Learner-created lexical databases using web-based source material Gregory L. Friedman
Introduction
One of the roles language instructors traditionally play in assisting vocabulary learning is that of arbiter. Teachers and textbook writers commonly preselect lexis they have reason to believe is appropriate for a target group in terms of level, frequency of use in native texts or speech, or necessity for a specialized field. Instructors also generally have control over the material that students read. Certainly, there is sound pedagogical reasoning behind such dependence on the teacher. Learners often lack information on factors such as frequency, while instructors usually have access to a wide range of levels and types of texts, such that they are able to fine-tune their selections to their students’ needs, interests, and abilities. Yet language learners do benefit from having access to authentic texts—such as newspaper or magazine articles and fiction at native-speaker level—that provide the opportunity to encounter lexis in a natural, rather than artificial context. Use of such material allows learners to gain an understanding of how lexis functions in real-world environments (Willis 1993; Johns 1994). As Willis notes: The use of authentic text makes it likely that not only structure and necessary choice but also the typical behaviour of words and phrases will be captured and . . . highlighted for the learner. (ibid.: 92) One problem, of course, with using such texts is their inherent difficulty, marked as they are by syntactic and lexical complexity, as well as a high
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The use of authentic text has been argued to increase learner awareness of lexical form, function, and meaning ( for example, Willis 1990; Johns 1994). The Web provides ready-made material and tools for both learner-centred reading and vocabulary tasks. This study reports on the results of a project in which Japanese university E F L students made use of the Web as a living corpus to investigate the specific contexts and collocative properties of lexis. Using an online database, students created a communal dictionary composed of lexis and example sentences culled from web sources, along with examples of their own devising. The language database was then used to facilitate peer teaching of lexis. Work produced indicates that learners paid attention to lexical form, function, and meaning when composing.
frequency of culture-specific references. Learners may quickly lose confidence when presented with such texts. If, however, learners are allowed to actually choose for themselves texts that are of personal or professional relevance, they may be more willing to engage with authentic material. Student choice is one way to maximize intrinsic motivation (Skehan 1991) in which both ‘learners’ particular interests and the extent to which they feel personally involved in learning activities’ are key (Ellis 1994: 76). Furthermore, when learners themselves select words to learn that are of interest to them—in particular words that will help them understand a text that they are personally interested in—motivation for vocabulary learning may be enhanced. Involvement in both text and vocabulary selection can thus effectively ‘arouse and harness the learner’s curiosity’ (Willis 1993: 92) towards the ultimate aim of increasing his or her understanding and command of L2 lexis. The project reported on in this paper was carried out in a class comprising second and third year university students whose English proficiency level ranged from intermediate to high intermediate according to the placement criteria of the institution. The course, Internet English, is required for some majors. Though some students came with prior interest in and facility with using the Web, many were relative web novices. Computers and internet access were available for all students in the classroom. As part of the course, students were involved in a variety of internet-based tasks requiring the reading of web text. These included participation in English language web discussion forums of their own choosing, summarizing information found on web pages in oral presentations, finding information for both student-created and instructorcreated quizzes, and discussion of favourite websites with others in the class.
Engaging with challenging content
Students in the class often encountered passages that they found challenging due to the presence of unfamiliar lexis. Reading strategies such as the use of contextual clues to supply meaning or simply reading for gist were not always sufficient; students expressed a desire to better understand what they read. Some students tried using electronic English–Japanese dictionaries to help them through challenging passages. While perhaps effective to some degree, this tactic did not allow for any opportunity to acquire new vocabulary. Rather than simply take for granted a certain level of frustration and the rapid meeting and forgetting of new lexis, it seemed desirable to make the presence of many new words into an opportunity rather than an annoyance. In response, an ongoing Class Dictionary project was begun, with the students in control of the lexis to be included and responsible for correctly pinpointing definitions, finding collocations, and writing example sentences. It should be acknowledged at the outset that not a few voices in the literature have argued against a reductive, word-hunting approach to L2 reading methodology (for example, Johns and Davies 1983; Johns 1997; Feathers 2004). They rightfully point out that the primary purpose of text is to provide information or imaginative experience, not lexis. Balanced against this, however, is the real need and oft-expressed desire of most students to Learner-created lexical databases
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The project Setting and participants
increase their vocabulary. Taking into account both sides of this issue, I thought it best to have my students engage with web pages first in information-gathering tasks before they began to use the Web to seek new lexical knowledge as well. Gleaning lexis was presented as an endeavour undertaken only to serve the primary purpose of web text, the gathering of knowledge.
