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LIS Program Expectations of Incoming Students' Technology Knowledge and Skills Bill Kules and Jennifer McDaniel School of Library and Information Science, Marist Hall, The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. 20064. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

As LIS programs continue to incorporate information and communications technology (ICT) into their curricula, one of the challenges they face is the diverse technology backgrounds and competencies of incoming students. Students without adequate preparation may experience particular difficulty when confronted with a more technically demanding curriculum. This article reports on content analysis of the requirements and expectations for incoming students that 57 ALA-accredited LIS programs have published on the web. It examines the conceptual knowledge, practical skills, and ICT access identified by the programs as important for student success, for face-to-face and online programs. Italso examines how programs diagnose and support students with gaps in their knowledge or skills. The study used an iterative method to develop categories that reflect the diversity of expectations regarding knowledge, skills, and ICT access. The results suggest that there are few consistent expectations between programs. Keywords: technology competencies, technology expectations, information technology, LIS education, content analysis Introduction

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ithin LIS education, master's programs are becoming more technically demanding in response to technological changes (Pettigrew & Durrance, 2001; Markey, 2004). As programs continue to incorporate information and communications technology (ICT) into their curricula, one of the challenges they face is the diverse technology backgrounds and competencies of incoming students. Students without adequate preparation may experience difficulty when confronted with topics such as web page creation, relational databases, and systems analysis. Programs should inform incoming students of expectations and help students address weaknesses early so they are technically prepared as they begin an LIS program. But what competencies are considered important for incoming students? 222

This article reports on content analysis of the requirements and expectations for incoming students that 57 ALA-accredited LIS master's programs have published on the web. It examines the conceptual knowledge and practical skills identified by the programs as important for student success. It also examines how programs diagnose and support students with gaps in their knowledge or skills. The study used an iterative method to develop categories that reflect the diversity of expectations regarding knowledge, skills, and ICT access. There have been attempts to better understand program expectations and student preparedness (Andersen, 2002; Li, 2008), but there are few reported research results to date. In an earlier article with Banta (2009), we compared traditional LIS schools with iSchools, and suggested that few commonalities were found in the

J. of Educationfor Library and Information Science, Vol. 51, No. 4-(Fall) October 2010 @2010 Association for Library andilnformatbon Science Education ISSN: 0748-5786

LIS Program Expectations of Incoming Students' Technology Knowledge and Skills

published expectations. In this article, we apply a more rigorous technique for validating the derived categories and compare traditionally delivered face-to-face programs (F2F) with online programs (OL). The study addressed the following research questions: I. What technology competencies (knowledge and skills) do LIS programs expect their incoming master's students to have? 2. What techniques are being used to assess incoming master's students' technology competencies? 3. What supports are being provided to help master's students fill competency gaps? 4. What differences do we see between programs delivered online (OL) and programs delivered face-to-face (F2F? This article is organized as follows: first, we present the conceptual framework for the study. Then, we present the methodology, data collection procedure and results. We close by discussing the results, proposing a set of competencies for incoming students, and describing how they are applied within our own program. Conceptual Framework Technological changes within LIS education are well documented. Programs are evolving steadily in response to technology trends (Pettigrew & Durrance, 2001). Markey (2004) identifies 11 new themes in LIS programs, of which 10 are directly related to computers, information systems or information technology (community information systems, computer-supported cooperative work, cultural heritage information, electronic commerce, human-computer interaction, information architecture, information design, knowledge management, medical informatics, and natural language pro-

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cessing). Beheshti (1999) found that technology was the most intensely covered topic in a study of 44 LIS programs. Stoffle and Leeder (2005) argue that rapid technological change contributes to the debate about academic teaching versus professional needs. In fact, the discussion in Gorman (2004) is in part over the application of technology to-and its impact on-the LIS field. The National Research Council's 1999 report, Being Fluent with hiformation

