface and intermixed into the upper layers of Feature 1 and several other mounds was a low density of Spanish pottery. This material matched the ceramics recovered from the AD 1595 Mendaña expedition colony site on Santa Cruz (Green 1973, Allen 1976) and was therefore thought to be associated with the galleon Santa Isabel which had become separated from the main convoy (Gibbs 2011). Consequently, Kaschko felt that along with the dating evidence, this provided an indication of an AD 1595 Spanish presence and also formed the terminal occupation and possible cause of the abandonment of Mwanihuki (Kaschko 1979). In 2010–2011 a 10 m interval N-S transect survey was made over the entire headland for the dual purpose of relocating the features identified in the 1971–1975 field notes and identifying further features and artefact scatters. New site elements were numbered in continuity with Kaschko’s original system. Details of the full survey and description of the various earth mounds and features will be reported in detail elsewhere. While exposing a number of new sites, damage to many of the stone structures since the 1970s was also very obvious, not only from gardening, but also from pig scrapes, from stones being displaced by people hunting for crabs and a cyclonic storm surge in the 1980s.

The focus of this paper is on three of the regular-sided rectangular structures found across the Pamua headland (Figure 2).These consist of an exterior and interior facing of upright coral slabs, usually to a height of approximately 0.5m, and with the intervening space filled with smaller coral and stone rubble. Several also had a larger basalt stone upright in one corner. The original nature of the interior area of these structures is unclear, although the interiors are usually filled to a higher level than outside. It is possible that some of the other features located were originally of the same type, but have suffered extensive disturbance. Local informants were unable to provide a specific name for these structures, but applied the more generic term of rata-ingari or ‘nut ground’ used for burial areas, alluding to a local belief that these were where the ‘shell’ of the person was thrown away (Hagamaoto, pers comm.).

Structure 1 (Feature 2) The largest of these rectangular coral structures (Green’s Structure 1 – re-labelled Feature 2 by Kaschko) measures 13 × 8 m and is orientated on a north-south axis (Figure 3). The south and west sides of the structure are either buried or partially destroyed probably by modern gardening activity, with only a few upright coral slabs still visible from the surface. A large rough-hewn basalt block, pos-

Table 1a. Radiometric radiocarbon age ranges for Mwanihuki (original data Kaschko, 1979) Lab. No.

Site type

Sample type

Depth (cm)

14C Age (years BP)

Calibrated Age AD (68.2% probability)


Teledyne Isotopes I-9676

Feature 1, mound

Canarium sp. nut shell

163–168

455 ± 80

1398–1620

1313–1640

Teledyne Isotopes I-9733

Feature 1, mound

Canarium sp. nut shell

140

470 ± 80

1324–1616

1302–1634

Table 1b. Radiocarbon ages for Feature 2 Mwanihuki (2010, 2011 field seasons) Lab. No.

Site type

Sample type

Depth (cm)

δ13C ‰

F14C ‰

14C Age (years BP)



Wk34294 Feature 2, wall Canarium sp. foundation nut shell

29

–25.6 ± 0.2

96.8 ± 0.4

263 ± 31

1528–1795

1516–1954

Wk34293 Feature 2, wall Canarium sp. foundation nut shell

40

–25.3 ± 0.2

97.0 ± 0.3

245 ± 27

1645–1794

1526–1955

Table 1c. Radiocarbon age for Feature 5 Mwanihuki (2011 field season) Lab. No.

Site type

Wk34654

Burial mound

Sample Depth δ15N vs Total δ13C vs Total type (cm) Air* (‰) N (%) PDB* (‰) C (%) Bone

31

9.60

15.22

–19.07

C:N

42.68 3.27

* Precision = ± 0.2 ‰; Note: All isotope values measured on bone gelatin.