Process
The project comprises six interrelated tasks: 1 Use of web page texts as sources for lexis. 2 Use of an online learner dictionary to select proper definitions. 3 Exploiting the Web as a searchable corpus to find multiple, in-context
examples of lexical items. 4 Population of a lexical database featuring learner-chosen lexis and
learner-created example sentences. 5 Email communication between students and teacher in order to check,
correct, and give feedback on database submissions. 6 An extension story-writing task, to give learners the opportunity to put
new lexis to use. Each of these will be described, with special attention paid both to the scaffolding steps used to acclimate students to choosing definitions and to the use of the Web to broaden the range of example sentences available.
Scaffolding and dictionary orientation
Though many Japanese E F L students own learner dictionaries, their actual facility with using them is often rather limited. To assist the students in becoming familiar with the process of using learner dictionaries, some sample lexical items and web page text were chosen in advance. Links to these pages were provided in an online worksheet (Appendix 1). These web pages were chosen for their potential general interest to the students in the class, and short sections assigned that the students could read quickly. Words were chosen from the text on those pages that the students were not likely to have encountered before. Figure 1 shows the text of a selection from Wikipedia’s Spiderman 3 page, which formed the basis of the worksheet.
figure 1 Text from Wikipedia (Spiderman 3)
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The presence of the Web as an integral part of the course offered a way for students to deepen their understanding of lexical items by seeking other examples, much as professional linguists do in using corpora to pinpoint nuances of native speaker usage, such as topical association and collocation. Robb (2003), in a study of variation in collocation among different web domains, notes some drawbacks to the use of the Web as a corpus—for example, the inability to search for categories of words or to obtain reliable frequency counts. He posits against these, however, the Web’s size, accessibility, and the presence of much language that often conforms to norms of spoken usage (such as that found in forums and blogs) as aspects that recommend it to second language study.
A given lexical entry in a dictionary is likely to present learners with the challenge of choosing from a list of several different, nuanced definitions. Thus, a controlled-entry approach was used for selecting the words the students would be given to tackle. The first two items, ‘bask in’ and ‘seek’, have single definitions; the second item, ‘convict’, features noun and verb forms with a single definition each; and the third, ‘bond’, has noun and verb forms with several definitions for each. In this way, the students progressively tackle increasing levels of definitional ambiguity in order to prepare them for the challenges they will be likely to encounter later.1
For the first few items in the text selection, the instructor coached the class in using the online dictionary.2 Key features of the dictionary were pointed out, such as the initial separation of items by part of speech, keyword listing of some definitions, pronunciation, and example sentences. The instructor went through the definitions with the students, asking them to consider which one made the most sense in the given context. For items with multiple parts of speech and/or definitions, the challenge for the students was naturally somewhat greater. Hints and information regarding context, affixes, morphology, or collocation were given when necessary. Of these, the latter may be the most important in engendering in learners an ecological view of lexis: words do not exist in a vacuum, but tend to live next to or near certain other items or types of items.
