Links between Higher Education and Employers in Malawi: The need ...

Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management Vol. 27, No. 1, March 2005, pp. 67–79

Links between Higher Education and Employers in Malawi: The need for a dialogue? David Hall and Harold Thomas* University of Manchester, UK

The development of skills for employment is an important international policy area, but one that has been relatively ignored in sub-Saharan Africa. This paper reports on findings from a research project in Malawi, supported by the Department for International Development (DFID), that explored the links that exist between employers and the higher education and vocational education and training sectors. These findings are placed within the context of international trends in higher education/employer links and the need in sub-Saharan Africa to relate policy implications to the imperative of contributing to the elimination of poverty and achieving international development targets. The paper discusses implications of the findings, particularly for the Malawi government, leading higher education institutions and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and examines the implications for higher education in creating a dialogue and strengthening links between stakeholders.

Introduction The development of skills for employment is an important international policy area, but little research has been undertaken of the issues in sub-Saharan Africa. In order to inform future policy, the Department for International Development (DFID) approved a number of research projects under the generic heading of ‘‘Skills for Development’’. This paper focuses on the findings of one such project, the aim of which was: ‘‘to investigate the links that exist between higher education and employers in Malawi with particular emphasis on the recognition of academic and vocational qualifications by employers’’ (Thomas, Chimbobo, Hall & Mawditt, 2001). Two factors influenced the approach to the work. First, it was essential that the study should be conditioned by the national context. Malawi is one of the poorest *Corresponding author. Tudor Cottage, Water Lane, Little Horkesley, Colchester CO6 4DG, UK. Email: [email protected] ISSN 1360-080X (print)/ISSN 1469-9508 (online)/05/010067-13 ß 2005 Association for Tertiary Education Management DOI: 10.1080/13600800500046156

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countries of the world with a GNP per capita of US$170 in 1995 (DFID, 1998) and it is currently, in common with many other sub-Saharan African countries, in the midst of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, with its consequent effect upon institutions and society at all levels. Given this broader context, in conducting the research and in analysing the findings, an attempt was made to relate policy implications to the imperative of contributing to the elimination of poverty and achieving international development targets (DFID, 2000). Given this policy context, there was a range of policy documents and initiatives of relevance to the study. These included the development of a Policy Investment Framework (PIF, 2000), moves towards developing a Policy Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) within the context of the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative and a recent Public Expenditure Review (PER, 2000). Second, although the title of the study referred to ‘‘higher education’’, this term was given a wide interpretation, in that the research focused not only upon activities which would by any definition fit neatly into such categorisation, but also upon activities which might well be regarded as operating at the boundaries of higher education. This wider interpretation of the term allowed consideration, in particular, of issues relating to technical and vocational education and training (TVET) that in other systems may have been viewed as post-secondary or further education. Such an inclusive approach to post-secondary education and training activities in Malawi was seen as being important in the context of both Malawi specifically and sub-Saharan Africa in general, given the imperative of addressing issues of poverty alleviation. By adopting this approach, the conclusions of the research provided input into a more general policy framework than would have been possible by limiting the study to a narrower and more traditional interpretation of ‘‘higher education’’. Research data were collected from documentary sources, semi-structured interviews with over 50 persons and focus group meetings. The research data were cross-checked and cross-referenced at a variety of stages during the research process, both by seeking the views of a range of stakeholders and by establishing a critical dialogue with these stakeholders throughout the research process. Evidence was drawn from government, education and training institutions and employers. Government perspectives were obtained from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and the Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training. Higher education institutions included the University of Malawi and its five constituent colleges and a Technical College. Interviewees from these institutions included academic, senior managerial and administrative staff and students. The institutions were chosen to include departments and faculties providing a range of courses of study, including ‘‘classical’’ and what might be defined as vocational education within higher education and within the TVET sector. Employers included multinational companies, large Malawian businesses, small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), NGOs and local Chambers of Commerce. In addition, discussions were held with staff from a range of government agencies directly involved in higher education and with a selection of donors active within Malawi at the time the research was conducted.

