Learning effects of an experimental EFL program in ... - Springer Link

Education Tech Research Dev (2012) 60:943–961 DOI 10.1007/s11423-012-9259-0 INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

Learning effects of an experimental EFL program in Second Life Charles Xiaoxue Wang • Brendan Calandra • Susan T. Hibbard Mary L. McDowell Lefaiver

•

Published online: 16 June 2012 Association for Educational Communications and Technology 2012

Abstract This paper reports on the effects an experimental English as a Foreign Language (EFL) program in Second Life (SL) had on Chinese student EFL learning. The study took an evaluative approach using quasi-experimental design with participants from one Chinese university and one American university in the southeastern United States. Results indicated significant main effects between a control group and the SL group on EFL measures, as well as significant gains in total score and several subcomponents between pre-test and post test. Further analysis using a post study survey, students’ blog posting, and interview transcripts revealed that the SL_EFL Program had a positive impact on students’ EFL learning. Keywords EFL learning Second Life Multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) Technology integration

Introduction Recently, educational researchers and practitioners alike have paid considerable attention to the use of multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) to support learning across curricula. Among those MUVEs created through various media, Second Life (SL) is one of the most popular, gaining greater significance for academic, social and business purposes. Many colleges and universities have established a presence in SL offering virtual classes, C. X. Wang (&) S. T. Hibbard M. L. McDowell Lefaiver Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL, USA e-mail: [email protected] S. T. Hibbard e-mail: [email protected] M. L. McDowell Lefaiver e-mail: [email protected] B. Calandra Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected]

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discussions, presentations, field trips and guest lectures (Diehl and Prins 2008). Major professional organizations in the field of educational technology and media such as the New Media Consortium (NMC), the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), and the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) have established virtual presences in SL. Second Life features compelling visual and immersive components, synchronous interactions, and ‘‘opportunities to practice and perform in the language in the ways that the traditional classroom setting does not allow’’ (Blasing 2010, p. 96). With broad access to native speaking communities and virtual spaces for learning and collaboration, SL affords the potential to address Communication, Culture, Connections, Comparisons, and Communities. These ‘‘five C’s’’ are the five components of the National Standards for Foreign Language Education created by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL 2011). This paper reports the results of an experimental English as a Foreign Language Program in Second Life (SL_EFL Program) with a group of Chinese students, their perceptions of SL as an EFL learning platform, and their perceptions of the SL_EFL Program. The research findings and discussions draw implications for designing and teaching similar programs in virtual worlds—programs using authentic learning environments and tasks that link EFL learners with native English speakers and their culture.

Literature review The literature on uses of virtual reality or virtual worlds for educational purposes can be traced back to the early 1990s (Wickens 1992). Virtual worlds are computer-simulated environments that simulate places either in the real or imaginary worlds. Another term used interchangeably with ‘‘virtual worlds’’ is ‘‘multi-user virtual environments’’ (MUVEs), which was originally used to describe massively multi-players online games (MMOGs) such as World of Warcraft. Now the term has expanded to include online platforms beyond those specific to gaming. The unifying characteristic in this case is 3D third-person graphics accessed via the Internet that allows simultaneous interaction in a persistent virtual environment. Educational uses of MUVEs have been studied for creating online communities (Riedl et al. 2003), for enhancing the quality and experiences of student learning (Jarmon et al. 2008; Squire and Jenkins 2004), and for providing collaborative environments (Bruckman 1997; Erlandson et al. 2010). Studies of MUVEs show that they may afford social interactions, access to information, the integration of technology, and collaborative learning (Dillenbourg et al. 2002). Scholars acknowledge that MUVEs may successfully support synchronous communication and social interaction and therefore motivate participants to learn (Barab et al. 2005; Delucia et al. 2009). As learning platforms, MUVEs have at least four distinct features including (1) a 3D illustration space, (2) an avatar that visually represents the user, (3) interactive tools for communications in text, audio and symbolic formats (Dickey 2005, 2011) and (4) the ‘‘ability for a user to ‘act’ on the world’’ (Hew and Cheung 2008, p. 34). In their review of research literature on virtual worlds in K-12 and higher education settings, Hew and Cheung (2008) revealed several uses for virtual worlds including: communication spaces, simulation spaces, and experiential spaces. They also found that research conducted on virtual world environments typically includes ‘‘participants’ affective domain, participants’ learning outcomes, and participants’ social interactions’’ (p. 9).