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14C Age Calibrated Age calAD Calibrated Age calAD (years BP) (68.2% probability) (95.4% probability) 361 ± 25

1470–1620

1455–1635

Blake & Gibbs – Late prehistoric burial structures and evidence of Spanish contact at Makira, S.E. Solomon Islands

Figure 3. Feature 2

sibly originally upright, is located in the south-west corner. Where Feature 2 differs from other structures of this type is the wall running diagonally through the structure and northwest beyond it. To try to clarify the construction technique and sequence, in 2011 a 2 × 1 m test pit was excavated at an interface of the inner and diagonal walls. This showed a foundation support of coral and basalt rubble overlying the coral and sand matrix that forms the natural horizon of the headland. The larger of the roughly hewn coral limestone rock uprights were embedded into the soil, with coral and basalt rubble fill between the interior and exterior faces. The diagonal extension appears to be a later addition to the original rectangular structure. 72

On the interior surface of the enclosure was a dense scatter of chert, shell and oven stone, along with some mammalian bone and human teeth. In 1971 Green and Kaschko excavated a 2 × 1 m test trench near the basalt block, recovering commingled human bone from a depth of 10 cm, underlain by two articulated supine human burials, plus a possible third burial in the SW corner, all orientated on an east west axis. The overall depth of excavation was not recorded in the brief extant notes. Although the bone was extremely friable and fragmentary, a basic morphological analysis as part of a student project identified 21 left patella giving a MNI of 21 from these fragmentary remains in this small sample area (Carroll 1981). No dates


article were taken from the skeletal material retrieved from 1971, which is currently unavailable for further analysis. During the 2011 trench excavations a large amount of displaced human and other unidentified mammalian bone fragments, chert and shell, along with organic remains including a large amount of charred Canarium nut shell were recovered. Excavated Canarium nut shell samples located in the middle and close to the base of the main interior foundation wall of this structure were submitted to the University of Waikato for AMS radiocarbon dating. At 68.2% probability the calibrated ages (using OxCal 4.2) for this structure are 1528–1795 cal AD (Wk34294) and 1645–1794 cal AD (Wk34293) respectively (see Table

1b for details). These results provide an early 16th century to late 18th century timeframe for this feature, which indicates the abandonment of Mwanihuki may have occurred slightly later (post-Spanish) than AD 1595 as previously suggested by Kaschko.

Feature 5 Forty metres northeast of Feature 2 is a low-lying rectangular mound measuring 12 × 12 m and bordered by a single course of coral limestone rubble and rising to approximately 1 m above the surrounding area (Figure 4). A loosely dispersed scatter of chert flakes and broken shell

Figure 4. Features 5 and 6 73

Blake & Gibbs – Late prehistoric burial structures and evidence of Spanish contact at Makira, S.E. Solomon Islands was present on the surface, as well as a several 16th century Spanish pottery sherds. Because of the obvious differences to the other coral lined structures, in 1975 Kaschko excavated a 2 × 1 metre trench on this mound. Disarticulated and broken human skeletal material was encountered within 5cm of the surface, likely disturbed by gardening as it was also mixed other artefacts including chert, shell and a small amount of charcoal. At 46 cm below surface one adult human articulated extended burial orientated east-west was uncovered, with the grave cut distinguishable as a darker brown matrix within the brown sandy soil of the mound. The natural layer of coarse white coral and sands commenced almost directly below the skeleton at an average depth of 50 cm. The context notes state the burial was disturbed, as indicated by a number of bones missing from its upper left (including the cranium) and that while other skeletal material was present there was insufficient stratigraphic integrity to associate it with the main burial. A metal aiglet (a Spanish clothing fastening) was uncovered in direct association with the chest area of the individual and will be discussed below. The bone was noted as being extremely friable, and attempts were made to preserve it with a hardening agent without success. Once removed from the excavation matrix the bone collapsed and disintegrated, despite the careful efforts of the excavators. The cranium and upper torso of a second extended burial was also noted in the SW corner of the trench, although it is not clear if that material was collected (Figure 5).

