LearningJournal,Sunner2000,No2/, 37-44 Language
style: andlearning language Learning process principles, andpractice Rayner andSteve Banner Gloria ofBirmingham Research Unit,University Assessment
T h i s a r t i c l es u g g e s t tsh a t b y l i n k i n ga s t u d e n t ' isn d i v i d u a l can be gainedof a clearer understanding to learning, approach h o ws u c c e s s f fuol r e i g nl a n g u a gaec q u i s i t i oi sn a c h i e v e d . ownstyleseemsto yieldbetter in his/her a learner Approaching of the oppositestyle results:pairinga studentwithsomeone The of furtherstrategies. to nurturethe development appears to learnhowto teachand of styleoffersan opportunity conshuct learnmoreeffectively,
INTRODUCTION There are arguably at least two self-evident 'truths' about effective teaching and learning in the classroom.The first is that an individualpupil's a p p r o a c ht o l e a r n i n g i s c e n t r a l t o e d u c a t i o n a l a c h . i e v e m e n tT. h e s e c o n d i s t h a t a t e a c h e r ' s a w a r e n e s sa n d r e s p o n s et o t h i s a p p r o a c h i s e q u a l l y c r u c i a l f o r s u c c e s si n t h e c l a s s r o o m . Although knowing more about how individual p u p i l s l e a r n , a s a p r o c e s sa n d i n p r a c t i c e , h a s always been an important question for foreign language teachers (FL) learning a FL may not generallybe associatedwith a direct focus upon the processof learning. Nevertheless,it is argued in this article that making such a link between teaching a foreign l a n g u a g e a n d p u p i l s ' p e r s o n a l a p p r o a c h e st o learning leads to a better understandingof how pupils may effectively learn a FL. This, in turn, c a n l e a d t o n e w a n d s u c c e s s f u la p p r o a c h e st o teaching and learning in the FL classroom.The amongst aim of this articleis to raisean awareness FL teachersof such style differences in learning a n d t o d e m o n s t r a t eh o w s u c h k n o w l e d g e c a n enablesuccessfulteachingand learningof a FL.
F O RE I G NL A N G U A GEL E A R N IN G Is learninga FL fundamentallydifferent to the kind of learning demandedby other curriculum areas? Researcherswho examine languagelearning in processingterms arguethat FL learning, generally, has much in common with other types of learning (e.g.Mclaughlin, 1984:20; Bialystok,1994).They
No21Summer2000
argue that individuals are born with a processing m e c h a n i s m ,e n a b l i n g t h e m t o c r e a t e l i n g u i s t i c patterns in much the same way as they create perceptual patterns, using the sensesto interpret the world. Learning languageis viewed as being the same processas that used in achievingother forms of symbolic knowledge. ln order to gain a deeperunderstandingofthis learningprocess,it is helpful to considerthe role of two core aspectsof language learning: proceduraland declarativeknowledge.Procedural knowledge lies outside an individual's realm of consciousness- it is much easier to demonstrate this form of knowledgethan to lectureor talk about it - for example the knowledge of how to tie shoe laces.Declarative knowledge,in contrast,is a form of knowledgeassociatedwith establishedcriteria or human construct,a vocabulary of units of meaning,or simply, a replication of statedfact, for "apple" is "la pomme." example,the French for O n e c a n d e m o n s t r a t em a s t e r y o f t h i s t y p e o f knowledge by repeatingand using this word, ideally in a varietyofcontexts. The differencein the two forms of knowledge is capturedin the distinction betweendeclarative 'knowing what or why', knowledgewhich entails w i t h a n e m p h a s i s u p o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,a n d 'knowing how', with an proceduralknowledgeor emphasisupon application.Declarativeknowledge i s m o r e a b s t r a c t ,o f t e n s y m b o l i c , a s o p p o s e dt o procedural knowledge which is more often o b s e r v e do r s e n s e d .B i a l y s t o k ( 1 9 9 4 : 1 6 1 )h a s linked thesetwo elementsof learningto linguistic "analysis and p r o c e s s i n gb y s u g g e s t i n gt h a t c o n t r o l a r e t w o o f t h e p r o c e s s i n gc o m p o n e n t so f cognition", and developingthis idea to arguethat "knowledge appearsto becomemore explicit and p r o c e s s i n gm o r e f l u e n t a s a n a l y s i sa n d c o n t r o l c o n t i n u et o m o d i f y t h e m e n t a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . " T h e c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s so f a n a l y s i s i s t h e r e b y r e l a t e d t o d e c l a r a t i v el e a r n i n g . T h e c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s o f c o n t r o l a p p e a r st o b e r e l a t e d t o