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MUVEs provide learners with various learning experiences, some of which can be very difficult to offer in the real world because of the distance, time, cost, danger or impracticality (Chittaro and Ranon 2007). This is especially valuable for EFL/ESL language learning and instruction as EFL and ESL students are not typically able to enjoy authentic social and cultural presences in their learning efforts. The literature on Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) has demonstrated a fruitful body of research and scholarly effort by the EFL community in integrating technology into EFL learning and instruction. A primary focus of CALL and CMC research (especially language learning at a distance), has been on the use of technologies for the development of literacy in a second or foreign language (Lam 2000; Shei 2005). Moreover, scholars and practitioners believe communicative competence development needs to take place in a social context. Integrating an immersive 3D virtual reality environment into language learning can reinforce language skills in a social context (Shih et al. 2007). Most of the literature on language learning in MUVEs involves speculation about the potential of what this type of environment can offer to language education (Deutschmann et al. 2009) but very little reporting on its direct effects on EFL learning and language performance. Three studies in particular have been deemed informative to the current study. Peterson (2006) studied non-native speaker interactions in the 3D virtual world, Active Worlds, which incorporates avatars and text chat. The 24 intermediate level EFL participants completed three types of tasks: jigsaw, decision making and opinion exchanging over a period of five weeks. That study revealed that in addition to evidence of the participants’ uses of transactional communication strategies and interactional strategies, the use of avatars also enhanced the sense of telepresence. The study concluded that learner interaction was influenced by the complex interaction of a number of variables including ‘‘task type, sociolinguistic factors, context of use and the mix of technical affordances provided by Active Worlds’’ (Peterson 2006, p. 79). Another exploratory case study conducted by Peterson (2010) investigated the synchronous interaction of intermediate level EFL learners in SL. Seven participants took part in three 70-min chat sessions in SL. This study reported that context and tasks appeared to elicit a high degree of participation, and that the subjects overcame initial difficulties to produce coherent target language output focused on the tasks through collaborative interaction. The study revealed that consistent use of interactional strategies enabled the participants to remain highly engaged and interested in the tasks. The conclusion of the study posited that ‘‘Second Life presents a dynamic, motivating and engaging new context for language learners’’ (Peterson 2010, p. 291). Zheng et al. (2009) conducted a post test only quai-experimental study of EFL learning in a 3D virtual world, Quest Atlantis, comprised of 61 seventh graders from a Chinese middle school. Thirty-one participants were randomly assigned to the experimental group and 30 to the non-experimental group. The experimental group worked for an average of 60 min a week for 25 weeks within Quest Atlantis together with their Australian counterparts using asynchronous tools such as email, telegrams, and bulletin board postings. The study found students in the experimental group rated themselves higher than the selfrating in the non-experimental group in measures of self-efficacy regarding advanced use of English, attitude towards English, and self-efficacy with e-communication. The study concluded that virtual worlds may provide a space for English language learners ‘‘to increase confidence and comfort and overcome cultural barriers for learning English’’ (Zheng et al. 2009, p. 205).

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Research of MUVEs in CALL is limited and little is known about how emerging technologies like MUVEs and SL in particular influence EFL learning and instruction. We contend that affordances of MUVEs could bring a richer cultural experience, communication with native speakers and an authenticity to instruction that might otherwise be at risk of seeming isolated, irrelevant, or detached.

Research questions and methodology The ultimate goal of this research effort was to explore and find effective and practical ways to integrate SL into an EFL program for EFL learners from Chinese universities. Research questions This investigation sought to answer the main research question: What are the effects of the SL_EFL Program on Chinese students’ EFL learning? The following sub-questions were formed to help answer the main research question: • Is the SL_EFL Program effective in helping the Chinese students with EFL learning as measured by pre-study and post study language tests? • What are the Chinese students’ perceptions of SL as a language learning platform? • What are the Chinese students’ perceptions of the SL_EFL Program? • What are the perceived problems by the study participants in the SL_EFL Program? To answer the above questions, the study specifically focused on different areas of analysis within each dependent variable as listed in Table 1. For example, to reveal learning effects of SL_EFL program, both pre-study test and post-study tests were used to measure student language performance related to (a) oral task completion, (b) pronunciation and intonation, (c) language uses, and (d) total scores. Methodology An evaluation research approach (Krathwohl 1998; McMillan and Schumacher 1997) was used to examine the learning effects of the SL_EFL Program in a realistic setting. Evaluation research, like action research, is under the umbrella of the practitioner inquiry model (Cochran-Smith and Donnell 2006). However, evaluation research differentiates itself from other research approaches. According to Krathwohl (1998) and McMillan and Schumacher (1997), evaluation research has a number of unique characteristics: (1) it is holistic in its approach, (2) it is decision-driven instead of being hypothesis-driven, and (3) the existing variables are not manipulated during the actual evaluation. The researchers in the current study took the evaluation research approach for three major reasons. First, evaluation research fits the researchers’ epistemological beliefs of social cognitive learning that advocates learning through interaction and collaboration in social contexts (Driscoll 2000). Secondly, they wanted to find effective and practical ways to integrate SL into an EFL program. The implementation of the SL_EFL Program must be carried out in a real context with real instructional constraints in which the final EFL program in SL is expected to function. Third, the research context makes using other research approaches unrealistic because the need to tightly control and/or purposively manipulate certain variables could not be validated.