Web as corpus
To deepen this ecological appreciation of lexis, Google search was used in order to gather multiple in-context examples. The collocative and associative nature of items was taken advantage of to inform keyword choice when carrying out searches. For example, the word ‘installment’ was found on an earlier version of Wikipedia’s Spiderman 3 page. Students noticed the use of the preposition ‘of ’ following the word in both the web page sentence and the example sentence in the online dictionary. A Google search using ‘installment of’ netted ‘fourth installment of the Indiana Jones Adventures’ and ‘you’re reading the 100th installment of Geek to Live’, among others. The verb ‘suspect’ was noted to be followed by [+ human] items: a name on the original web page example and a third person pronoun in the dictionary example. The search keywords ‘suspected’ and ‘him’ netted many instances. (Using the simple past form of verbs may tend to give more useable web search results; this point will be discussed further below.) Topical associations are also valuable for keyword searches. The noun ‘cast’ was noticed by many students on movie-themed sites. After clarifying which definition was being used, students searched using ‘movie’ and ‘cast’, finding ‘a list of the Harry Potter cast’. Students also noted the word ‘crew’ often used with ‘cast’, leading to an understanding of the differentiation between these two movie set occupations. A subsequent search using ‘arm’ and ‘cast’ yielded examples for one of the other definitions of the noun. Learner-created lexical databases
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The text selection was read aloud while the students read on their computers, then the students read it again on their own. Students’ attention was drawn to the first item, ‘bask in’. The class was asked to work in pairs, using contextual clues to decide what part of speech the item represented and to arrive at a guess of its meaning. Students were allowed to use their first language when guessing definitions, with about half choosing to do so.
Beyond content words, functional lexis is of particular value for learners, particularly those enrolled in E AP courses. In this case, as well, the Web provides invaluable opportunities for students to become aware of how such lexis is used. In a Wikipedia article on the book Uncle Tom’s Cabin, the phrase ‘many of which’ was found: The book also helped create a number of common stereotypes about Blacks, many of which endure to this day. It was not immediately apparent to most students what the meaning or function of this phrase was. A review was given regarding the use of ‘which’ as a relative pronoun referring to the head noun of the preceding noun phrase, yet this could only partially satisfy the class’ understanding. A web search provided several examples to clarify how the phrase is used: India Blocks Several Web Sites, Many of Which Are Blog Homes.
The class was asked to try to determine which countable noun was being referenced in each case. After engaging with such examples, students were able to create their own example sentences using the phrase. The noodle shop has so many comic books, many of which are boring. My teacher teaches lessons, many of which I forget soon. Careful choice of search terms was found to be key in providing useful results for students. For phrases and collocative items, more useable samples were found by using quotes and by including all particles, determiners, etc. For verbs, using the past tense form in the search terms tended to yield better results (possibly due to the relative contextual clarity present in news stories or personal recountings, both of which often use past tense). The following search results (Figures 2–6) demonstrate the varying degree of contextual support obtained using various search term combinations, in this case for the phrase ‘face a challenge’.
figure 2 Search term: face challenge
figure 3 Search term: ‘face challenge’
figure 4 Search term: ‘face a challenge’
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Scene for scene, Paprika is overflowing with dazzling images, many of which walk that thin line between beautiful and terrifying.
figure 5 Search term: ‘faced a challenge’
figure 6 Search term (Google News): ‘faced a challenge’
Populating the database
Once the meaning and collocative properties of a few words had been established, and further online examples found, the next step for the students was to create their own example sentences. This personalization step is at the heart of the database project. From the point of view of an instructor, it represents a measure of the students’ grasp of form, function, and meaning. For learners, it is a key step towards internalization of new lexis. The first time it was carried out, the students were given the task of writing an example for the same item: ‘bask in’. After comparing and critiquing one another’s example sentences in small groups, each group chose a sentence to share with the class. Finally, the class selected two sentences: He regretted that he bask in his small success. He basked in his glory of the past. These sentences were used to help populate the first entries in the database, giving the class an opportunity to learn how to enter the necessary information. For this first time, selected students read out each part required for the database: word, definition, web page sentence(s), and example sentence. Another student entered each part as read, while the class viewed the process on their centre monitors (Figure 7). Note that the student’s original sentence was not edited to match probable NS norms, i.e. ‘He basked in the glory of his past’. Unless highly ungrammatical or demonstrating a lack of understanding of the lexical item, student sentences were left unedited.