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The study was not intended to offer an in-depth analysis of the education system in Malawi or of the higher education sector, instead it sought to focus upon the existence, nature and scope of links between higher education and employers. Little mention is made, for instance, of the importance of research activities within higher education. The research was also conducted within the context of a recognition that the issue of higher education/employer links can be contentious, raising deep philosophical questions about the purposes of higher education and the legitimate role of employers in helping to shape the nature and purpose of the work which takes place within higher education institutions (Bligh, Thomas & McNay, 1999). Such links, it was recognised, can be especially contentious within the context of developing countries, such as Malawi, where resource iniquities between higher education institutions and larger, especially multinational, businesses are particularly marked. The main purpose here is to examine the findings of the research in the hope that they may inform a continuing debate about the nature of higher education in Malawi and in sub-Saharan Africa more generally. Background Notwithstanding the restrictions outlined in the above paragraph, by way of background to the findings, a brief summary of international trends in higher education that can have an effect on links with employers is given below, together with a brief outline of the education system in Malawi. International Trends There are a number of international trends and experiences that form a background to the current study and which inform analysis of the situation in Malawi. First, reflecting developments in wider debates about the purposes of higher education and its relative importance and significance to different and possibly competing individuals and groups, linking education closer to the world of work by providing students with skills that are viewed as relevant to workplaces and are commonly described as transferable to workplace contexts has become an increasing focus of attention (Bennett, Dunne & Carre, 1999; O’Brien & Hart, 1999). Such concerns have led to the development of joint initiatives between funding agencies and various groups representing business interests. These initiatives have been aimed, for example, at developing enterprise skills as an integral part of higher education programmes and by the provision of opportunities to explore the potential for the commercialisation of research. These international developments are particularly pertinent given concern that in sub-Saharan Africa, in general, higher education needs to examine its priorities in light of the current socio-economic situation (Banya & Elu, 1997), a concern that has been echoed within Malawi (British Council, 2000). These concerns also find expression in the view that education can be a critical element in stimulating economic growth and in reducing poverty. Suggested

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mechanisms have included university and business cooperation and the strengthening of science and technology links between higher education institutions and business (World Bank, 1997, 2000). Second, there has been increasing focus upon the role of higher education in facilitating lifelong learning, again because of the perceived social and economic benefits (McMahon, 1998; Cohn & Addison, 1998). This has had implications for the programmes offered by institutions, the entry requirements to programmes and the attitude of institutions towards students. One consequence of this has been attempts to refocus systems towards a student orientation, with a higher degree of mobility between different sectors of education to cater for what are viewed as changing student needs and aptitudes. Third, there is increasing recognition that planning processes that involve a wide range of stakeholders can facilitate ownership of common issues and can forge partnerships that contribute to the achievement of objectives. In Africa there have been calls for more emphasis to be placed upon strategic planning at both a national and institutional level (AAU, 1995; Ngara, 1995; World Bank 1997, 2000). Fourth, the forces of globalisation and the associated emergence of a knowledge society have created challenges to higher education institutions as they seek to forge new identities and roles within the context of their continued position as national, state institutions (Scott, 1998). For those countries largely bypassed as the internationalisation of higher education led to the formation of networks and collaborations between institutions in different countries, such challenges may be especially severe. Fifth, a greater emphasis on quality assurance mechanisms has been evident as part of the changing relationships between higher education and the state (Mauch & Sabloff, 1995; Henkel & Little, 1999). This has led to the development of external quality assessment and assurance systems, which perhaps inevitably, has led to debates about the balance between institutional autonomy and public accountability (Vroeijenstijn, 1995). These trends have taken place within an environment of financial constraint and an expectation of more effective and efficient financial management. Consequently, there has been a focus on funding methodologies, income-generating schemes and effective use of resources both by government and by institutions. To facilitate a growth in access to higher education, whilst keeping a restraint on public expenditure, governments have looked towards cost-sharing schemes with an increase in contributions from students towards the cost of their education. This has often been accompanied by the introduction of student loan schemes, although there is evidence to suggest that, in many countries, recovery rates have been insufficient to make such schemes cost-effective (Ziderman & Albrecht, 1995). In some countries the tradition of providing campus-based accommodation has also been questioned on grounds of cost effectiveness. All these issues find expression in the Malawian context and many lend support to the emerging view that stronger links between employers and higher education should and will be important in shaping the