"it is helpful to consider the role of two core aspects of language learning: procedural and declarative knowledge"
3l
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procedurallearningand is definedby Bialystok as a processof selectiveattention,which featuresin FL learningas linguisticactivity carriedout in 'real time'. Slobin (see King and Boaks, 1993) suggested that the focus in FL learning needs to be deliberately grounded in the area of processing control. Communicativemethodology(e.g. CILT 1995)represents one ofthe more recentsignificant in FL teaching.It involvesspecified developments teachingand learningactivitiesas componentsin a specificapproachto FL learning.Theseinclude strategiesand techniqueslisted in Table l. Table l. Communicative strategiesof teaching TEACHING ELEMENTS
LEARNING ELEMENTS
r information gap
. tntentlon to mean
o personalisation
r unpredictability
. targetlanguage
o legitimacy
. practicevs reallanguage
o authenticity
r speechvs writing
o approachto error
The proponentsof 'communicativemethodology' positively and clearly acknowledgedthe key role ofprocedural learning in acquiring FL proficiency. More traditionally,emphasisin FL learning seemed to rest in the domain of declarativeknowledge, as revealedin contemporarytext books (see Figure l ) . T h e q u e s t i o no f h o w p u p i l s l e a r n o r a c c e s s thesebasic forms of knowledge points to the need for further considerationof FL learning and raises issuesto do with differences in learnins outcome and performance.
I N D I V I D U AD L I F F E R E N C EASN D FL LEARNING The significanceof individual differencesin the learner is as relevant to FLs as any other area of the school curriculum. This can be demonstrated b y b r l e f l y a s k i n g s o m e b a s i c q u e s t i o n sa b o u t teachingFLs in the classroom.For example,why is it that resultsin FLs vary so greatly within the sameclassroom?Pupilswith a similar exposureto the target languagecan achieve a commendably good accent whilst others continue to mispronouncewords time after time; some pupils so obviously enjoy activities reflecting 'communicative methodology' with its , hile o p p o r t u n i t yf o r ' g e n u i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n 'w others seem to prefer a more traditional approach to vocabulary building. In the study of German certainindividualsmasterlinguistic patternswith ease,while other pupils seem unable to remain consistentin their applicationofpattern (seeTable 2). Table 2 Learning linguistic patterns in German
[A] Um sechsUhr geheich insKino. I'm going to the cinemaat six [B]
* Um elf Uhr ich fahrenach Hausezuriick I'm goinghomeat eleveno' clock
[C] WenndasWetterschrinist. geheich zu Fuss l(hen it's nice weatherI walk [D]
*Wenn dasWetterschlechtist, ich fahremit dem Bus Whenthev,eatheris badI takethe bus
Figure I German text (pre 1980):An example
"why is it that results in FLs vary so greatlywithin the same classroom?"
This applies similarly in the teaching of French (seeTable3).
L:-..1
Table 3 Learning linguistic patterns in French
L2stJ
t : - - . l
Wasist das?
rl i, I
|
F--.l E; -l]l :'
lt*$h Il t '
tA]
Je vais partir d six heures I'm going to leaveat six
tB]
*Je vais cherchmon livre I'm going to look for my book
DasisteineZigaretteWerraucht dieZigarette? DerMannraucht dieZigarette
; ' -.''
s
&
D a si s te i n K l e i d f
-----.--
EI, !-.r _{
-*.Jl
q-;':.,
ml
W e r k a u f td a s K l e i d ? f__
-__
I lF',[_r | if , it
D i e F r a uk a u f td a s K l e i d t
_.
