Lecture 10

Geology 228 Applied Geophysics Lecture 10

Electromagnetic Methods (EM) (Reynolds, Ch. 10, 11)

Outline • Lecture – Introduction – Principles – Systems and Methods (FDEM & TDEM) – Case Histories

APPLICATIONS 1. Mineral exploration - metallic elements are found in highly conductive massive sulfide ore bodies. 2. Groundwater investigations - groundwater contaminants such as salts and acids significantly increase the groundwater conductivity. UConn landfill. 3. Stratigraphy mapping - rock types may have different conductivities. 4. Geothermal energy - geothermal alteration due to hot water increases the conductivity of the host rock. Oil and gas. 5. Permafrost mapping - there is a significant conductivity contrast at the interface between frozen and unfrozen ground. 6. Environmental - locate hazards such as drums and tanks, contaminant plumes. UXO, landmine

ADVANTAGES 1. TDEM systems may be used in many different configurations. 2. A pulsed transmitter waveform allows the receiver to measure the electromagnetic response during the transmitter off-time without the presence of the primary field. 3. No direct electrical contact with the ground is required so that surveys can be equally effective in frozen environments. 4. The same basic techniques can be used to investigate the top few meters of ground or to depths over 1000 meters. 5. Generally fast and cost effective for the amount of data generated.

Limitations Do not work well for high resistive region. Susceptible to interference from nearby metal pipes, cables, fences, vehicles and induced noise from power lines. EM equipment tends to be somewhat more costly due to its greater complexity. Need more sophisticated interpretation skill. Not effective for very shallow measurements. Fixed depth of investigation depending on frequency used and Tx-Rx separation.

Types of EM Systems 1. TDEM vs FDEM –

Time-domain (TDEM) •

–

Measurements as a function of time

Frequency-domain (FDEM) •

Measurements at one or more frequencies

2. Passive vs Active • •

Passive: Uses natural ground signals (e.g., magnetotellurics), sources are lightning, magnetosphere activities, etc. Active: use transmitter to induce ground current • •

Near-field ( ground conductivity meters) Far-field (VLF uses very low frequency signals used to communicate with submarines ).

Types of EM Systems • Inductive – Small loop • Most FDEM (EM 31, EM 34, etc.) but some TDEM • Most widely used in environmental investigations

– Large loop (5 m to 100 m loops) • Many TDEM systems ( esp. airborne) • Mineral exploration, environmental investigations

– Plane wave (VLF, Magnetotelluric) • Mineral exploration, deep geologic structure

Small Loop Systems • FDEM ( frequency domain EM) • Pole, two small coils, one transmitter and one receiver, separated by a constant spacing moved along a survey transect.

Geonics EM31

Small loop systems •Two coils( transmitter and receiver) connected by wires that permit several different separations and configurations

Geonics EM34

Loop configurations • HCP (horizontal co-planer) • VCP (vertical co-planer) • VCA (vertical Coaxial) • Others

How does EM Induction work? Magnetism

Magnetic lines of force ( owing to alignment of atoms, the H-field)

EM Theory (1) •

In 1820, Hans Oersted discovered that a magnetic compass could be deflected from its resting position if a wire carrying electric current were placed near the compass. Magnetic Field • Any wire in which an electric current is flowing is surrounded by an invisible force field called a magnetic field. This phenomenon is described as the Ampere’s law.

Idl × r0 ∆H = 2πr 2

EM Theory (2) Electromagnetism • The term electromagnetism is defined as the production of a magnetic field by current flowing in a conductor. • Coiling a current-carrying conductor around a core material that can be easily magnetized, such as iron, can form an electromagnet. • The magnetic field will be concentrated in the core. This arrangement is called a solenoid. • The more turns we wrap on this core, the stronger the electromagnet and the stronger the magnetic lines of force become.

•Right hand being used to find the polarity of the magnetic field around a coil of wire (the thumb is pointing towards the North pole) when you know the direction of the current around the coil (the fingers are wrapping around the coil in the same direction as the current). •Notice that all of the lines of force pass through the center of the coil material, regardless of how they extend outside the coil of wire.