Technology (FIT), provides a broad framework for this study. The FIT report identifies three areas of information technology competency: intellectual capabilities, information technology concepts, and practical information technology skills. Within each area, it identifies 10 high priority items. For example, the intellectual capabilities area identifies competencies in organizing and navigating information structures, managing complexity, testing solutions, and anticipating technological changes. Within the concepts area, it identifies concepts such as computers, information systems, networks, digital representation of information and information organization. It identifies practical skills such as setting up a personal computer, using basic operating system features, using a word processor and graphics tools, and finding information on the Internet. It was initially developed for the undergraduate level. Professional organizations provide specific normative descriptions of competences for library and information professionals. The ALA's core competencies include four items under technical knowledge (American Library Association, 2009; McKinney, 2006). The Special Libraries Association identifies four core competencies in applying information tools and technology, and provides seven applied scenarios (Special Libraries Association, 2003). Other professional organizations have developed similar guidelines that identify im-

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portant aspects of information technology (e.g., American Society for Information Science and Technology, 2001). These competencies describe what knowledge and skills the graduate of an LIS program should have, but they do not describe what students should know when they enter the program. Moreover, they are generally presented in terms of higher level competencies that implicitly presume a foundational knowledge of basic skills. The FIT competencies, however, are oriented around general skills for technology literacy. Integrating the FIT competencies with our experience teaching LIS courses, we identified the following as potential elements of technology competencies:

"•Familiarity with Windows, file creation, cutting and pasting, etc.

"*Familiarity with Microsoft Office-, word processing, spreadsheets, presentation tools, etc. "•Install and uninstall software "•ZIP files, compression, removable storage "*General knowledge of the Internet and how it works "*Use of Web browsers (Internet Explorer, Mozilla, etc) for viewing web pages and exploring the Internet "•Ability to search for information on the Internet using web search engines and online databases • Appropriate use of e-mail • HTML * Hardware requirements • Software requirements * Connectivity requirements To these, we added specific categories relevant to our research questions

0

Admission requirement Requirement to begin classes Diagnostic Remediation The URL of the primary web page containing the admission and

prospective student information for each LIS program These formed the initial 17 categories of data collection for the study. Methodology The study relied upon an iterative content analysis to identify and clarify categories of ICT competencies expected of incoming students. It also examined how programs assess student readiness and support students with gaps in their knowledge or skills. Initially, web pages from four LIS programs were analyzed looking for the presence of these 17 categories as well as additional categories. The additional categories were reviewed and, as appropriate, added to the original 17 to yield a set of 36 ICT categories. In a second round of review, 13 programs were analyzed using the expanded set of 36 categories. These results were refined into 49 categories. A third round of review was performed on 25 programs and yielded a set of 45 categories. We continued to refine the competencies to ensure that they could be clearly identified as part of or missing from the requirements. As an example, the decision was made to split the cell "download, install and uninstall software" into two cells "upload and download software" and "install/uninstalI software" in order to make the distinction between uploading/downloading using a web interface or using an ftp client. This yielded a set of 51 categories. Next, two researchers analyzed 12 programs independently. We measured inter-rater consistency, using Cohen's kappa instead of percent agreement to correct for the agreement that could be expected by chance (Stemler, 2004). Of the 45 categories assessed, 33 had a kappa value greater than 0.60, indicating substantial agreement between the raters (Landis & Koch, 1977). We removed categories with lower kappa values from the