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The results in Figure 2 show the typical ambiguity found when quotes are not used and the article left out. The next two searches, using quotes (Figure 3) and then the insertion of the indefinite article (Figure 4) netted slightly better results, though still with enough contextual ambiguity to potentially confuse learners. This evidently stems largely from the common use of the present tense in headlines, which by themselves offer little context. With the addition of past tense morphology (Figures 5 and 6), the results show clearer contexts within which the phrase can be understood.
figure 7 Database entry
Email communication
Early on, a few entries in the database indicated that students sometimes had trouble selecting the appropriate definition for their chosen item (or perhaps simply did not invest enough effort in choosing among the multiple definitions) or were unable to write a sentence that clearly captured the basic sense of the item. To remedy this, the class were instructed to send their entries by email so that the instructor could give feedback (Figure 9). After having two entries approved, a student was given approval to work independently.
Extension task
In the final weeks of the course, the students were given a story-writing task to encourage them to make further use of the lexis that they had gathered as a group. To maximize the peer teaching opportunity inherent in the class dictionary, they were asked to utilize two of their own database entries while using three contributed by others. Before submitting their stories, students had to check the sentences they wrote using other students’ items with the original contributors, who either gave approval or advice. To help the students get their stories underway, a set of links to story-starter idea web pages was posted on the class homepage. Once the students embarked upon a story idea that caught their fancy, they seemed to have little trouble finding ways to use new lexis within them. Fiction writing allowed imagination to come into play as they built their stories around words or phrases that gave them inspiration (Appendix 2). Finally, the students uploaded their story documents to our class homepage, where they could be read by all. Some students opted to post them on their personal homepages. After reading their classmates’ stories, they sent
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After the first stage, in which the class worked together on a single piece of web text and a set of preselected items, the students had free rein to choose words when and where they wished, with only a general goal of at least one database entry per week. Since the class were working on various web-based tasks on an ongoing basis (for example, reading pages to find information for peer-made quizzes, reading and participating in forums and blogs, preparing presentations based on web research), they had many opportunities to engage in lexical sleuthing in the context of personalinterest, meaning-focused inquiry. Figure 8, extracted from the database, shows samples of student-selected lexis and the example sentences they created.
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figure 8 Sample database entries
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emails with comments to the authors or directly posted comments on their personal homepages.
Conclusion
Rather than teachers presenting students with texts and vocabulary lists as a fait accompli, learners can be empowered to choose source material that is of personal interest to them and to choose words and phrases that they find interesting or which help them understand what they want to know. The abundance and inexhaustible variety of web text let learners act as lexical sleuths and budding corpus builders, while online tools let them compile their findings for ready reference and peer teaching. Though the method outlined above involved six different online tasks, it is not necessary that the project be carried out in exactly this way. Instructors might choose to use any one or all of these tasks, depending on the type of class, the extent to which computer resources may be available, and the instructor’s own philosophy of reading and vocabulary learning. For example, it is not necessary that the lexical material come from the Web itself; the items might come from other assigned reading material. Learners could also be presented with a specified set of lexis to find on the Web, for example, items from the academic word list. Furthermore, the tasks need not be done during class time. If no computer resources are available in the classroom, students can carry them out on their own and share their findings with one another in class.