EM Theory (3) • The magnetic field that surrounds a currentcarrying conductor is made up of concentric lines of force. • The strength of these circular lines of force gets progressively smaller the further away from the conductor. • if a stronger current is made to flow through the conductor, the magnetic lines of force become stronger. • the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the current that flows through the conductor.

Idl × r0 ∆H = 2 2πr

EM Theory (4) • The term field intensity is used to describe the strength of the magnetic field. • We have now seen that if electrical current is flowing in a conductor, there is an associated magnetic field created around the wire. • In a similar manner, if we move a wire inside a magnetic field there will be an electrical current that will be generated in the wire. This is described as the Faraday’s law.

EM Theory (5) • Induction • Current is produced in a conductor when it is moved through a magnetic field because the magnetic lines of force are applying a force on the free electrons in the conductor and causing them to move. • The direction that the induced current flows is determined by the direction of the lines of force and by the direction the wire is moving in the field. • If an AC current is fed through a piece of wire, – the electromagnetic field that is produced is constantly growing and shrinking due to the constantly changing current in the wire. – This growing and shrinking magnetic field can induce electrical current in another wire that is held close to the first wire. – The current in the second wire will also be AC and in fact will look very similar to the current flowing in the first wire.

•If we move a wire in a magnetic field, the movement will create a current in the wire. Essentially, as we cut through the magnetic lines of force, we cause the electrons to move in the wire. The faster we move the wire, the more current we generate. •Again, the right hand helps determine which way the current is going to flow. If you hold your hand as is shown in the diagram below, point your index finger in the direction of the magnetic lines of force (N to S...) and your thumb in the direction of the movement of the wire relative to the lines of force, your middle finger will point in the direction of the current.

Principles of EM Surveying • Generate EM field by passing an AC through a wire coil ( transmitter) • EM field propagates above and below ground. • If there is conductive material in ground, magnetic component of the EM wave induces eddy currents (AC) in conductor. • The eddy currents produce a secondary EM field which is detected by the receiver. • The receiver also detects the primary field (the resultant field is a combination of primary and secondary which differs from the primary field in phase and amplitude). • After compensating for the primary field (which can be computed from the relative positions and orientations of the coils), both the magnitude and relative phase of the secondary field can be measured. • The difference in the resultant field from the primary provides information about the geometry, size and electrical properties of the subsurface conductor.

·Secondary field can be converted to components in-phase and 90° out of phase with the transmitted field. •The out-of-phase (or quadrature-phase ) component, using certain simplifying assumptions, can be converted to a measure of apparent ground conductivity. •The in-phase component, while generally not responsive to changes in bulk conductivity, is especially responsive to discrete, highly-conductive bodies such as metal objects. •The apparent conductivity measurement is the average conductivity of one or more layers in the ground in the proximity of the instrument, to a depth of investigation dependent on • the coil spacing, • orientation, • operating frequency of the instrument, • and the individual conductivity of each ground layer.

General Principles of EM Operation • FDEM: – Transmitter produces continuous EM field, secondary field is determined by nulling the primary field ( need two coils);

• TDEM – Primary field is applied in pulses ( 20-40 ms) then switched off and the secondary field measured ( same coil can be transmitter and receiver, more often large coil on ground and move small coil around).

Factors influencing subsurface electrical conductivity • • • • • • • • •

Mineralogy – Clays more conductive (relates to CEC) Moisture content Porosity EC of the subsurface water Stratigraphy Structure Temporal Changes in soil EC due to soil moisture change, water table changes, soils are frozen ( Low EC), soil temperature changes (lowers EC of soil water). Adding or subtracting soluble constituents (contaminants)—source strength variations and directions of ground water flow. Presence of NAPLs

Relative Response Horizontal dipole

φ

z = normalized depth: =depth/(inter-coil spacing);

Vertical dipole

φ= relative contribution to Hs from a thin layer at depth z; For Vertical dipole, max contribution of layer is at .4z, not sensitive to surface conditions.

z dz

Using different spacing and configurations in Modeling

Advantages Relative to DC Resistivity • Less sensitive to conditions at surface of ground • No problems with coupling to ground since it is inductive. • Perform simple multilayered earth calcs. • Easy and Rapid Measurements • On plane and boat

