OVERVIEW. • Historical developments,. • Fundamental concepts,. •
Characteristics of accelerating cavities,. • Electron/hadron accelerators ...
Text
LINEAR ACCELERATORS General introduction F. Gerigk (CERN/BE/RF)
OVERVIEW
• Historical
developments,
• Fundamental
concepts,
• Characteristics
of accelerating cavities,
• Electron/hadron
accelerators
COCKROFT - WALTON (1932) voltage multiplier + proton accelerator (< 1 MeV)
typically used up to 750 kV
crucial technology: voltage multiplier
the original machine (200 keV)
CERN Linac2 pre-injector until 1993 (750 keV)
VAN DER GRAAFF GENERATOR (1931) • a DC voltage is connected to the lower electrode (7), • charges
are transported (4) to the dome (1), where they are collected by the upper electrode (2)
• until
a spark equalises the potentials
•1
MV for 90 $!
(< 25 MV, tandem operation) crucial technology: charge separation and accumulation
20 MeV accelerator in 1981 (NSF, Daresbury, UK)
5 MV generator in 1933 (MIT, Round Hill, USA) • one
sphere contains an ion source, the other one a target,
• beam
through the air or later through vacuum,
From DC to RF acceleration
THE WIDERÖE LINAC (1927) energy gain: period length increases with velocity:
E-field particles
crucial technology: RF oscillators & synchronism
the RF phase changes by 180 deg, while the particles travel from one tube to the next
The use of RF enables to have ground potential on both sides of the accelerator. This allows a limitless cascade of accelerating gaps!!
BUT: •
the Wideröe linac was only efficient for low-energy heavy ions,
•
higher frequencies (> 10 MHz) were not practical, because then the drift tubes would act more like antennas,
•
when using low frequencies, the length of the drift tubes becomes prohibitive for high-energy protons: 3.5
e.g. 10 MHz proton acceleration
length of drift tubes [m]
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
0
5
10 proton energy [MeV]
15
20
THE ALVAREZ LINAC (1946) after WW2 high-power high-frequency RF sources became available (radar technology): most old linacs operate at 200 MHz! the RF field was enclosed in a box: RF resonator
While the electric fields point in the “wrong direction” the crucial technology: high-freq. particles are shielded by the drift tubes. RF sources & RF resonators
inside a drift tube linac Linac2 at CERN, 50 MeV
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HADRON AND ELECTRON ACCELERATION
Einstein:
Newton:
relativistic factor: 1.6
v/c - electrons (Einstein) v/c - protons (Einstein) v/c - protons (Newton)
1.4 1.2
v/c
1 0.8 0.6
rest energy:
0.4 0.2 0 0
200
400 600 energy [MeV]
800
1000
total energy:
PROTON VS. ELECTRON ACCELERATION • protons
change their velocity up to the GeV range (β=0.95 at W=2 GeV), ➡accelerating structures (distance between gaps) need to be adapted to the changing velocity,
• electrons
are almost immediately relativistic (β=0.95 at W=1.1
MeV), ➡basically from the source onwards one can use the same accelerating structure (optimised for β=1.0) for the rest of the linac,
Example of a 2/3 π-mode travelling wave structure for electrons synchronism condition: - explanations on 2/3 π-mode in appendix
FUNDAMENTAL CAVITY CHARACTERISTICS
BASICS OF RF ACCELERATION I energy gain of a particle with charge q:
RF phase
passing a gap with the electric field E:
gap -L/2
synchronous phase
this can be written as: average electric transit time field on axis factor
-L/2
cavity or cell length
BASICS OF RF ACCELERATION I energy gain of a particle with charge q:
RF phase
passing a gap with the electric field E:
gap -L/2
synchronous phase
this can be written as: average electric transit time field on axis factor
-L/2
cavity or cell length
BASICS OF RF ACCELERATION I energy gain of a particle with charge q:
RF phase
passing a gap with the electric field E:
gap -L/2
synchronous phase
this can be written as: average electric transit time field on axis factor
-L/2
cavity or cell length
BASICS OF RF ACCELERATION II average electric field: transit time factor:
ignoring the velocity change in the cavity and assuming a constant field between -g/2 and g/2, T simplifies to: assuming:
FUNDAMENTAL CAVITY CHARACTERISTICS: SHUNT IMPEDANCE shunt impedance (linac definition):
maximising ZT2: maximising energy gain per length for a given power loss be careful: shunt impedance (synchrotron definition):
FUNDAMENTAL CAVITY CHARACTERISTICS: (R/Q) quality factor of a resonator: Q= f(surface resistance, geometry) acceleration efficiency per unit stored energy: (r/Q)= f(geometry) (independent of surface losses!)
surface losses
DESIGNERS OF NORMAL CONDUCTING CAVITIES ARE OPTIMISING FOR: • maximum
effective shunt impedance ZT2(high electric efficiency), different structures are efficient for different particle velocities,
• peak
fields below a certain threshold (avoid sparking and breakdowns),
• maintain • choose
synchronism between the cells and the particles,
a number of coupled cells so that: i) structure can still have a flat field (stabilisation), ii) power consumption is compatible with existing power sources, iii) there is enough space for transverse focusing (quadrupoles between multi-cell cavities)
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
• In
1965 the High-Energy Physics Lab (HEPL) at Stanford University accelerated electrons in a lead plated cavity.