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future development of higher education. Nevertheless, there are a number of reasons why this process should not be viewed as either straightforward or inexorable, especially within the context of debates about intellectual freedom and the importance of institutional autonomy in securing such freedom. In particular, concerns about the effectiveness and feasibility of skills transfer between education and employment contexts suggest that caution must be exercised, especially when skills linked to employability are implanted within or added to existing programmes of study. Educational Provision in Malawi The system of education is based on eight years of primary education, four years of secondary education and a tertiary education sub-sector with programmes of between two and six years. The school examination system consists of the Primary School Leaving Certificate, the Junior Certificate (after two years of secondary education) and the Malawi School Certificate after four years of secondary education. Progression rates through the educational system are low. The enrolment rate in primary education was 117% (gross) or 76% (net), indicating a significant over-age enrolment. The enrolment rate of secondary education was 27% (gross) or 7% (net) (Household Survey, 1998). Access is heavily skewed in favour of children from high-income families. Girls are under-represented and account for about 40% of the enrolment (PER, 2000). About 6000 secondary school leavers pass the Malawi School Certificate Examination, a pass rate of less than 20% in 2000. This pass rate was an improvement on that of 14% in 1999. Of these, about 900 (12%) enter university. The minimum entry standard is set at 20 points from six passes at the School Certificate, including English. The tertiary education sector comprises university and polytechnic education, primary and secondary teacher training colleges, technical and vocational training schools and a number of other post-secondary professional training institutions. The role of the tertiary sector is seen as providing middle- and high-level human resource requirements for the management and development of Malawi’s economy and for the teaching and managing of the national educational institutions (PIF, 2000). University education is provided by the University of Malawi, a federal university founded in 1965, and the newly founded Mzuzu University. At the time of the study, the role of Mzuzu University was restricted to teacher training (secondary), but there were plans for future expansion. The constituent colleges of the University of Malawi are Bunda College (agricultural sciences), Chancellor College (arts, liberal arts and natural sciences), Kamuzu College of Nursing, the College of Medicine and Polytechnic (business studies, engineering, construction, telecommunications and architecture). Enrolment at university level has remained roughly constant over the past few years at under 4000. As a proportion of the total population this is low for sub-Saharan Africa. In 1995 there were 76 tertiary-level students per 100,000 inhabitants in Malawi compared with 241 in Zambia and 679 in Zimbabwe. Female

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students represent less than 30% of the total and are particularly under-represented in science disciplines. Enrolment is highly skewed towards young people from highincome families (PER, 2000). TVET is provided by seven specialist technical colleges offering full- and part-time courses in some 22 trades. Programmes lead to the Craft (2 years) and Advanced Craft (4 years) Certificates. Entry is normally on the basis of the Junior Certificate and the Malawi School Certificate. Students with the more advanced entry standards are preferred because of their enhanced language competence. Responsibility for TVET is split between at least three ministries. The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology is responsible for provision in secondary schools and higher education. The Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training is responsible for provision in specialist technical colleges and has established a framework for the regulation of private training providers. The Ministry of Gender, Community Development and Youth also contributes to work in this area, for instance, through adult literacy programmes. In 1999, in order to address issues related to the fragmentary nature of technical and vocational education and training, the government established a coordinating body, the Technical, Entrepreneurial and Vocational Education and Training Authority (TEVETA), but at the time of the study its impact was limited. Government funding of education is through the recurrent and development budgets. In 1999/2000 the government allocated 28% of its recurrent expenditure to education, one of the highest allocations in Sub-Saharan Africa. This compared with 22% in 1993/94. The resources allocated to education as a proportion of GDP have more than doubled since the late 1980s and now stand at 6% (PIF, 2000). However, spending per capita on education in Malawi is low (US $7 in 1997/98) compared with other African countries (e.g. Kenya US $24). Within this allocation there has been a shift towards primary education. In 1999/ 2000 the government’s budget for education was divided between the sub-sectors as follows: primary 60%; secondary 10%, technical and vocational 1.5%, teacher education and training 2%, tertiary 15%, with the remainder being spent on administration and supporting organisations such as the national examinations council. University students currently account for 202 times the amount spent on a primary student (PER, 2000), a figure that is considerably higher than regional norms (Kenya 41:1; Guinea 58:1) (Castro-Leal, 1996). Despite the relatively favourable funding allocations to higher education that these figures suggest, both higher and further education institutions in Malawi continue to operate within the context of severe resource constraints all too common in Sub-Saharan African nations (Brock-Utne, 1996). These are usually manifested in terms of, amongst others, chronically low salaries for staff and wholly inadequate teaching facilities. The low national income in Malawi, consequent low levels of governmental expenditure and the funding provided to Malawian higher education relative to other sectors of the education system make improvements in the short to medium term of the public financing of higher education seem unlikely. Indeed, even assuming