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Table 1 Dependent measures, areas of analysis, and methods Dependent measures

Areas of analysis

Methods

Learning effects in SL_EFL Program

Oral task completion

Pre-study language test

Pronunciation and intonation

Post-study language test

Language uses Total scores Students’ perception of SL as an EFL learning platform

Interface

Post-study survey

Avatar

Individual interviews

Actions

Focus-group interviews

Communications

Participants’ blog posting

General feelings Overall rating Students’ perceptions of SL_EFL Program

Learning environment

Post-study survey

Communication


Task partner in SL


General feelings

Participants’ blog posting

Overall rate Perceived problems

Technical

Post-study survey

Logistical


Pedagogical


Other

Site observations

Context and participants The study was implemented online in SL with participants from a state university in the southeastern USA and a provincial university in Eastern China. The American university is the Southeast’s leading urban research institution in the USA and its participants were 20 undergraduate students from multiple disciplines taking an introductory course on computer skills. Participation in the study was a requirement for course credit. The Chinese university is a comprehensive university with twenty academic colleges and schools. The Chinese participants were 61 full-time sophomores majoring in English in its School of Foreign Languages. They were the target students of this research project (an ‘‘N’’ is used to represent them in the report). Among the 61 Chinese participants, 20 were selected to participate in the EFL program in SL, including 7 male students (35 %) and 13 female students (65 %). Their ages ranged from 19 to 23 years with an average of 21. Due to practical constraints that did not allow random sampling, the study purposively selected 20 Chinese participants for the SL_EFL Program on a voluntary basis and according to their comprehensive evaluation scores from the previous academic semester. The purposive sampling among the Chinese participants was to ensure that the selected participants might best represent the real quality of the target population. Table 2 summarizes the comprehensive evaluation scores of the study participants and the selected participants for the SL_EFL Program.

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Table 2 Summary of the comprehensive evaluation by scores range Score range (Max = 100)

Study participants (n = 61)

SL Program paricipants (n = 20)

Student number

Participant number

Score average

Score average

90–100

7

91.31

3

80–89

42

85.67

14

85.58

60–79

12

77.65

3

77.83

Under 60a a

0

0

0

91.88

0

Any score under 60 is regarded as a failure for the evaluation

Procedures and learning tasks The study took place over a five-week period. Before the start of the program, 61 Chinese participants took a pre-study language test. The SL_EFL Program provided the participants with opportunities to interact with American students synchronously online in SL. The learning tasks for each week were (a) one hour of learning activities in SL, (b) blog writing consisting of reflections on their learning experiences in SL, and (c) language preparation for learning activities in SL for the subsequent week. The learning activities for the experimental group in SL included a SL workshop in a lecture format, virtual tours in groups and one-on-one with SL partners, small group discussions, a one-on-one interview with the American partners, and individual presentations. The SL experimental group worked for an average of 60 min per week for 6 weeks in the SL environment. A website was created to give detailed instructions on how to complete the tasks for each week. The participants completed their language tasks at an Internet Center on the Chinese university campus. Two Chinese graduate students who served as research assistants were present at the site to provide necessary technical support. It should be noted that both the experimental SL group and the control group were both assigned the same course curriculum with required learning tasks and materials. However, the control group did not participate in the supplemental activities designed specifically for the SL experimental group. At the end of the SL_EFL Program, 39 study participants completed the post study language test and completed a post study survey. Figure 1 offers screenshots of the participants’ avatars completing different learning tasks in SL. Instrumentation, and data collection and analysis This study used both qualitative and quantitative analysis (Creswell 2008). Data collection methods included (a) pre-study and post study language tests, (b) post study surveys, (c) one-on-one and focus group interviews and (d) documentation review (e.g., participants’ blog posting that describes their learning experiences in the SL_EFL Program). Table 3 shows the sequence of data collection. The pre-study and post study language tests and the assessment rubric were created according to the requirements of the oral section of the College English Test 4 (CET4), a national English proficiency test in China that students are required to pass prior to graduation. Two professors in the USA and three professors in China reviewed the prestudy and post study tests, the assessment rubric and the survey instrument. These professors are experts in both EFL and instructional technology and design and their review

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Fig. 1 Different learning tasks in SL

Table 3 Data collection during the study Data instruments

Week 1

Week 2

Week 3

Pre-study language test Student blogs posting

H H

H


H

Week 4

Week 5

H

H

H

H H


H

Post-study language test Recorded sessions in SL

Week 6

H

H

H

H

H

H

efforts validated the instruments used in this study. Additionally, two students at the Chinese university piloted the language tests and survey to ensure that the language level was appropriate for the target users. The pre-study and post study language tests consisted of two tasks: (a) listening to a short descriptive passage then retelling it in English and (b) answering specific questions related to the passage. Both tests were administered in two language labs at the Chinese university. The language labs had over 40 work stations with Newsmy RV8 Recorders on each to record the participants’ tests into digital (MP3) files. Two professors of English from another university in China and two graduate students from the US university assessed the pre-study and post study tests using the same assessment rubric. They formed two assessment teams consisting of one professor and one graduate student. To address the inter-rater reliability issue, the assessors worked together