A basic morphometric analysis of the 1975 Feature 5 bone assemblage conducted by a University of Hawaii undergraduate student, noted that some conjoining fragments existed between stratigraphic units, suggesting possible disturbance by crab burrowing and gardening (Carroll 1981). Although there appeared to be limited root disturbance to the material as a whole, Carroll also noted rat gnaw marks visible on some elements in the assemblage. Re-construction of broken elements was attempted, but the fragmentary nature of the material made this difficult. This skeletal material is not presently available for re-analysis. In 2011 after close review of the 1975 site plans and field notes a 2 × 1 m trench orientated on a north–south axis was placed along what was estimated to be the eastern end of Kaschko’s original trench (Figure 4, Figure 5). It was hoped that the edge of the earlier excavation might be encountered, as might the remainder of the second burial which had been partially visible in the S.E. section of the 1975 trench. Excavation was guided by stratigraphic layers and all material was sieved through a 5 mm mesh sieve. Wet sieving was not used due to the 1975 reports of the fragile nature of the cultural material. As encountered in 1975, the surface consisted of highly friable dark brown silt deposited with natural and cultural debris present, including chert, subsistence shell, a small amount of cracked oven stone and small fragments of mammal bone (likely human). At 20 cm below the surface identifiably human skeletal material was encountered, although no clearly de-

Figure 5. 1975 (left) and 2011 (right) excavation of Feature 5 (Drawing: R. Tuffin). 74


article fined pit or grave borders were noted. The trench was then widened another 1m east-west. This included uncovering a small section of wall which suggests that originally it may have had a double face with rubble-filled core, akin to Feature 2 although less elaborate. At 32 cm below surface a west-east supine extended articulated burial was encountered, although the bone remained highly fragmentary and friable, consistent with what Kaschko encountered in 1975. Only portions of the cranium, mandible and long bones of this individual were recovered for analysis. Once this was recorded and removed, excavation continued for a further 15cm to expose another supine extended burial slightly to the north, aligned east-west and in better overall condition although still very fragmentary and fragile. Due to the extensive disturbance and proven fragility of the skeletal remains, and in light of the problems encountered by previous archaeologists, only the skull and associated bone fragments around the cranium from the extended burial were removed for further analysis (with permission of the site owners). Directly to the north of this burial a cluster of long bones and fragments was uncovered at the same level, possibly indicating a secondary burial, although it is conceivable that this re-deposition may have occurred after disturbance from modern gardening. The southern boundary of Kaschko’s trench was also encountered, thus ensuring a good spatial alignment with previous work. Traces of bone fragments uncovered near the western boundary of the 2011 trench suggest these may have been associated with the burial noted in the eastern wall of Kaschko’s trench, while there are indications of a further burial aligned north-south adjacent to the western boundary of the trench. Detailed morphometric, isotope and DNA analysis has not yet been conducted on this material. No material from the 1975 Feature 5 excavation was submitted for dating at that time, although Kaschko felt that the association of the extended burial with a Spanish clothing artefact (see below) presumably provided a terminus post quem of AD 1595. A long bone from the eastwest burial uncovered in the 2011 excavation was submitted to University of Waikato for AMS dating (calibration program OxCal 4.2 and calibration curve IntCal09 Reimer et al. 2009). At 68.2% probability the calibrated age range for the individual is 1470–1620 AD (Wk34654). Artefacts recovered from Features 2 and 5 include a range of chert tools, flakes and a small amount of shell, although none with good stratigraphic association with the burials. As noted, in addition to the Spanish sherds recovered from the surface of Feature 5, two further artefacts of likely Spanish origin were encountered. One of these is the metal clothing fastening mentioned previously; a 34 mm long tapered tube fashioned from a rolled piece of copper alloy foil (presumably brass) with a diameter of 3mm at the large end and 1mm at the small end. When first found, this artefact was assumed to be part of a solid metal point, possibly a projectile (Spriggs 1997: 237), although closer 75

analysis confirms its identity as an aiglet, a metal sheath attached to the ends of the laces used in fastening clothing together. Such items were common to Spanish clothing of the 16–17th century period and almost identical items have been recovered from contemporary sites in the U.S. (South et al. 1988: 135, Deagan 2002: 175). In 2011 a blue glass chevron pattern bead (5 mm long × 4 mm diameter) of Spanish origin was also found in the wall of Feature 5. While not in direct association with skeletal material its presence reinforces the connection to the Spanish period.

Feature 6 Feature 6 is a smaller coral lined structure situated 6m north of Feature 5, with the core area measuring c. 4.5 m × 7 m (Figure 4). While sharing some of the construction features as Structure 1 such as the parallel coral slabs, this structure is smaller and lower, with several lines of coral extending away from it. Kaschko’s excavation through the feature did not recover any human remains which might indicate a different, non-burial function.