-
rf'iif]
i:i rl.r'r,_
DasisteinFenster Werciffnet dasFenster? DerBdcker offnet dasFenster
ffiWW
D a si s te i n eT u r
38
WerschliefJt dieTur? DerKaufmann schlieBt dieTur
Why is it that the classroomreality is sucha mixed picture of learningoutcomes?An immediateand e a s y e x p l a n a t i o n ,o f t e n h e a r d i n s t a f f r o o m conversation,is that the pupils do not have the n e c e s s a r yl i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y o r a r e u n a b l e t o transferlearning.Alternatively, explanationsmight often include a referenceto gender differences in approachesto learning or the effect of a pupil's personalityto explain the variation in performance. A m o r e p r a c t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v em i g h t p o i n t t o motivation, on-task behaviour and a general L o n g u o g e L e o r n i n gJ o u r n o l
LEARNING LANGUAGE ANDLEARNING STYLE:PRINCIPLES, PROCESS ANDPRACTICE
attitudeto learning.Finally, a view perhapsmore likely to be associated with parentsmight point to a teacher'spersonality,teachingperformanceand appropriatesupportfor the pupil. What these responseshave in common is an intuitive focus upon individual differences in the learner.However,intellectualor academicability, t h a t i s t h e n o t i o n o f b r i g h t n e s so r d u l l n e s s , normally used by teachersas a generalpredictor of achievementin many curriculumareas,doesnot seemto accuratelyreflect achievementin learning a FL: thereexistsan unacceptablylargenumberof boys and,to a lesserextent,girls acrossthe ability rangewho seemunableto achievethe standardof successone might expectin FL learning. T h e n e e d f o r a r e s p o n s et o s u c h i n d i v i d u a l differencesis indicatedin the decreasingnumbers of post A Level studentsin FLs, shortagesof FL teachersand the under-performanceof boys in learningFLs. Disaffectionin the FL classroomas shown in researchlooking at problem behaviour i s l o n g - s t a n d i n g ,a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n h a s n o t improved. For example,researchcarried out ten years ago revealed that *93o of modern language teachers selected boys as being the most t r o u b l e s o m e c o m p a r e d w i t h o n l y 5 5 o / oo f mathematicsteachers." The researchersfurther statedthat "interestingly enough, as a broad generalisation the lowestaveragelevelsof on-task behaviourwere found in modernlanguageclasses and the highest in maths classes"(Wheldall and M e r r e t t .1 9 8 9 :6 l ) . A similar view is reflectedin an HMI Report (HMI, 1989) pinpointingthe need for the developmentof positive attitudesto teachingFLs t o a w i d e r r a n g e o f p u p i l s , e m p h a s i s i n gt h e i m p o r t a n c eo f h i g h e r e x p e c t a t i o n sf o r p u p i l achievement,a view that improvedteachingskills or methodswere required, and a greateruse of the target languagein the classroom. What seems important for effective teaching and learning in FLs, or for that matter any other subject lesson,is raising levels of positive b e h a v i o u r a s s o c i a t e dw i t h l e a r n i n g i n t h e c l a s s r o o m .P r o m o t i n g l e v e l s o f a p p r o p r i a t e behaviour is perhaps even more challenging in mixed ability settingsor when using group a c t i v i t i e s t o e n c o u r a g ea c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n a m o n g s tp u p i l s i n t h e i r w o r k . B y c o n s i d e r i n g l e a r n i n g s t y l e s , t e a c h e r sc a n b e g i n t o e n h a n c e their approachto teaching.The possibilityof more focused work, targeting styles in an approach to lessonplanning, opens up greater opportunity for differentiation.An awarenessof pupils' learning s t y l e s c a n a l s o i m p r o v e b e h a v i o u rb y b u i l d i n g levelsof motivationand self-confidence within the group. A focus on style can result in the learner feeling more involved in the processof learning. Teacherscan, therefore, use style to structure l e s s o na c t i v i t y w i t h t h e a i m o f r a i s i n g p u p i l motivation, interest,and on-task behaviour,but, above all, reinforcing the developmentof
communicativeability. Developing such a stylebasedapproachwill be considerednext, followed by somepractical examples,which were developed during action researchcarried out in the secondary classroom.