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assessing eight cases in both pre-study and post study tests while discussing issues related to the use of the rubric. Afterwards, both assessment teams evaluated each test without knowing student grouping information. Two complete sets of assessment data from all study participants were collected and compared to identify individual cases with significant differences between the results. The inter-rater reliability was 94 % and six cases with the greatest differences were discussed and re-evaluated by all the assessors with a consensus on the final assessment result. The average results from both teams were used for data analysis to reveal the learning effects of the SL_EFL Program on Chinese students’ EFL learning. To determine the difference in the pre-study and post study test scores between the control and SL study group, ANOVA was repeatedly conducted using SPSS 17.0. This was used to determine the difference in gains made over time by each group. The post-study survey, which consisted of twenty-three statements on a five-point Likert scale questionnaire and an opportunity for the participants to write any additional thoughts and opinions, captured the participants’ perceptions of SL as an EFL learning platform as well as their perceptions of the SL_EFL Program. Since the purpose of the survey was to solicit opinions of the participants, descriptive statistics were used to analyze the survey data. Three sets of interviews were conducted at the second week, the fourth week and the sixth week after the Program. Each set of interviews consisted of four to six one-on-one interviews and a focus group interview comprised of three to four participants. All the interviews were done in Chinese to ensure the integrity of the responses from the EFL Program participants. The interviews were recorded and transcribed for analysis. To triangulate the findings, the research team also reviewed the participants’ weekly blog postings. Both the interview transcripts and blog postings were categorized, coded, and analyzed by research members from both China and the USA.

Results The pre-study and post study language tests The language tests were modeled from the oral session of the College English Test 4 that assesses student language performance in oral communication. Specifically, the tests assess a student’s ability to understand an English descriptive oral passage and retell it, as well as answer questions and provide explanations. The tests also assess a student’s pronunciation,

Table 4 Assessment items, assessment focus and maximum scores Items

Assessment focus

Task 1

Ability to understand descriptive passage and retell it.

30

Task 2

Ability to answer given questions with explanations.

30


Ability to communicate in English with clear pronunciation, intonation and flow of ideas.

20

Language uses

Ability to use correct words, phrases, and sentence tenses and structures to communicate in English.

20

Total

Ability of oral communication in English

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Maximum scores

100


951

Table 5 Descriptive statistics for pre-study and post study tests for control and Second Life group Test items

Groups

Pre-test M

Task 1 (Max =30)

Post test SD

M

SD

Control group

14.98

6.91

19.29

6.72

SL group

18.70

6.24

24.10

3.42

Control group

18.54

5.32

19.56

5.41

SL group

19.35

4.43

22.40

2.52

Pronunciation and intonation (Max = 20)

Control group

12.79

2.04

13.25

1.84

SL group

12.90

1.71

14.55

1.46

Language uses (Max = 20)

Control group

13.19

1.95

13.53

2.00

SL group

13.85

1.59

14.60

1.29

Total score (Max = 100)

Control group

59.50

13.51

64.56

13.17

SL group

64.80

10.42

75.65

7.35

Task 2 (Max = 30)

Control group, n = 35; Second Life group, n = 20. The post study test scores for the control group n = 19. The attrition was attributed to the time of the post study test which was very close to the CET4 to be administered

intonation and language use (grammar and sentence structure). Table 4 summarizes the assessment items, assessment focus and maximum scores for both language tests. The test data obtained were prepared for the appropriate analyses. The means and standard deviation were calculated and data were screened to meet assumptions for ANOVA. Descriptive statistics for the pre-study and post study test scores for the control and SL groups are presented in Table 5. On task 1 the SL group had pre-test mean of 18.70 and post test score of 24.10 whereas the control group had a pre-test score of 14.98 and post test score of 19.29. The mean pre-test and post test scores for task 2 were 18.54 and 19.56, for the control group and 19.35 and 22.40 for the SL group, respectively. For word pronunciation the pre-test and post test scores for the control were 12.79 and 13.25, respectively, and the SL group’s means were 12.90 and 14.55, respectively. The control group’s means for language usage were 13.19 for the pre-test and 13.53 for the post test, and the SL group’s means were 13.85 and 14.60. A repeated measures analysis of the variance (ANOVA) of the pre-study and post study test data showed a significant main effect between the groups F(1,37) = 10.56, p = .003. The total test score was significantly higher for the Second Life group (M = 75.65, SD = 7.35) than for the control group (M = 64.56, SD = 13.17) and the magnitude of the difference was large (d = 1.04). In addition, several post study test components were significantly greater for the Second Life group compared to the control group: Task 1, Task 2, Pronunciation and Intonation, and Total Test Score. There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups on any pre-study test scores. The results indicate that the Second Life study group had the largest gain in scores from pre-study test to post study test for the total score, and several subcomponents. Table 6 displays ANOVA results for the post study test components. The participants’ perception of SL as an EFL learning platform The participants’ perception of SL as an EFL learning platform was vital to the success of integrating SL into an EFL program in China, which was the ultimate goal of the research efforts.