Ethnographic evidence The Anglican missionary and ethnographer Charles Fox recorded a range of burial techniques witnessed during his years living at Pamua (1911–1924) and from his intensive studies in the adjoining district of Arosi. He notes that, whilst there were as many as 20 different modes of disposing of the dead, two overall methods were favoured: internment or preservation of the body (Fox 1919, 1925, Table 2). Hera is the Arosi term used for a burial ground, with Fox describing at least two forms of larger burial structures within these areas. He provides a drawing of a large square earth platform type (heo) which included on its top a ‘hau suru: large stones arranged to form a sort of Table 2. Summary of types of inhumation burials and preservations as observed by Fox. Types of inhumation burial observed

•B ody in a sitting position and hands and legs tied with the knees drawn close to the body • Burial with the head exposed • Exposure sitting with knees drawn up • E xtended burial until decomposition is complete – the bone is then collected • Cremation • Sea burial

Preservation

• Wrapped up in the house • E xposed on a rock by the shore, or arranged on a tree platform, on a burial mound called a heo, in an oblong food-bowl, or canoe. Using any of these techniques, the bones are collected afterwards.

Blake & Gibbs – Late prehistoric burial structures and evidence of Spanish contact at Makira, S.E. Solomon Islands box, in which the bones were collected’ (Fox 1919: 176). In a later 1925 volume, Fox provides minor variations on a second type of burial structure which was a rectangular coral/stone walled enclosure which seems to simply go by the generic name of hera. It is worth noting that Fox believed the heo may have belonged to an earlier tradition of burial, or even a different cultural group. During his preliminary surveys along the Arosi coast Green recorded a variety of the hera structures, ranging from quite small (5.3 m × 3.8 m) to larger enclosures of more than 10 m × 10 m) (SINM 1977). On a brief trip through Arosi in 2010 the authors visited a number of heo and hera burial structures in and around the village of Ubuna. The heo platforms were large, measuring 25 m × 15 m with some coral and stone edging up to 75 cm high, while the hera enclosures were between 10 and 12 m on each side, standing anywhere from 0.5 m to 1.5 m high, and with the wall as wide as 2.5 m. Unlike Mwanihuki, each hera had a small stone cist in the centre of the enclosure. Not far from the hera was a flat topped 7 m × 8 m × 1 m high coral platform which was said to be where the decomposing bodies were de-fleshed before interment. Local informants indicated that some of the burial areas were communal, while others were for significant individuals (or ‘chiefly’ burials as described by them). Scott’s (2007) modern ethnography of the Arosi people demonstrates the continuing role of hera as sites which are held to emplace lineages in particular territories. Fox, and later, Scott, both note that communal burial areas were typical and that the cist shelters the skulls of the dead. In the late 19th century Codrington also noted a range of burial techniques during his travels on Makira. At the village of Wango, located to the west of Pamua, Codrington witnessed a number of sea burials, which he states were used for ‘common’ people. Men of social standing were buried with their skull, a tooth or finger bone removed and preserved in a shrine in their village (Codrington 1891: 258). As well as the sea burials, he also describes some of the preparation techniques used on bodies (Codrington 1891: 263). During his survey of sites in the southeast of Makira at Star Harbour, Green noted a number of low rectangular walled enclosures and raised platforms known as ratanapaqora, which had been used as burial mounds before the 20th century conversion to Christianity (Green 1976a). In his excavation of one of these he found evidence of two supine extended burials with the head of one individual lying next to the feet of the second, like those uncovered in Features 2 and 5. On the island of Santa Ana off the southeast coast of Makira, Guppy recorded a burial environment and practice which has strong similarities to the Mwanihuki sites, especially with reference to the size and general description of the burial structure. He writes:

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‘the burial place for men in the village of Sapuna in Santa Anna is an oblong enclosure in the midst of the village which measures 24 by 18 feet and is surrounded by a low wall of fragments of coral limestone. In this space all the bodies are buried at a depth of five or six feet; and after some time the skulls are exhumed and placed inside the wooden figure of a shark about three feet in length…’ (Guppy 1887: 53)