STYLEDIFFERENCES IN LEARNING AND BEHAVIOUR A c o n s i d e r a t i o nf o r t h e t e a c h e r i n t e r e s t e d i n effective learning must inevitably include a concernfor individual differencesin the classroom. Effectiveteachingrequiresaskingquestionsabout how a teachercan enablethe learning performance of each individual pupil within the class.For example:to what extentdoesa teacherrespondto how eachpupil is persistentlytacklingthe learning task?Indeed,how possibleis it to respondto each individual in the real time of classroomlife? The way an individual pupil will typically approach a learning task is strongly influenced by their cognitivestyle (e.g. Riding, 1991;Riding and Sadler-Smith,1992;Riding and Rayner,1995; Rayner and Riding, 1997).An individual bias affects the way we process informatron. Implicationsof cognitivestylefor the FL classroom are reportedby Riding and Banner (1986, 1988) and Banner and Rayner (1997). Other research supporting this perspective is reported by Riding and Cheema( 199I ), and more extensivelyby Riding and Rayner (1998). The implicationsof cognitive s t y l e n a t u r a l l y l e a d t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o no f t h e individual developmentof strategies,skills and techniquesused by the learner in any learning activity. Indeed, we each develop a style incorporatinga repertoireofstrategiesfor learning o r t e a c h i n g .T h i s p e r s o n a l s t y l e r e f l e c t s o u r cognitive style and shapesour approachboth in the teachingand learning task (Riding and Rayner,
lee5).
COGNITIVE STYLE A n i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o g n i t i v e s t y l e c o m p r i s e st w o fundamentaldimensionswhich form the basis for thinking and the processingof new information. Thesetwo dimensionsare identified as a VerbalI m a g e r c o n t i n u u m o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o no f a n d a Wholist-Analytic information continuum of information-processing and problem-solving(see Figure2). Figure 2 Fundamental dimensionsof cognitive stvle
"what seems important for effective teachingand learningin F L s . . .i s raising levels of positive behaviour associated with learning in the classroom"
f=**.".-."......1 i s H o L I S T . A N ATLI cYI a_orvsrsror analytic
I
wholist
No21Summer2000 39
rl, I
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(1)The Verbal-lmagerDimensionof Learning The first fundamentaldimensionof cognitive style is a verbal-imager structure which reflects the or thinking. The processof mental representation e x i s t e n c eo f t h i s s t y l e d i m e n s i o n i n g r o u p s o f learnerswas first suggestedby Galton (1883) and James(l 890).Furtherevidenceofthe existenceof theselearning patternshas been provided by many (1965), Hollenberg including Ste\Mart researchers, ( 1970),Delaney( 1978),RidingandAshmore( 1980) a n d R i d i n ga n dC a l v e y( 1 9 8 1 ) . Class-basedresearchin FL lessonshas also suggestedthat studentswho are verbalisersoften a c h i e v e g o o d p r o n u n c i a t i o n ,w h i c h i s e a s i l y transferableto new topics. They tend to enjoy a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h e m p h a s i z ed i s c u s s i o n .O n t h e other hand, visual learnershave been identified as studentswho are typically proficient in pattern recognition and emphasisemeaning in language work. They do, however. seem to experience varying levels of difficulty with pronunciation (Bannerand Rayner,1997). (11)The Wholist-analyticDimension of Learning
"When individuals have materials presented which match their own style they consistently achieve better results"
q