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constant levels of national income, future restrictions upon funding are quite possible in the face of competing demands from the rapidly expanding primary and secondary sub-sectors, both of which are underpinned by significant donor support. Further pressures upon the public financing of tertiary education can be gleaned from the PER (2000), which draws attention to significant resource allocation issues that cast doubt on the efficiency and effectiveness of the system. For instance, over half of the University of Malawi’s budget is spent on boarding and administration. In 1999 these items amounted to US $1500 per student compared with US $200 on teaching and learning materials. Staff–student ratios were seen to be grossly inefficient (PER, 2000), with extremely low student–lecturer ratios (1:1 in one college) and large numbers of support staff. Less than 1% of public costs were recovered from fees at the university. Development expenditure is heavily dependent upon donor support, representing 91% and 87% of the total Ministry of Education, Science and Technology’s development expenditure in 1996/97 and 1997/98 respectively. The private sector is performing an increasingly important role in the Malawian education system, with over 120 training organisations, mainly in Lilongwe and Blantyre, specialising in the provision of secretarial, bookkeeping, accounting and computer skills. This has given rise to issues relating to accreditation, registration and recognition. There is also less formal and structured provision, currently lying outside any formal education or training systems, and especially commonplace within rural areas, where young people are introduced to particular crafts and trades via non-accredited apprenticeships. The official total for all types of public and private technical and vocational schools (business colleges, computer colleges, hairdressing schools, etc.) is 170 (Banda & Ramsay, 2001). Qualifications, Qualification Holders and the Labour Market The findings from the study indicate that there are issues of both the quantity of qualification holders and the level and nature of the knowledge, skills and understanding of those who possess these qualifications. In terms of quantity, representatives from both employers and HE/TVET recognised divergences in terms of both over-supply of graduates, but under-supply of graduates with skills that were regarded by both groups as being of prime importance. The former led to perceived high levels of unemployment following graduation in a range of subjects, with the notable exceptions of medicine and nursing. It is was not clear, however, as to the precise nature of graduate unemployment and, in particular, the extent to which graduates were progressing to jobs regarded as of non-graduate level. As in other developing countries, one explanation can be located within changing labour markets where widespread public sector employment of graduates is increasingly being replaced by employment within a more fragmented and clearly defined private sector. For instance, the main employer of students graduating from

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agricultural higher education courses was traditionally the Ministry of Agriculture, but, as a consequence of a sharp decline in public sector employment in this area, the link broke down during the 1980s and 1990s to the point where this source of graduate recruitment effectively disappeared. Although some agricultural graduates now find jobs with private sector agricultural businesses and NGOs, there is a significant problem of graduate unemployment and of graduates progressing to lowskilled work in the non-formal sector. Decision-making in this area is handicapped by the fact that the last university wide tracer study was conducted in 1988 and 1989 (Dubbey, Chipofya, Kandawire, Kasomekera, Kathamalo & Machili, 1991), the data from which are now largely out of date. A new tracer study is being planned. Although government policy is one of expansion of student numbers in higher education, there is evidence to suggest that even in subjects closely aligned to the achievement of international development targets there is under-recruitment compared with current intake targets, leading to a shortage of skilled manpower. Two reasons are evident from the research. First, attainment levels of students leaving secondary school have given rise to problems of progression into higher education. This has been especially marked in relation to the attainment levels in science and mathematics. Consequently, the number of students gaining sufficient credits in science and mathematics necessary to meet basic entry requirements has declined in recent years. Second, the policy of providing on-site dormitory accommodation for students is leading to under-recruitment in critical areas such as nursing. Shortages of accommodation for male student nurses had led to particular problems in recruitment. In terms of the level and nature of the knowledge, skills and understanding of qualification holders, the inability of holders of higher education qualifications to perform tasks in line with their graduate status was a commonly stated problem. This is an issue for all graduate courses, but applies particularly to the study of academic and generalist courses where the transfer of particular skills employers generally expect to have been acquired during academic study is likely to be the principal means by which graduates who have followed such courses will be able to demonstrate their added value to those employers. Most commonly, this problem was manifested in terms of what employers regarded as inadequate literacy and numeracy and difficulties in working autonomously, managing time and communicating orally. Of course, findings in this area must be viewed within the context of employers, on occasion, struggling to articulate reasonable and legitimate expectations in relation to newly employed graduates. Nevertheless, there were clear shortfalls between the expectations of employers and the qualities demonstrated by graduates both before and after gaining employment with them. For holders of qualifications from technical colleges, the problem identified was primarily concerned with the relevance of the vocational skills acquired. The widespread view amongst employers was that TVET students in both HE and technical colleges were typically acquiring out of date and/or inappropriate knowledge and understandings on vocationally orientated courses. Concerns were