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952 Table 6 ANOVA results for post study test components

* p \ 0.05

C. X. Wang et al.

SSB

F

Component

df

Task 1

1

212.24

7.88*

Task 2

1

76.65

4.46*


1

16.01

5.88*

Language uses

1

10.89

3.90

Total test score

1

1166.09

10.56*

The survey to collect information on the participants’ perceptions of both SL as a language learning platform and the SL_EFL Program consisted of twenty-three statements on a five-point Likert scale questionnaire with an opportunity for the participants to write any additional thoughts and opinions. Out of 23 survey items, 10 were about the study participants’ perception of SL as a learning platform. It required that the participants rate their feelings about SL regarding its interface, avatar, actions, communication, and other general feelings. The survey results clearly indicated the study participants had positive feelings towards SL as an EFL learning platform (Mean = 4.38, SD = .64). They thought it was easy to control their avatars and navigate around the SL environment. All of the participants liked the interface and virtual environments of SL and were interested in communicating with others in SL. Table 7 summarizes the survey results by statement categories. The interviews also clearly indicated positive feelings toward SL as an EFL learning platform. The following comments support this claim: Interface: I feel that the whole interface is interesting and fresh. We can go to different locations to talk. The scenes are different and real, although it’s virtual. On the whole, it’s very good (Student A). Avatar: I have a unique avatar and others have theirs. And I can change my avatar as I want to. People can make friends with avatar’s image here, it’s really good and makes me happy (Student B). Actions: There are so many actions and functions, including fly and teleport, which cannot be realized in real life. There, I can change clothes, do lots of actions and make a variety of sounds, which can really enrich our talk (Student C). Communications: It looks like a vivid English-corner. The atmosphere is active and real. In classroom learning, we don’t have much chance to talk, while here, partners are warm-heartedand talkative. I enjoy the feelings of communication here. (Student D). Table 7 The survey results on SL

SL_EFL Program participants (n = 20) Survey categories

a

Mean maximum 5 = most favorable; mean minimum 1 = least favorable

123

No. of survey items

Meana

SD

Interface

2

4.33

0.79

Avatar

2

4.00

0.86

Actions

2

4.25

0.59

Communications

2

4.58

0.62

General feelings

2

4.73

0.34

10

4.38

0.64

Overall


953

General Feelings: SL is a virtual world. It’s something like a virtual game since people can change images and doing actions in it. However, it isn’t just a game but a medium of learning with the combination of a learning element and game element…. People can learn with fun and enjoy pleasure from learning, which improves our learning interests greatly (Student E). The study participants also cumulatively completed 77 weekly blog postings commenting on their learning experiences in SL. Although the blog postings focused on describing the learning experiences in SL, the analysis of these postings also portrayed their feelings towards SL as an EFL learning platform. When I entered the virtual world, I was greatly shocked in that it was very vivid. There were many green trees, a beautiful lawn and a big fountain. We were shown around the university…. I was deeply impressed. How fantastic it was! There was blue sea, clear sky and a lot of beautiful flowers. I liked it very much. My tour partner was Student Breiz. She enjoyed the virtual tour a lot too. We talked quite well, and we also walked around and flew together. It was terrific! We had a very good time, and both of us are now looking forward to the next tour (Student F). In summary, the SL_EFL Program left the study participants with such positive feelings towards SL that they wanted to increase the use of SL for EFL learning. The participants’ perceptions of the SL_EFL Program Of the 23 survey items, 13 addressed the participants’ perceptions of the SL_EFL Program regarding learning environment, communication, task partner, and general feelings. The analysis of the survey yielded positive results as indicated in Table 8. The study participants perceived the SL_EFL program to be generally interesting and positive (Mean = 4.18, SD = .76). They liked the SL learning environments, communications in SL, and enjoyed working with their task partners through their avatars. The interview analysis supported these findings. SL Learning Environment: I feel relaxed and free in Second Life. And I think that it can improve English learning a lot. I’ve been searching for this kind of environment since I entered this college, because when you speak English in a campus or dormitory, other students may regard you as a crank. But here, I don’t need to worry about losing face, since partners cannot see my face (Student G).