A s e c o n d f u n d a m e n t a ld i m e n s i o n o f c o g n i t i v e style structuresthe way in which learnersprocess information,that is, analyticallyor wholistically. For example, the analytic learner will typically focus upon the parts rather than the whole in a t o p i c . T h e y s p o n t a n e o u s l yt a c k l e a t a s k b y following one separatestepafter anotherwith little grasp of an overall view. A wholist learner,by contrast,will tend to approacha task in a g e n e r a l i s e dm a n n e r , w o r k i n g c l e a r l y t o a n overview, but with no grasp of detail. Structured observationof FL lessonshas revealeda tendency for pupils identified as wholist learnersto enjoy or large group discussion.They work class-based well on reproductive tasks but show less inclinationto dealwith detail or learnfrom diagrams and pictures(Bannerand Rayner,1997). (iii) Observed learning behaviours associated with style dffirences Tables four, five and six represent observations of learning behavioursin the FL classroomacross Key Stages3 and 4 over a period ofthree years in a high school.CognitiveStyleAnalysis(CSA) was u s e d t o e s t a b l i s ht h e c o g n i t i v e s t y l e o f p u p i l s (Riding 1991).This is a computerizedtask taking about ten minutesto completeand which gives a m e a s u r e m e n to f t h e t w o b a s i c d i m e n s i o n s o f cognitive style. R e s e a r c hh a s s h o w n t h a t w h e n i n d i v i d u a l s have materials presentedwhich match their own style they consistentlyachieve better results (RidingandAshmore,1980;RidingandDyer, 1983; R i d i n g , B u c k l e , T h o m p s o na n d H a g g e r , 1 9 8 9 ) . However, it is likely that if a teacher designsa schemeof work without considerationof cognitive
or learningsfyles,the materialsor modeofpresentation will reflecttheir own personalstyle.The schemeof work, consequently,will probably lack balance, breadth,andmostcertainlybe characterizedby limited differentiation. Table 4 Characteristicsofverbal learners VERBALLEARNERS ]TRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
l. Pronunciation
l. Inability to transfer a pattern e.g. Man kann in der Niihe die Burg Man kann in der besuchen. Stadt einkaufen gehen.
2. Accepting of all kinds of people
2. Not very self-reliant when set individual work
3. Lively and enjoy group activity
3. Poor at spelling when recognition of a pattern is vital e.g. *zwie; *veir *drie
I I
tl
Table 5 Characteristicsof visual learners
VISUALLEARNERS STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
l. Good at transferof a pattern e.g. Ich habe eine Kette gekauft. Ich habe deinenFreund gesehen.
l. Introverted with poor pronunciation
2. Learn languagebest from diagramsand graphs
2. Prefer to work as as individual, rather than in a group
3. Good at problem solving
3. Unwilling to use the teacher or the book as a model, prefer to organise themselves
I I
Longuoge LeorningJournol
LEARNING LANGUAGE ANDLEARNING STYLE: PRINCIPLES, PROCESS ANDPRACTICE
Table 6 Characteristicsof wholist and analvtical learners WHOLISTLEARNERS
STRENGTHS
I
I
WEAKNESSES
1. Socially spontaneous l. Seeingdifferences Good at coping with a between nouns, verbs, communicative situation adjectivesetc.- unableto "set which demandsa easily classify "Quel phrase"e.g. dommage!" 2. Enerseticwith drive 2. Looks only superficiallyat tasks e.g. resultingin weaknessin comprehensionof specifics 3. Rarely lost for words 3. Finds it difficult listen 4. Enjoys a stimulatinglesson
4. Finds it hard to persevere
5. Works well on reproductive tasks
5. Finds it hard to
6. Has a good overview
u n d e r s t a nu d nl e s sm a t e r i a l is clearly structured by the teacher 6. Cannot work from tables and tree diagrams
ANALYTIC LEARNERS STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
1. Interpreting
l. They have difficulty using set phrasesin presentatlon
diagrammatic communicating oflanguage
I 1
2. Can impose own organisation
2. Tends to concentrate on one aspectof communicationat the expenseof the rest
3. Dependable,can get on with a task
3. Needs to cultivate relationships
4. Good at getting a clear view of the important issues
4. Finds it hard to empathisewith a foreigner
5. Reliable and dependable
). unwllllng to lnvotve others,too self-reliant.