• In
1977 HEPL operated the first superconducting linac (with niobium cavities), providing 50 MeV with a 27 m long linac.
• In
1996, 246 metres of SC (Nb sputtered on Cu) cavities are used in LEP with an installed voltage (per turn) of 1320 MV (electrons).
• In
2005 SNS commissions a SC proton linac providing 950 MeV in 230 m (incl. transverse focusing).
• 2010
DESY is constructing XFEL (electrons), which will provide 20 GeV of acceleration (electrons) within 1.6 km.
• European
Spallation Source (ESS) is funded and will be constructed in Lund (Sweden).
SPALLATION NEUTRON SOURCE, OAKRIDGE
1 GeV, 1-1.4 MW on target, 60 Hz, linac pulse length 1 ms
WHEN ARE SC CAVITIES ATTRACTIVE? Instead of Q values in the range of ~104, we can now reach 109 - 1010, which drastically reduces the surface losses (basically down to ~0) ➜ high gradients with low surface losses
However, due to the large stored energy, also the filling time for the cavity increases (often into the range of the beam pulse length): (only valid for SC cavities)
PULSED OPERATION & DUTY CYCLES FOR RF, CRYO, BEAM DYNAMICS 1.8
Vg
1.6
cavity voltage
1.4 1.2
Vsteady state
•
beam duty cycle: covers only the beam-on time,
•
RF duty cycle: RF system is on and needs power (modulators, klystrons)
•
cryo-duty cycle: cryo-system needs to provide cooling (cryo-plant, cryomodules, RF coupler, RF loads)
1 0.8
Vdecay
0.6 0.4 0.2 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
ol
beam duty cycle RF duty cycle cryogenics duty cycle
6
7
Depending on the electric gradient, beam current, particle velocity, and pulse rate, SC cavities can actually be less cost efficient than NC cavities! Nevertheless, one can generally get higher gradients (for high beta) than with NC standing-wave cavities! (E.g. XFEL cavities: ~23.6 MeV/m in a 9-cell 1300 MHz cavity, vs 3-4 MeV/m in traditional NC standing wave cavities.)
LEP Nb on Cu cavity
XFEL 9-cell cavity
ANL triple spoke cavity
THANK YOU!!
MATERIAL USED FROM: •
M. Vretenar: Introduction to RF Linear Accelerators (CAS lecture 2008)
•
T. Wangler: Principles of RF Linear Accelerators (Wiley & Sons)
•
H. Braun: Particle Beams, Tools for Modern Science (5th PP Workshop, Islamabad)
•
D.J. Warner: Fundamentals of Electron Linacs (CAS lecture 1994, Belgium, CERN 96-02)
•
Padamsee, Knobloch, Hays: RF Superconductivity for Accelerators (Wiley-VCH).
•
F. Gerigk: Formulae to Calculate the Power Consumption of the SPL SC Cavities, CERN-AB-2005-055.
APPENDIX: Basics of Accelerating Cavities
WAVE PROPAGATION IN A CYLINDRICAL PIPE Maxwells equations
propagation constant: cut-off wave number:
solved in cylindrical coordinates for the simplest mode with E-field on axis: TM01
wave number:
+ boundary conditions on a metallic cylindrical pipe: Etangential=0
cut-off wavelength in a cylindrical wave-guide (TM01 mode)
a
TM01 waves propagate for: the phase velocity is: TM01 field configuration
λp
E-field B-field
dispersion relation
Brioullin diagram (dispersion relation) no waves propagate below the cut-off frequency, which depends on the radius of the cylinder, each frequency corresponds to a certain phase velocity, the phase velocity is always larger than c! (at ω=ωc: kz=0 and vph=∞),
group velocity:
energy (and therefore information) travels at the group velocity vgrc!
We need to slow down the phase velocity!
put some obstacles into the wave-guide: e.g: discs h 2a
2b L
Dispersion relation for disc loaded travelling wave structures:
Brioullin diagram
disc loaded structure:
damping:
structure with: vph=c at kz= 2π/3 (SLAC/LEP injector)
Example of a 2/3 travelling wave structure synchronism condition:
TRAVELLING WAVE STRUCTURES •
The wave is damped along the structure and can be designed as “constant-impedance” structure or as “constant-gradient” structure.
•
Travelling wave structures are very efficient for very short (us) pulses, and can reach high efficiencies (close to 100% for CLIC), and high accelerating gradients (up to 100 MeV/m, CLIC).
•
are used for electrons at β≈1,
•
cannot be used for ions with β