Table 8 The survey results on the SL_EFL Program

SL_EFL Program participants (n = 20) Survey categories

a

Mean maximum 5 = most favorable; mean minimum 1 = least favorable

No. of survey items

Meana

SD

Learning environment

3

4.08

0.77

Communication

3

4.25

0.85

Task partner

4

4.30

0.72

General feelings

3

4.10

0.82

13

4.18

0.76

Overall

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Communication: This kind of communication is efficient and better. We can talk with an avatar, not face to face. In this way, we can talk without anxiety. I like the teamwork form of communication. It’s new and interesting (Student H). Task partners: The American students were patient and supportive. When they talked with me, they deliberately slow down their speech a bit. When I was nervous, they always encouraged me by saying that I was excellent. When the communication dropped, they tried to think of something to say. I feel lucky to talk with them (Student E). General Feelings: This is a convenient, practical and reliable learning platform. We can learn many things while staying in the dormitory. Meanwhile, we can learn a lot of things which cannot be learned in the text books. It’s real English and everyday English. Leaning by talking with other English speaking people would let me learn more (Student I). The appreciation of the SL_EFL Program was further exhibited in their blog postings. Many study participants indicated that there were many benefits to using SL. The impact was more than just language learning as described by the following blog postings: I really enjoyed talking with him, because he is so kind, humorous and patient. To my surprise, we share lots of similarities. We became good friends the moment we started discussing. I’m very thankful to him for encouraging me to speak which increased my confidence in speaking English (Student J). Personally, I use Xiaonei.com and QQ to talk with my friends. I also use email to communicate with others…. Obviously, they have more advanced technology which we haven’t heard of before. She (American partner) uses Facebook and MSN while I use Xiaonei.com and QQ. But we both use email. That’s wonderful. I learned a lot in the discussion. I’m really happy to talk with Ashley. I’m looking forward to another talk (Student K). In short, the study participants perceived the SL_EFL Program to be interesting, effective and helpful in the EFL learning.

Perceived problems in the SL_EFL Program While study participants enjoyed the SL_EFL Program in general, they also perceived some problems worthy of noting. Participants reported problems in their blog postings and through interviews. Technical problems reported included poor audio quality during the chats (e.g., echoing and interrupted flow of audio sounds) and frozen screens. Both problems seriously impeded smooth communication and task completion in SL. The study participants also identified class management problems that occurred during the Program. For example, some American participants did not log into SL in a timely manner. After waiting for a short while, the Chinese participants would go to talk with other participants in other SL locations. As a result, the American participants could not find their Chinese counterparts when they logged in SL. Additionally, the study participants also mentioned distracting objects (e.g., a dolphin jumping regularly from the sea) and uninvited people suddenly landing in front of the discussion groups in SL. These problems need to be addressed when implementing similar programs in the future.

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Result summary The results reported above indicate the SL_EFL Program was significantly effective in EFL learning as measured by both pre-study and post study language tests. The data analysis from the survey, interview of the study participants and their blog postings reveal that the SL_EFL Program helped the study participants form positive perceptions towards SL as a useful and interesting EFL learning platform. In addition, participants found the SL_EFL Program motivating, interactive and successful. In spite of the problems perceived, all study participants indicated they would like to have more learning opportunities in SL. Second Life had a positive impact on student learning based on the gains between pre-test and post test scores.

Discussion This study has some limitations to be mentioned. Due to practical constraints, the study was conducted among a fairly small group of the target students. The study survey was in English and some participants had difficulties in understanding some of the terms accurately as they indicated in the interviews. As a suggestion, reformatting the survey in Chinese will enhance the validity and reliability of the survey, and hence, the results. With these limitations, we want to remind the readers of the extent to which the study’s results and conclusions can be generalized. EFL learning in SL The data analysis results indicate the SL_EFL Program appeared to be a beneficial teaching method for EFL learners. As a result, the researchers deemed the program to be effective in improving oral communication abilities. Since both the pre-study and post study tests were modeled after CET4, a required national English language test for college and university students, we suggest that the EFL Program in SL might also be effective in preparing the target students for taking the CET4 in China. The improvement in oral task completion, pronunciation, and intonation are due to those meaningful learning activities afforded and mediated by SL. The meaningful and authentic interactions with the American students in SL appeared to be a motivational factor behind the EFL learning that was occurring in SL. When the Chinese EFL students immersed themselves into SL, they were more active in speaking and their speech was sustained for a longer period of time. As a result, their communication abilities significantly improved. Although both the control group and the experimental group experienced time constraints in preparation for the national exam during the study, the participants in SL_EFL Program continued with the SL experiences despite the rigor of their schedules, demonstrating their own motivation and perceived value of the SL tasks. From an EFL learning perspective, it is important to experience the culture in order to better understand the language. Second Life provides affordance of authentic cultural interactions which occur synchronously in virtual worlds. Chinese students improve their English through this medium by participating in real life interactions with English speaking counterparts which allow them to develop their own cultural understanding and language concepts. As discussed by Johnson and Levine (2008), platforms such as Second Life are uniquely situated to deliver ‘‘highly flexible, configurable blank canvases’’ for facilitating immersive and authentic EFL learning.