6. Tends to be superior in comprehensionof specificdetail
6. Needs help to choose concreteanalogiesof abstract ideas
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T h e a u t h o r s h a v e n o t e d i n d i v i d u a l c a s e so f p e r s o n a l s u c c e s sa n d a c a d e m i cr e s u l t s b e i n g affected by such style-biasedplanning. This has included individual pupils as well as specific groups,that is, small groupswithin a classand on one occasion,a whole class.'Apositive changein behaviour and successin learning appearedto be facilitated by an increased level of awarenessof s t y l e d i f f e r e n c e s .I t a l s o s e e m e dt o r e f l e c t a n increasedlevel of differentiationin the processof learning activity. The conclusiondrawn, therefore, was that classroominteraction benefited from a deliberately structuredmix of activity and grouping, reflecting an active recognition of the differing communicativestrengthsof individuals in the group.
T E A C H I N GA N D L E A R N I N G : .DOINGIT IN STYLE' The desire and the need to developnew ways of enhancing teaching and learning are shared by every teacher planning the next scheme of work, facing the school day or simply preparinga lesson. This fact alone representsgood reasonfor finding t i m e t o c o n s i d e r t h e d e v e l o p m e n to f s t y l e - l e d teaching and learning in the classroom.The way f o r w a r d f o r a n i n t e r e s t e d t e a c h e r ,w e a r g u e , involves severalsteps leading to the creation of style-1ed differentiation. The purpose of developing such an approach to the learner is to learn to enhancethe developmentof both declarative and procedural knowledge, communicationand languageskills. (i) Awareness raising We suggest that a first step should be an a w a r e n e s s - r a i s i n gp r o g r a m m e w h i c h e n a b l e s teachersand pupils to test the assertionthat style differences can make a positive difference in the c l a s s r o o m . T h e i d e a t h a t a w a r e n e s sr a i s i n g representsthe first crucial stage in developing a style-led curriculum is well documentedin the literature(e.g. Butler, 1985; Claxton and Murrell, 1987;Dunn and Griggs, 1989;Riding and Rayner, 1995). It is important, however, in the real world of the classroom that teacherssee some early return for the time spentconsideringthe place of style in the process of teaching and learning. Teachers, who are pressuredby ever-increasingdemands, understandablyneed to see some advantagesto including a style-leddimensionin their teaching and learning.The same principle applies equally to pupils, who need to see a relevanceand benefit for their learning if they are going to changetheir behaviour. Developing a spectrum of style characteristics is a potentially exciting developmentalactivity for interestedteachers.The benefitsof this initial stepare illustratedin Tables 4 and 5 and represent short-term gains observed
"The way forward for an interested teacher... involves several steps leading to the creation of style-led differentiation"
41
G BerrgnnnoS Rrvrurn
by the authorsin the FL classroom. (ii) Grouping learners
"Grouping learners together, on the basis of their style, can form a kind of selfhelp group"
A useful way to continue with a style-led approach in teachingis to re-focuson designingthe learning interactionin the lesson.Lack of self-confidence i s p r e s u m a b l yo n e f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l performance in FL learning. Grouping learners together,on the basis of their style, can form a kind of self-help group. Verbal learners facing a task involving extensive use of languagepatterns could be supportedby the teacherwhilst visual learnerscould be expectedto get on with the task with less support. An extensionof this teaching strategymight exploit the same grouping: explanationsof core elementsof the learning task might be presented to match the style of a particular group; visual learnerscould have key conceptspresentedwith diagramsand charts.Suchan approachcan enable the teacherto matchthe intuitiveneedsof a pupil's style more closely and reinforce as well as a c c e l e r a t e l e a r n i n g a s a c o n s e q u e n c e .B y consideringstyle differencesamongstpupils, we have the