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particularly acute in relation to the technical colleges that were first established in the 1960s to provide a high-skilled workforce for Malawi (Msiska, 1999). There is concern that they will be unable to recover sufficiently in the short or medium term to offer TVET provision to regionally or globally competitive businesses. A further factor relating to the quality of graduates is derived from research evidence about the quality of support and guidance to students. Students’ expectations of, and preparation for, the world of work are in part influenced by their experiences of higher education. However, there is evidence from the study that the support offered to students by way of enhancing their experience of higher education in terms of preparation for the world of work is strictly limited. This lack of guidance is exacerbated by what many students find as a difficult transition from secondary school to college and a lack of support and guidance both at school and university supporting student decision-making on appropriate higher education programmes to follow. One consequence of this is that many students register for courses for which they have little motivation. The Need for Dialogue? The issues surrounding qualifications, qualification holders and the labour market offer some support for those proposing an enhanced dialogue between the providers of higher education, employers and government, especially in terms of informing the nature of the qualifications offered and shaping the legitimate expectations of both employers and higher education institutions. Further evidence of the need for such a dialogue emerged from an exploration of issues relating to both formal and informal mechanisms for dialogue. Issues relating to formal mechanisms were identified as associated with the institutionally specific areas of curriculum review and careers advice and the wider area of policy formulation incorporating a national dimension. In all of these areas, existing links between higher education and employers were weak, leading in some cases to opportunities being lost for higher education to contribute effectively to the achievement of international development targets. These findings support the contention of Banya and Elu (1997), in their call for a greater orientation towards basic social and economic needs and more widespread involvement at a grassroots level. Curriculum Review The research revealed minimal levels of curriculum change in recent years, albeit within the context of widespread recognition of the need for curriculum development and/or reform. In addition to the broader contextual and embedded difficulties referred to earlier, a number of factors emerged which were viewed as contributing to this position. First, curriculum review processes and procedures are superficial or non-existent. Second, there is a general lack of involvement of employers and other groups, such as students and alumni, in any review and subsequent development of

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curricula. These first two factors have led to a situation whereby existing curricula for many tertiary-level programmes can be described as sealed within the confines of the individuals or groups responsible for teaching them. Third, teaching programmes are based almost entirely upon historical precedent. Consequently, they may be reflecting needs, concerns and issues primarily relevant to the 1970s, 1980s and earlier and, as a result, have failed to keep pace with wider changes. Fourth, teaching programmes are based upon the interests of teaching staff. Whilst this is not of itself an unusual or necessarily unsatisfactory basis for the existence or future continuation of a programme of teaching, indeed it can be seen as a prerequisite for effective teaching in many curriculum areas, it can be viewed as an inadequate basis if it is the sole or overriding rationale for its continued existence especially in the context of academic/teaching staff severely constrained by a lack of resources, infrastructural shortcomings and, in some cases, dislocation from wider academic communities in their subject disciplines. Linked to this, there are concerns amongst academics/ teachers regarding their competence to teach reformulated programmes of study. This is strongly associated with insufficient pre-service and in-service training and academic development activities of academics and teachers in the relevant institutions. These last three factors can be viewed as major contributing causes of the inertia currently afflicting the curriculum to which many higher education students in Malawi are exposed. Notwithstanding concern about the lack of curriculum development and the arising and associated inertia, the research found some evidence of the involvement of employers in the curriculum development process. In particular, at the Malawi Polytechnic negotiations with three major employers have led to the creation of an artisan-level training programme to be delivered by polytechnic staff and specifically geared to the needs of participating employers. The employers have joined with the polytechnic under the banner of the Malawi Industrial Training Association (MITA) and there are plans to extend the scheme to higher-level training. There are also instances where programmes have been specifically designed to meet the needs of an identified client group with the development of bespoke courses for particular employers. These links provide a possible basis for future collaboration, but at present they are the exception rather than the rule. Policy Formulation It was not a part of the study to explore specifically the issue of policy formulation, but arising from discussions with stakeholders it became evident that movement towards achieving government objectives is currently limited. A key contributory cause was perceived to be the lack of consultation between government, university and the private sector during the policy formulation stage and a lack of opportunity for dialogue between interested parties. Although there is evidence of some links between academe, professional bodies and government, the effect of such links was limited. Consequently, there is an associated lack of ownership and coordination in