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figure 9 Email communication
This study presented student work produced through tasks that featured specific attributes, such as learner autonomy in choosing lexis to be learnt, collective learning through a database, and creative expression. The study does not show whether these aspects can result in long-term retention either of the vocabulary studied or of the study skills used during the tasks (for example, searching for multiple in-context examples in order to understand vocabulary). However, the work demonstrates that students were often able to understand and correctly apply the form, function, and meaning of the lexical items they chose. Final revised version received November 2007
References Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Feathers, K. 2004. Infotext: Reading and Learning (Second Edition). Toronto: Pippin Publishing, Ltd. Johns, A. 1997. Text, Role and Context: Developing Academic Literacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Johns, T. and F. Davies. 1983. ‘Text as a vehicle for information: the classroom use of written texts in teaching reading in a foreign language’. Reading in a Foreign Language 1/1: 1–19. Johns, T. F. 1994. ‘From printout to handout: grammar and vocabulary teaching in the context of data-driven learning’ in T. Odlin (ed.). Perspectives on
Appendix 1 Worksheet (excerpt)
Pedagogical Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Robb, T. 2003. ‘Google as a quick ‘n dirty corpus tool’. T E S L - E J 7/2. Available at http://tesl-ej.org/ej26/ int.html. Skehan, P. 1991. ‘Individual differences in second language learning’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 3/2: 275–98. Willis, J. D. 1990. The Lexical Syllabus. London: Collins Cobuild. Willis, J. D. 1993. ‘Grammar and lexis: some pedagogical implications’ in J. Sinclair, G. Fox, and M. Hoey (eds.). Techniques of Description. London: Routledge. The author Gregory Friedman currently teaches in the Global Japanese Studies programme at Meiji University in Tokyo. He holds a Master’s degree in Applied Linguistics from San Diego State University. His research interests include task effects on fluency, complexity, and accuracy of learner output, in particular the effect of scenario drama interaction on output modification. Email:
[email protected]
Read the second paragraph of the Wikipedia article about the movie Spiderman 3. n Notice the word basking. 1 What kind of word do you think it is?
(For example, noun, verb, adjective . . .) _________________ 2 What preposition comes after basking? _____ 3 What do you think basking in his success means?
__________________________________________________________
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Notes 1 Since the creation of this lesson, changes in the online dictionary have resulted in several definitions being added to the entries for both ‘bask’ and ‘seek’. 2 This study made use of the online version of the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. CD versions of this dictionary also contain a pop-up dictionary window that will appear when any word on web page text is clicked. This was used by some students.
4 Now look up the phrase in the online dictionary, or use your pop-up.
What is the definition? __________________________________________________________ 5 Now, write your own sentence using this phrase. __________________________________________________________ n Notice the word seeks. 1 What kind of word do you think it is?
Web search! 1 Open a new browser window. Go to Google. First, search with just seek.
What kind of examples do you see? What are these websites about? What do many people seek on the Web? They seek ___________. 2 What is another thing people might seek on the Web? Think of some ideas with your partner. Write three ideas here: _______________ _______________ _______________ Now, search using your ideas. In the search window, put seek [your idea]. Write a sentence that you find: __________________________________________________________
Appendix 2 Story samples
(vocabulary items in bold) 1 I heard a scary noise in the closet when I was in bed. The noise came out frequently. I was thinking I should leave my room or open the closet, and I opted to open it. I was really scared, because when I saw my face reflected in the transparent window, it looked like a ghost! I shouted because of the surprise. Then I thought that I saw something turned up on the floor. So I brandished my bat. Then it hit my room lamp, and I saw the scattered piece of broken lamp on the floor. I couldn’t move like a fishbowl idol and shaked with fear. I decided to leave this room after a short time. I was completely forget about broken glass, so I injured my foot. 2 One day of in the life of George Bush Yesterday, I slept for a long time and I had a very long dream. I was a famous person. I turned into, say, George Bush. I did the inaugural address. I write signature for warring thereafter. I declared that fighting terrorist, but I was skeptical about my idea. I said to myself that is the war really for peace? My acting was reminiscent of the Vietnam War. The war involved many peoples. I was ashamed of own act, when I woke. It was a really creepy dream.
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(For example, noun, verb, adjective, preposition . . .) _________________ 2 What do you think seeks means? __________________________________________________________ 3 Now look up the word in the online dictionary, or use your pop-up. What is the definition? __________________________________________________________ 4 What is the past tense form of this verb? _________________