LIS ProgramExpectations of Incoming Students' Technology Knowledge and Skills

subsequent analysis. In the final round we collected and analyzed data from the web sites of the 57 programs. We also examined the diagnostic approaches and methods for student support and/or remediation present on the various programs' websites. Because there was less possibility for divergent interpretations of these categories, we did not attempt to analyze them statistically. Instead we provide an overview of the approaches and illustrative examples. Data Collection The sources used for this survey were the websites of LIS programs, using the ALA's list of accredited master's programs. The information was most often found on the web page of the LIS program's website dealing with admissions requirements. It was also often found in the course catalogue, where it was listed either as a workshop to be completed prior to the start of classes, or a prerequisite for an entry-level course. The final round of data collection was conducted between October and December 2008. For each program, the procedure was as follows: I. Identify the program's website and find the admissions and technology pages. 2. Record the date of analysis and the URL of the reference pages from which data was derived. 3. Capture an image of the reference pages (.html) and the hardware and software requirements for each school. 4. Evaluate each category, indicating whether or not the school expects the skill or knowledge. 5. Note requirements, assessment approach and remediation recommendations for incoming students who do not have the required/recommended skills. 6. Add notes for notable cases; this includes programs with no requirements listed, examples of language, etc.

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In many cases, programs listed preparation requirements on admissions-related web pages. These were either listed specifically as skills expected of students, or were clearly identifiable from web pages listing hardware and software requirements. In cases which appeared unclear, language such as strongly recommended, highly recommended, required, expected to, assumed to, and must have the ability to were considered as a yes. More ambiguous language such as recommended was noted and discussed. We also noted whether the technology skill was required: as a condition of admission, to be acquired by the first day of class, or to be acquired at some point as the student progresses through the program. If the skills were listed as part of the admission requirements, we interpreted that to mean that it is indeed a condition of admission to the program. If the skill was listed on a page for incoming students and highlighted as a skill which must/should be attained prior to class, we interpreted that to mean that it is a requirement for the first day of class. Any other case was assumed to be the student's responsibility with no set timeline for completion. In cases where the school listed no technology requirement for incoming students, the syllabi for required courses were reviewed to assess whether or not these skills are addressed as part of the degree program. Finally, we noted whether the mode of delivery was F2F or OL. OL programs are typically delivered with few or no face-to-face meetings. Instead, students participate using tools such as online discussions and video webcasts. The searchable database of ALA-accredited programs (http://www.ala.org/Template. cfm?Section=lisdirb&Template=/cfapps/ lisdir/index.cfm) was used to divide the sample into OL programs and F2F programs (see Appendix A). To determine which schools offered programs online, the 100% online program available limit was selected. This generated 25 schools

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with OL programs. Note that the schools included in this group are not necessarily online-only, but include the option of obtaining the full degree online.

For clarity of presentation in this report, we organized the validated categories (kappa > 0.60) into five general classes:

(31%) than F2F programs (22%) exhibiting this expectation. A small number of programs listed other forms of technology knowledge, such as knowledge of computer or IT terminology, and common file types or icons. In general, OL programs were more likely than F2F programs to list these, but any other competency (besides knowledge of an operating system) was listed by at most 15% of OL programs.

"•Knowledge-understanding needed to

General Computing Skills

Results

successfully use technology in LIS programs "•General Computing Skills-basic computer skills needed for use in LIS programs "*ProgrammingSkills-ability to use markup/computer language for program/web page creation "*Software Skills-ability to use required software to perform specific applications "*Internet Skills-ability to set up and use an Internet connection Knowledge This was defined as general computer knowledge that a person should possess in order to successfully use the technology encountered in LIS master's programs with a minimum level of anxiety. As Table 1 shows, about one quarter of programs indicate that they expect incoming students to have a general working knowledge of an operating system with a larger proportion of OL programs

General computing skills are the basic computer skills that are needed in order to successfully operate a computer for use in an LIS master's program. As Table 2 shows, 30% of the programs expect their incoming students to be able to manipulate computer folders. OL programs were more than twice as likely (42% versus 19%) to expect this from their incoming students as compared to face-to-face programs. Overall, less than 20% of all schools expect their incoming students are familiar with other computing skills, such as installing/uninstalling software, logging onto/off from a computer, and using removable media for file storage. For all of general computing skills, OL programs were more likely to indicate a need for general computing skills than F2F programs. ProgrammingSkills Programming skills were defined as the ability to use markup or computer ]an-

Table 1: Knowledge Categories Observed.