Disadvantages relative to DC resistivity • Limited dynamic range (1-1000 mmhos/m) – Low EC: can’t readily induce current – High EC: EC not linear function of H

• Setting instrument to zero – Ideally needs to suspending in free space – Reality set to zero rel. prevailing conditions

• Limited vertical sounding capability

Survey Instruments Frequency-domain Electromagnetic Methods (FDEM)

Frequency Domain Theory • Measure the frequency response H(ω) and E(ω) • Alternating field source • In-phase and quadrature • Host rock is ignored (assume electromagnetically transparent)

Measured Response • Conductive and permeable sphere in free space H s = ( H r , r + H θ , r ) cos θ 0 − ( H r ,θ + H θ ,θ ) sin θ 0

• Radial Source – Hr,r and Hr,θ

• Transverse Source – Hθ,r and Hθ,θ

• r = r0, θ = 0 for the GEM-3 Figure: Characterization of UXO-Like Targets Using Broadband Electromagnetic Induction Sensor, H. Huang and I.J. Won

Response Components H r ,r

m =− r 4π

a 2 n +1 n(n + 1) Pn (cos θ ) ( X n + iYn ) ∑ n+2 (rr0 ) n =1

H r ,θ

mr =− 4π

a 2 n +1 1 X iY nP + ( ) ∑ n n n (cos θ ) n+ 2 (rr0 ) n =1

Hθ , r

m = r 4π

Hθ ,θ

mr =− 4π

∞

∞

a 2 n +1 nPn (cos θ ) ( X n + iYn ) ∑ n+2 (rr0 ) n =1 ∞

a 2 n +1 ( X n + iYn ) ∑ n+2 rr ( ) n =1 0 ∞

n ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⋅ ⎢ n Pn cos θ − cot θ Pn1 ( cos θ ) ⎥ n +1 ⎣ ⎦ where Pn is the nth-order Legendre polynomial

The Response Function • Contains all the EM properties and the size of the sphere ⎡1 ⎤ 1 µ n − + ( ) r ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ I n + 1 ( ka ) + kaI n′ + 1 ( ka ) 2 2 X n + iYn = ⎛1 ⎞ ′ n + µ ⎜ r ⎟ I 1 ( ka ) + kaI 1 ( ka ) n+ ⎝2 ⎠ n+ 2 2 which k 2 = iωµσ and I n +1 2 ( ka ) is the modifed spherical Bessel function of the first kind at order n + (1 2 )

Graphical Representation a = 0.1m, r = 0.6m σ = 106 S/m, µ = 200

• Induction number

Θ = (σµω)1/2a Figures: Characterization of UXO-Like Targets Using Broadband Electromagnetic Induction Sensor, H. Huang and I.J. Won

EM survey on move

EM 31 GEONICS

EM 31 Characteristics •Intercoil spacing of 3.7 m. •Effective depth of exploration = 6 m (pole horizontal), 3 m (pole vertical) •Detect layering by rasing and lower instrument. •Procedure: Lay out survey line with a measuring tape, walk to measurement location, turn on transmitter read apparent conductivity ( in millimhos/m)

EM 34 GEONICS

EM 34 Characteristics •Two person instrument •Intercoil spacing of 10, 20 and 40M •Intercoil spacing is measured electronically, read meter to accurately set spacing.

Survey procedure: (1) Lay out survey line with tape (2) Transmitter operator stops at measurement station. (3) The receiver operator moves coil forward and back until his meter indicates correct intercoil spacing. (4) The transmitter operator reads apparent conductivity in millimhos/m. (5) Takes 10-20 sec per reading. (6) Normally survey in horizontal dipole mode ( coils vertical) which is less subject to coil misalignment. (7) you can also use vertical dipole ( coils horizontal).

EM 31 and 34 relation of H to σ •Instruments are designed to operate at: • Specific fixed frequencies, •Fixed inter-coil spacings and at •Fixed Hp •Given above instrument constraints: •σ directly proportional to Hs/Hp •Depth of penetration primarily function of instrument configuration

The basic GEM-3 Package consists of: a 64-cm diameter sensing head, handle boom, console and display unit, and battery charger. Standard software includes WinGEMv3, Windows-based operation software. The optional 96-cm head, due to its size, must be mounted on a cart.