opportunity to work with their levels of c o n t r o l a n d a n a l y s i s a s p a r t o f t h e p r o c e s si n languagelearning. A secondform of style-baseddifferentiation or grouping is 'style flexing'. This approach, i n v o l v i n g t h e a r r a n g e m e n to f c o m p l e m e n t a r y s t y l e s , c a n p r o d u c e s t a r t l i n g i m p r o v e m e n t si n learningbehaviourand classroomperformance(e.g Kirby, 1979; Claxton and Murrell, 1987).This is particularly relevant to specific forms of group work, for example,where the teacheris seeking a creative but involved dynamic leading to a balancedpiece of work as an outcome. Pairing differing styles brings a new perspective to membersof the group, and often generatesnew life and vitality in the learning situation. Furthermore, Banner has found that mixed style and ability grouping is also particularlyuseful in work involving teams and an element of competition,sincethe arrangementis more likely to ensurebetter motivation and everyone's attention. (iii) Developing style-led activities in the FL classroom The aim of the following activitiesis to encourage thinking style in teaching and learning, both in the teacherand the pupil, by encouraginga styleled approachto teachingand learning. The teacher involved shouldallow a shortperiod of evaluation in the lesson,when a hypothesisabout the match between learning style, learner and learning is considered. P r i o r t o e m b a r k i n g o n t h e s e e x e r c i s e st h e teacherwill probably have intuitively identified the style of his pupils. Standardassessment using
+z
a tool like the CSA is, however,highly desirable since pupils can present falsely for a variety of r e a s o n s .P e e r i n f l u e n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , o r e v e n imitating the teachercan lead pupils to adopt an approachto the learning task which they regard as desirableand, as a result,they remain unaware of theii own strengthsand fail to develop at the rale one could expect.The ultimate goal, ideally, is to enable the developmentof an independent learner,proficient in the use and knowledgeof a FL. a) Languagetarget:pronunciation Divide the classinto visual and verbal,or wholist and analytic style groups (five or six pupils per group). Give each group a variety of oral tasks o v e r a p e r i o d o f a m o n t h : d i a l o g u e ,p r e p a r e d monologue,tapedplays etc. to read. The teacher or, ideally, an independentspeakerofthe language, g i v e s f e e d b a c k o n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e .G r o u p discussionshould then focus on how individuals felt about the task. Was it easy?Did they enjoy pronouncingthe words? Expectation:Verbaliserswill perform betterand find the taskseasierand more eniovable. b) Languagetarget: textual summary Give an unstructuredtask, for example, find an article in amagaztneand make up a new title for it; identify 3 or 4 key issuesor ideas in the article; discussways of advertisingthe article and invent a catch-wordsloganand/or a logo for the article; invent captionsfor a characteror subject in the article; use a word-bank to support this activity. Expectation: Wholists perform better and find the task easierand more eniovable. c) Language target: pattern recognition groups Ii] Have a competitionbetweenstyle-based to transfer patterns in German using the same materialse.g. How many facilities in an area can they describeusing: "Man kann .." pattern?Time the test.Ask pupils to rate their enjoymentof the activity on a scaleof 1-10. Analyseand sharethe resultswith the whole class. Expectation:Visualiserswill perform betterand find the task easierand more enioyable. tiil An interpretation of a diagrammatic presentationof languagesuch as a pie-or bar-chart produced in a survey (e.g. favourite hobbies of young peoplein a Germanclassroom). Expectation: Analytics will work faster and produce more accurateresults and generally warm t o t h e t a s k o f e x t r a c t i n gd e t a i l a n d b u i l d i n g a report. A recurring feature observed during this exercisehas been the way in which pupils with analytic learning styles actually support and r e i n f o r c e p e e r u n d e r s t a n d i n ga s p a r t o f t h e i r responseto the learning task.