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the achievement of objectives. For instance, there is evidence from both higher education and employers that key stakeholders have not been sufficiently involved in the formulation of the Poverty Reduction Strategy paper. Similarly, evidence from both the National Research Council and higher education institutions indicates a lack of co-ordination in directing scare resources to areas of research that could impact on poverty alleviation. Informal Links Throughout the research there was evidence of weak informal ties between higher and technical/vocational education providers and employers. In general, this was demonstrated through a lack of social contact outside the workplace between the two groups, strictly limited evidence of membership by representatives of both groups of either formal or informal organisations/forums and a general lack of contact at either a personal or professional level. Given the relatively small, although ethnically diverse, population of the country and the concentration of employing organisations and higher and technical/vocational education in specific geographical locations, this dislocation between the two groups was marked. Conclusion Summarising the above discussion, five main conclusions may be drawn from the study. First, existing links between the higher education community and employers in Malawi are weak. The consequential lack of dialogue may be acting to hamper the development of effective strategies to address key issues that could impact on poverty alleviation and contribute towards achieving international development targets. It is not, however, only the links between higher education and employers that could be improved. There are also opportunities for a greater degree of tripartite coordination between higher education, employers and government. Second, there is evidence that higher education is not providing the quality of graduate that is necessary to meet the needs of the nation. At an undergraduate level, curriculum development has not kept pace with changes in the environment and the demands now placed upon graduates. The graduate employment market has changed from an emphasis on public to private sector employment. There is clear evidence that undergraduate programmes have failed to adapt to this change. In particular, programme developers in higher education may benefit from an increased awareness of the expectations of employers, so that they can engage in debates and curriculum development activities that take heed of what are regarded as legitimate expectations from employers and other stakeholders. One significant outcome of this is that graduates are leaving higher education with false expectations in relation to their employability and the likely demands upon them from employers. Whilst this may be a feature of some graduates in all nations, there is evidence that gaps in expectations in Malalwi, in this respect, are especially wide and widespread.

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Third, the colleges specialising in post-secondary TVET are suffering from especially severe resource constraints. They have neither the equipment nor the skilled teachers to prepare students to develop the skills, knowledge and understanding that they will be expected to demonstrate in the workplace. This contributes to a situation in which there is a curriculum that has not generally kept pace with developments in the workplace. Fourth, recognition by employers of academic and vocational qualifications gained during higher education does not match graduates’ expectations. What is lacking in Malawi are the mechanisms through which a variety of stakeholders, including employers, can arrive at or seek shared understandings about the proper and appropriate role of higher education. Fifth, evidence from the study suggests that collaborative activities between higher education and employers offer the potential for mutual enrichment and enhancement. This is most evident in the emerging collaborative venture between employers and the polytechnic via the Malawi Industry Training Association (MITA). These initiatives imply a reorientation of established approaches to higher education in Malawi requiring the involvement and commitment of all stakeholders. Given enormous inequities in terms of the resources available to some of the larger Malawian employers relative to higher education institutions, it is important that clear parameters for debate are established which recognise the legitimate role of academic and educational institutions. Addressing these issues is likely to require the facilitation of a dialogue between stakeholders in higher education, vocational educational and training and employment sectors. This might be achieved by a range of measures including the establishment and support of joint consultative bodies and a review of mechanisms for coordination between the different ministries involved in providing higher education and vocational education and training.

Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of DFID and ECCTIS Ltd, the lead contractor for the project. The authors were engaged by ECCTIS Ltd as researchers for the project.

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