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Li et al. (1979) found in an earlier study that the cooperative culture of the Chinese students might have had an influence on their results. Although the current researchers did not observe any specific instances, Chinese students did make extra efforts to complete all the given learning tasks because they appeared to treat their English-speaking counterparts with the same respect and deference that they would their professors. With this type of mindset, the Chinese EFL students were very cooperative, polite, and respectful when working with their American counterparts, which in turn made them better communicators and encouraged them to perform to a higher standard. Generally speaking, Chinese EFL students have been shown to be generally averse ‘‘to risk using/speaking English in Class’’, fear of ‘‘being negatively evaluated’’, and ‘‘apprehensive of speech communication and tests’’ (Liu and Jackson 2008, p. 82). The effects of the SL_EFL Program suggest that utilizing SL could be an effective way to overcome these inhibitions and psychological barriers on the part of Chinese students participating in EFL learning. The importance of an authentic EFL learning environment has long been recognized. Since the lack of authentic learning environments is a big problem for EFL learning and instruction in China and in many other non-English speaking countries, we suggest that integrating SL into EFL programs can be an effective solution. These observations appear to closely align with some Chinese EFL scholars’ ideas on using virtual worlds as a way to solve the language learning problem caused by a lack of authentic and meaningful learning environments and to enhance students’ motivations for language learning (Ma and Hou 2008). Different language learning tasks bring about unique learning effects regardless of the environmental modes of instruction, whether virtual or face-to-face. It is also interesting to note that out of four areas of the language assessment (e.g., task completion 1 and 2, pronunciation and intonation, and language use) there was no significant improvement in language uses. This is because the assessment of language uses focused on the grammar and sentences structures of students’ utterances in the tests. The learning tasks in the SL_EFL Program were not targeted to train students in this respect and thus this result was not a surprise to the research team. Designing EFL programs in SL In designing EFL Programs in SL, learners, culture, technology and pedagogy are primary considerations and these factors should be analyzed holistically and in a systemic way to ensure the success of such a program (Wang et al. 2010). Careful analysis of these factors informs program designers of the target learners and their competencies for communications and interactions in SL in terms of language ability, cultural knowledge, and technology skills. Social interactions promote learning (Vygotsky 1978) and designing EFL Programs in SL should focus on promoting meaningful interactions. Interactions in a 3D virtual environment however, require special traits (Jensen 1999) and we propose three levels of interaction to consider in designing EFL Programs in SL. Level 1: Interactions between students and their avatars Interaction at this level consists of participants controlling and manipulating their avatars in SL. To successfully engage in interactions at this level, participants need to have basic technological competencies such as controlling a computer keyboard, mouse, and understanding basic navigational functions of the SL virtual environment.

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Level 2: Interactions between students and virtual environments This type of interaction involves participants interacting with various virtual objects in SL. Searching and saving information, following instructions in a virtual lab, reading virtual books, using virtual tools for teaching and learning are examples of this type of interaction. In addition to the competencies required in Level 1, interactions at this level require participants to understand the navigational systems, the technological functionalities and limits of SL. Level 3: Interactions between students and other avatars This type of interaction occurs when students interact and communicate with other avatars in SL. This type of interaction happens in the form of written texts such as chats and instant messages, voice chats, body language (e.g., gestures), and exchanging of virtual objects including electronic files, video clips, and so forth. Chatting with another avatar in a public event, participating in a special interest group discussion, collaborating with others to build a virtual house, taking a virtual tour are examples of this type of interaction. This type of interaction is social and interpersonal and therefore, requires students to know how to use the target language in different formats (written, oral, and gestures) and to be acquainted with cultural factors such as social rules (e.g., being polite and respectful). We feel that an awareness of these different levels of interactions will help us inform future designs, especially of the learning activities and tasks in SL. Tasks are major means to engage students in EFL learning in SL. A task-centered approach (Merrill et al. 2008) is important for designing programs of this kind. We should engage learners in meaningful tasks, thus promoting the use of ‘‘authentic language’’ as opposed to more traditional, de-contextualized grammar instruction or repetitive drills. We also recommend designing a wide array of tasks that can elicit structured interactions (e.g., interviewing native speakers) as well as semi-structured or improvised interactions (e.g., virtual field trips to historically significant places, visits to virtual museums, organizing and participating in virtual conferences, designing and constructing cultural centers, creating virtual art shows and so on). The meaningful and authentic interactions in SL expose the EFL students to the English speaking and culture and provide them with appropriate ways of expressing themselves in particular social circumstances, thus promoting learning through social interactions (Richardson and Swan 2003; Vygotsky 1978). According to Herrington et al. (2007) with regard to design of virtual learning platforms, quality of the task, the persistence of its benefits and the ability to engage the learner is more important than the overall aesthetic environment of the platform. Instrumental to the success of such programs is the engagement of both the native speaking facilitators in terms of recognizing the significance and impact of their presence, as well as the learners for understanding the potential educational benefits of these experiences. A key benefit of SL for EFL learning is bridging the gap in physical distance to engage students in significant and sustainable knowledge construction (Wang et al. 2011). In this way, SL has the unique opportunity to engage both learners and teachers in mutually beneficial learning experiences, ultimately fostering relationships which translate to scholastic success for students and intrinsic engagement for teachers. Both physical and virtual learning environmental elements need to be carefully considered when designing future EFL programs in SL. Physical world constraints such as physical surroundings and technology capabilities affect students’ learning experience. For example, computer stations need to be equipped with large amounts of RAM, high-end