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LEARNING LANGUAGE ANDLEARNING STYLE:PRINCIPLES, PROCESS ANDPRACTICE
d) Developingstrategiesfor communication A f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n to f s t y l e - l e d m e t h o d i n v o l v e s o r g a n i s i n gp u p i l s i n t o g r o u p s w h i c h reflectthe deliberateuseof complementarystyles. T h i s k i n d o f a c t i v e l e a r n i n gi n v o l v i n g p u p i l s a s l e a r n e r sh e l p s d e v e l o p t h e c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i v e processof communicationin real time. A genuine communicationinvolvesa vastrangeof referential e l e m e n t s :l i n g u i s t i c , c u l t u r a l , a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s , a u d i e n c ea w a r e n e s st,i m i n g - t h e s ea r e s o m e o f t h e k e y e l e m e n t sc o n t r i b u t i n gt o t h e q u a l i t y o f a c o m m u n i c a t i o no r c o n v e r s a t i o ni n a l a n g u a g e lesson.Cognitivestyle actsas a shapinginfluence on all ofthese aspectsoflanguagework, reflecting t h e i n d i v i d u a lh a l l - m a r ko f a p u p i l ' s a p p r o a c ht o learning. A p e r s o n o f a c o m p l e m e n t a r ys t y l e t o t h e learnerwill typically take a completelydifferent approach to the same task and behave in a different way. Pairing and grouping people with their complementarystyle can offer opportunities to acknowledgeor recogniseand even incorporate differing ways of approachingcommunication in real life. It often appears,on first examination,that the variables in communicative methodology are so numerous that it is impossible for the teacher to even begin planning for success.Style offers a way forward, by providing a new structure for combining individual and group work with interactive and experientiallearning. Increasing self-acceptancewill permit greater self-awareness and lead, ultimately,to a learning approach characterizedby greater versatility, flexibility and adaptationin overallfunctioning(Schmeck,1988). E d u c a t i o n a l i s t sw h o h a v e d e v e l o p e da s i m i l a r approachto learning style in the United States have called this technique 'style flexing'. They claim it is one of the most successfulways of developing a tange of teaching and learning strategiesfor both teacherand learner (e.g. Kirby, 1979;Butler,1985;ClaxtonandMurnell, 1987).
TAKINGSTYLESERIOUSLY: TEACHING AND LEARNING B E NE F I T S The use of style can lead to new insightsinto the learningprocess,a greaterknowledgeofindividual d i f f e r e n c e s ,a n d a n e x p a n d i n g r e p e r t o i r e o f methodsfor the teacher.An understandingof style c a n h e l p r e i n f o r c e t h e p r o c e s so f b e c o m i n g communicativelycompetent.Teaching'in style', we argue,gives learningmore immediatemeaning, greater relevance and results in better understanding. The benefits of including style in an approach to teaching and learning, in summary, are threefold: o a directaccommodationof individual differencesin the classroom; . a pedagogicalconceptwhich provides a more
structured,assessment-based approachto learning in an FL schemeof work; o the enhancement of classroommanagement and groupwork in FL teaching. Such outcomesmust surely be useful for teachers seeking successin the"FL lesson.Similarly, any curriculum developmentwould undoubtedly be enhancedby the inclusion of style-ledactivity.
CONCLUSION Learning languageand learning style are surely inseparableas part of a more generalprocessof learning a communicativemethodology.Brumfit ( 1 9 9 5 : 1 4 9s) t a t e s :" R e a l a d v a n c e isn t h e l e v e l so f l i n g u i s t i c c o m p e t e n c ea c h i e v a b l eb y p u p i l s , however,will only come about from a better u n d e r s t a n d i n go f t h e p r o c e s s e si n v o l v e d i n languageuse and choice." T h e t e a c h e r ' sr o l e i s o n e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l communicatorplanning a structuredprogramme for developingcommunicationskills in students not only in the FL but also in the mother tongue. As part of this role, style quite naturallyplays its part in the processof teaching and learning. A w a r e n e s ss h o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e l y u s e d t o organisean inclusive approachto education,which enablesdiversity and differentiation within the FL l e s s o n . T h e s a m e a p p r o a c hs h o u l d b e u s e d i n curriculum planning and the design of learning activity. The concept of style differencesin learning offers a structure for 'learning how to learn' and 'teaching learnershow to learn more effectively'. This, in turn, provides a basis for a richer applicationof communicativemethodologyin FL lessons.Finally, and perhaps most importantly, teaching in style can facilitate achievementacross the ability rangein the FL classroom.
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"Style offers a way forward, by providing a new structure for combining individual and group work with interactive and experiential learning"
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