Programmable Operation Bandwidth 30 Hz to 24 kHz Frequency domain Single, multiple, or stepping frequencies Maximum sampling rate Approx. 15 Hz at one frequency or 8 Hz at 10 frequencies

Airborne Surveying

GEOTEM •T and R separations 20-135 m

The World’s Most Advanced HEM System •Redefining Helicopter Electromagnetics •Reliable, Repeatable, Precise 3D RESISTIVITY •Unsurpassed Horizontal and Vertical RESOLUTION •RESOLVE your Questions. SOLVE your Exploration Problems RESOLVE -a unique six frequency system with horizontal coplanar coils capable of measuring the EM response at 400Hz, 1500Hz, 6400Hz, 25kHz, 100kHz, and one coaxial coil pair at 3300Hz. •Designed for the calculation of 3D earth resitivity models, overburden thickness, layered inversions, EM-derived susceptibility and other advanced products. •Horizontal coplanar coil pairs combined with a coaxial coil pair are excellent for interpreting conductors. •RESOLVE is fully digital, offering lower noise and real-time signal processing as well as internal calibration coils for automatic phase and gain calibration in the air - out of ground effect - resulting in higher accuracy and reduced drift. •RESOLVE offers the exploration professional horizontal and vertical resolution unparalleled in an airborne EM system. •Multiple coplanar coils are exceptional for mapping horizontal layers.

http://www.fugroairborne.com/Services/airborne/EM/resolve/index.shtml

Saltwater intrusion along the Baton Rouge Fault (Kuecher, 2004)

Time-domain Electromagnetic Methods (TDEM)

TIME DOMAIN ELECTROMAGNETICS Time-Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) methods are based on the principle of using electromagnetic induction to generate measurable responses from sub-surface features. When a steady current in a cable loop is terminated a time varying magnetic field is generated. As a result of this magnetic field, eddy currents are induced in underground conductive materials. The decay of the eddy currents in these materials is directly related to their conductive properties, and may be measured by a suitable receiver coil on the surface.

Physical Principle of TDEM

Maxwell’s two curl equations

Faraday’s law

Ampere’s law

∂Η ∇ × Ε = −µ ∂t ∂Ε ∇ × Η = Jc + ε ∂t

Where, σ : conductivity µ : magnetic permeability ε : permittivi ty J c : conductive current , J c = σE

∂Η ∇ × Ε = −µ ∂t

∂Ε ∇ × Η = Jc + ε ∂t

∂Η ∇ × ∇ × Ε = ∇ × (− µ ) ∂t ∂ = − µ (∇ × Η ) ∂t ∂ ∂E ) = − µ (σ E + ε ∂t ∂t 2 ∂E ∂ E = −σµ − µε 2 ∂t ∂t

∂E ∂ E ∇ × ∇ × Ε = −σµ − µε 2 t t ∂ ∂ 0 2 ∂E ∂ E 2 ∇(∇ ⋅ Ε) − ∇ Ε = −σµ − µε 2 ∂t ∂t 2 ∂E ∂ E 2 −∇ Ε = −σµ − µε 2 ∂t ∂t 2 ∂E ∂ E 2 ∇ Ε = σµ + µε 2 ∂t ∂t 2

∂ Ε ∂Ε + µε 2 ∇ Ε = σµ ∂t ∂t 2

2

Similarly,

∂ Η ∂Η + µε 2 ∇ Η = σµ ∂t ∂t 2

2

For example, let’s think about H-field

∂H ( r, t ) ∂ H(r, t ) ∇ H ( r, t ) = σµ + µε 2 ∂t ∂t Where, r = r ( x, y , z ) 2

2

Do Fourier transform to both side for E(r, t) with respect to t

∇ H ( r, ω ) = jσµωH ( r, ω ) − µεω H ( r, ω ) 2

2

Diffusion component

Wave propagation

Diffusion equation (Frequency domain)

∇ 2 H ( r, ω ) ≈ jσµωH (r , ω ) Inverse Fourier transform

Diffusion equation (Time domain)