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graphic cards, and fast processors as required for many of the activities in SL. Also, having too many participants in one location both physically and virtually in SL creates echoing effects that can hinder student communication in SL. Selecting virtual environments needs to be carefully considered so as to eliminate possible distractions, such as regularly jumping dolphins, flying avatars, etc. Recommendations for facilitating EFL learning in SL To better facilitate and scaffold students’ EFL learning in SL, the following recommendations and suggestions are provided for designing, developing and implementing an EFL Program in SL. Prepare students for task completion Since the tasks in SL involve people from different cultures, cultural and background knowledge is needed for appropriate social interactions to take place in SL, for both the participants and their counterparts. In other words, the English-speaking task partners need to become familiar with Chinese culture, with knowledge related to the given learning task to ensure its smooth completion in SL. Task preparation increases students’ confidence in task completion and consequently makes better use of the time in SL for language learning. Set a time limit for any given task Because the interactions in SL require the participants to be present at the same time and in the same location in SL, managing a class in SL can be more difficult than managing a face-to-face class. Scholars (Ellis 2003; Lee 2000) have long recognized time as an important factor in student language performance. To help students become more efficient in their task completion, instructors should inform students of the time necessary for task completion, and set a time limit for any given task in SL especially when it involves participants across time zones. Closely monitor student language performance Instructors need to regularly monitor students’ language performance in SL. The instructor’s presence helps students avoid ‘‘just another game’’ mentality when they use SL for EFL learning and also help deal with distractions and interruptions such as uninvited avatars flying around or falling down right in front of the student avatars. Encourage post-task reflection Ellis (2003) examined interrelated research on task-based language learning and instruction and found that post-task reflection is an important part of the task-based learning process. Post-task reflection can be done in different formats. Some common activities include: (a) Individual student reports on task completion (oral or written); (b) group discussions on task completion; or (c) watching student SL video clips in class and then having students comment on their language performance. We believe that having students watch their own language performance recorded in SL would be the most beneficial to their language learning experience.

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Provide feedback Timely feedback is a well-known teacher immediacy tactic for both online and face-to-face instruction (Gagne´ 1985; Jonassen 1991; Mory 1996). Participants need to receive regular communication about their language performance against given instructional objectives or academic standards. Feedback can include a wide array of information from answer correctness and language uses to motivational messages (Mory 1996). The Chinese EFL students expressed that feedback from both their Chinese facilitators and their US counterparts should be both positive and constructive.

Conclusion This paper reported on the effects of an experimental SL_EFL Program on Chinese students’ EFL learning. Based on the study results, we discussed the implications and made a set of recommendations for facilitating EFL learning in SL and for designing similar EFL programs. It was exciting and encouraging to see the overall positive effects of the SL_EFL Program on the Chinese students’ learning as measured by the tests and revealed through the analysis of the survey, blog posting and interviews. This study indicated the merits of Second Life and the SL_EFL Program to provide a richer social and cultural experience for EFL students. Also, students thought Second Life was highly motivating and effective in facilitating EFL learning. It was equally important to note that SL, as revealed through American students’ final course reflection papers, also affords them the opportunities to learn from the Chinese students as they engage in the meaningful interactions. From a teacher preparation perspective, it also affords American professors authentic opportunities to learn about and practice teaching EFL students. In short, as an EFL learning platform, SL can link universities and students across temporal, spatial, and cultural barriers. The rapid evolution of digital media has afforded the opportunity to assimilate new technologies while exploring new pedagogies in EFL language learning. Indeed, the theme for the 2010 Association for Educational Communications and Technology International Convention (AECT 2011) was ‘‘Cyber Change: Learning in Our Connected World.’’ In this spirit, it is believed that connecting Chinese EFL students with other English-speaking people around the world is vitally important. We believe that the work described in this study has presented this potential, and the authors are enthusiastic about future developments in this area.

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Dr. Charles Xiaoxue Wang is an associate professor of educational technology at Florida Gulf Coast University. Dr. Brendan Calandra is an associate professor of instructional technology at Georgia State University. Dr. Susan T. Hibbard is an assistant professor of research and evaluation at Florida Gulf Coast University. Mary L. McDowell Lefaiver is a graduate student of educational technology at Florida Gulf Coast University.

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