This practice is also described in Mead (1973 16–21). Fox (1919: 150) recorded that the ancient village of Finuatogo on Santa Ana had been organized into clan groups, each with its own burial ground in close association with the living area. Similarly, the villages of Nafinuatogo extensively documented by Bernatzik in 1936 (Bernatzik 1936, Swadling 1988) and Mwaroqorafu investigated by Swadling (1976) also had settlement areas with closely associated cemeteries (also ratanapaqora). These late prehistoric and early historic settlement sites are located along the coast and consist of housing, canoe houses (aofa) and these burial grounds, which are enclosed by stone walls. Swadling notes the burials were generally shallow and speculates the reason for the stone walls was to protect the corpses from pigs. Another feature that the Mwanihuki burial structures appear to share with adjacent areas is a close spatial association with large mounds or middens. These will be described in detail in a later paper, but in brief they vary in height from a relatively low (c. 50 cm high) and flat raised areas of earth or sand which may be associated with house platforms (but have also been badly affected by gardening), to distinctive midden mounds up to several metres in height and 20 of more metres in diameter. Artefacts from these latter refuse mounds included shells (both subsistence and worked), pumice abraders, nut anvils and hammers, oven stones and chert in a variety of forms that included flakes, cores and formal tools such as small adzes and drill points. Green (1976a) described very similar associations between the ratanapaquora burial structures and various mounds and middens, as well as similar contents within the middens. These burial techniques have some common links to those well documented in the western Solomon Islands (Walter et al. 2004) and Guadalcanal (Roe 1993). Shrines investigated from these areas can vary in size and complexity, including simple piles of coral cobbles to large complexes with perimeter boundaries, basalt upright markers and associated shell valuables. Many have cists where the skulls and shell valuables are housed (Nagaoka 1999, Thomas 2003, McKenzie 2007). Of note, no shell valuables have been found associated with the burials on Mwanihuki, nor have skull shrines like those of New Georgia been found, however, this may be due to the postdepositional disturbance recorded on the site and severe weather systems, though (possibly displaced) basalt blocks are present on two of the features.


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Preliminary Discussion and Conclusion The majority of the Mwanihuki burial structures appear to have continuities with late prehistoric burial structures stretching from Arosi in the NW of Makira through to Star Harbour in the far southwest and on to the islands of Santa Ana and Santa Catalina. Similar structures are also present on Ulawa (Hendren 1976) and Ugi (Green 1976b for discussion of excavations at Su’ena). While the excavations within the Mwanihuki structures have been somewhat limited due to issues associated with access, they already suggest various approaches to interment – from primary extended burials to commingled secondary burials - consistent with the many and varying, but apparently contemporaneous, burial environments and techniques observed by 19th and early 20th century travellers and researchers. These combinations of burial techniques may also be indicative of re-use of the sites over an extended period. Feature 5 shares many of the features of the other burial structures and processes, yet the combination of slightly different structure, the dates of the area that encompass both pre and post Spanish association, coupled with Spanish artefacts is sufficient to demand attention. The east-west orientation of the several traceable supine burials is also suggestive of Christian practice, although traditionally the feet should be pointed east whereas these are to the west. The activities of the passengers and crew aboard the Santa Isabel once they reached Makira, as well as their ultimate fate, remain unknown (Gibbs 2011). The contingent included not only Spanish, but South Americans, Africans and persons of mixed descent who potentially brought with them a range of Christian and nonChristian practices, although it has not yet been possible to identify the racial or ethnic origin of the burials from these remains. In addition to deaths among the immigrant group, an extended occupation may also have resulted in some conversion among the local population Continuing analysis of the skeletal remains from both the Feature 2 and Feature 5 structures will hopefully provide further insights into the nature of late prehistoric and early historic burial practices in the region.

A special thanks to the field crews of the 2010 and 2011 seasons: David Roe, Lawrence Kiko, Richard Tuffin, Sarah Kelloway, Kevin Edwards, Brad Duncan, Shaun Mackay, Ivana Vetta, Josh Connelly, Karyn Virgin, Jaki Baloh, Annika Korsgaard, Stephen Manebosa and Charles Radclyffe. This paper has also greatly benefited from the constructive comments of anonymous reviewers and we thank them for their advice.

References

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