∂H ( r, t ) ∇ H ( r, t ) ≈ σµ ∂t 2

∇ 2 E(r, t )

η

∂H (r , t ) , ≈ σµ ∂t

η : em impedence

∇ 2 E(r, t )

η

∂H ( r , t ) ≈ σµ , ∂t

jωµ σ ≥ωε η= ≈ σ + jωε

jωµ

σ

∂H ( r, t ) ∇ E ( r, t ) ≈ ησµ ∂t 2

∂H ( r, t ) ≈ 0.707 (1 + j ) ωσµ ∂t 3

So:

∂H E α [σ , µ , ] ∂t

Condition: In order to identify a specific feature, it is necessary that its inherent electrical conductivity contrast significantly with the conductivity of surrounding materials. In most successful TDEM applications, the targets sought possess enhanced conductivities relative to their host material.

Penetration of EM wave Skin depth : the amplitude of EM radiation as a Function of of depth (z) relative to its original amplitude A0 is given by:

Az = A0 / e ≈ .3679 ⋅ A0 , e = 2.7183 Skin depth (m) is given by

2

503 ≈ δ= ωσµ f ⋅σ

Protem receiver box (EM 47/57/67)

With true 23 bit resolution (at a single gain), system bandwidth of 270 kHz, microsecond sampling gates and simultaneous three component (XYZ) measurements. The PROTEM receiver enables the selection of either 20 gates per base frequency covering two decades of time, or 30 gates for a three decade range.

TEM47 TRANSMITTER

BASE FREQUENCY: 30, 75, or 285 Hz where powerline frequency is 60 Hz 25, 62.5 or 237.5 Hz where powerline frequency is 50 Hz TRANSMITTER LOOP: up to 100 m or 5 x 5 m 8-turn loop 5 x 5 to 100Penetration x 100 m single turn loop, OUTPUT VOLTAGE0 to 9 V, continuously variable

TEM57 TRANSMITTER

BASE FREQUENCY: 3, 7.5, or 30 Hz where powerline frequency is 60 Hz 2.5, 6.25, or 25 Hz where powerline frequency is 50 Hz Rates below 1 Hz available from PROTEM receiver through reference cable TRANSMITTER LOOP Single turn: any dimension; minimum resistance is 0.7 ohms, up to 300 x 600 m. 8-turn: 5 x 5 or 10 x up 10 to m 500 m Penetration

TEM67 TRANSMITTER

Base frequency: 0.3, 0.75, 3, 7.5 or 30 Hz where power line frequency is 60 Hz 0.25, 0.625, 2.5 or 25 Hz where power line frequency 50 Hz TRANSMITTER LOOP Up to 2,000 x 2,000 m single turn OUTPUT CURRENT25Penetration A maximum up

to 1000 m

BH43-3 Borehole TDEM Probe

The BH43-3 provides three dimensional time domain EM exploration from boreholes, in conjunction with a PROTEM system. SENSOR Three orthogonal coils (one axial and two radial) SENSOR AREA-TURNS PRODUCT 5000 m2 for axial and 1250 m2 for radial sensors (with amplification) SENSOR-PREAMPLIFIER RESONANT FREQUENCY 10 kHz for all sensors Logging depth to 2 kilometers

GEONICS EM 61 The EM61, one of the newest instruments from GEONICS, is a time-domain metal detector which detects both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Marine EM

Illustration of Controlled source EM (CSEM) and magnetotelluric (MT) surveys.

Data interpretation

TX-RX Configurations

Transmitter Current

Measurement Sample gates

Dipole Configuration: TX and RX

Induction eddy currents

Receiver Output Voltage Curve

Output voltage e(t)= output voltage from a single-turn receiver coil of area 1 m2 k1 = a constant M = magnetic moment: product of Tx current and area (a-m2) σ = terrain conductivity (siemens/m = S/m = 1/Ωm) t = time (s)

Output apparent resistivity

k2 = a constant

Three typical EM response curves

TDEM response corrupted by noise due to Power line

Summary EM is capable to get subsurface information from greater depth; EM can reveal material changes other than the mechanic ones (elastic modulus and density); EM is becoming a widely used tool for geoelectrical sounding, on land, in the air and in the ocean.