General working knowledge of an operating system Ability to define computer terminology Knowledge of IT terminology Common file types (e.g. *.doc, *.pdf, *.html) Identify and use icons

Percentage of All Schools

Face-to-face Programs

Online Programs

(N = 57)

(N = 32)

(N = 25)

26% (15) 9%(5) 9% (5) 7% (4) 5%(3)

22% (7) 3%0() 3% () 0 3%0()

31% (8) 15%(4) 15% (4) 15% (4) 8%(2)

LIS ProgramExpectations of Incoming Students' Technology Knowledge and Skills

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Table 2: Categories Observed for General Computing Skills. Percentage of Face-to-face All Schools Programs (N = 57) (N = 32) Folder manipulation Install and uninstall software Compress/uncompress files Log on/log off Upload/download files Use removable media to save files

guage to create simple web pages or programs. As seen in table 3, programming knowledge is not a requirement of many schools, whetherF2F orOL. Only 11% of schools were looking for basic HTML knowledge from their incoming students; F2F programs were slightly more likely to expect this knowledge (13% versus 8%). Few programs (4%) had expectations of additional programming skills, such as coding in Java or programming in C++.

Online Programs (N = 25)

30% (17) 18% (10) 14% (8) 12%(7) 11% (6)

19% (6) 9% (3) 3% (1) 9%(3) 6% (2)

42% (11) 27% (7) 27% (7) 15%(4) 15% (4)

11% (6)

9% (3)

12% (3)

programs were more likely to state these skills as requirements for incoming students. For example, 50% of OL programs expected their students to be able to create spreadsheets, while only 28% of F2F programs identified this as a requirement. Less than a quarter of all programs indicated ability to use database software as a requirement. OL programs were almost twice as likely to indicate this as a requirement (31% OL vs. 16% F2f). Internet Skills

Software Skills Software skills were defined as the ability to use software and perform simple functions specific to each type, such as document creation, printing, cutting and pasting, taking/manipulating screen captures, and using a web browser to navigate the Internet. Fifty-four percent of all LIS master's programs expected their incoming students to be able to create text documents using word processing software. About a third of all programs (39%) also expected their incoming students to be able to create spreadsheets, use a web browser (32%), and create presentations (30%) with the relevant software. OL

Internet skills were defined as the abilities necessary to set up an Internet connection and use it for communication and searching. This set of categories included the use of social networking platforms. Table 5 shows that all programs are more likely to indicate a need for students to have the ability to use the communication aspects of the Internet, than to be able to set up an Internet connection or search the Internet. Forty-two percent (42%) of all schools wanted their incoming students to be able to communicate via e-mail, send and receive attachments, and use e-mail listservs. OL programs were more likely to indicate this require-

Table 3: Categories Observed for Programming Skills. Percentage of Face-to-face All Schools Programs

Online Programs

(N=57)

(N=32)

(N=25)

Hand code a simple web page using HTML

11% (6)

13% (4)

8%(2)

Java, C++

4%(2)

3%(1)

4%(1)

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Table 4: Categories Observed for Software Skills.

Use a word processor to create and edit a text document Create a spreadsheet using spreadsheet software Web browser Use presentation software to create a presentation Database Software

ment than F2F programs. Less than 25% of all programs indicated a need for incoming students to be familiar with setting up Internet connections or using online information resources. Less than 10% of all programs indicated a need for incoming students to be familiar with the use of social networking platforms. This was consistent across OL and F2F programs. Assessment and Remediation The rigor of ICT requirements for incoming master's students fell into three categories-admission requirement, first

Percentage of All Schools (N = 57)

Face-to-face Programs (N = 32)

Online Programs (N = 25)

54% (31)

47%(15)

62% (16)

39% (22) 32% (18) 30%(17) 23%(13)

28% (9) 25% (8) 19% (6) 16%/(5)

50% (13) 38% (10) 42% (11) 31%/(8)

day requirement, or some form of diagnostic, not necessarily required for the first day (see Table 6). Only 7% of all programs indicated that ICT knowledge is a requirement for entry into the master's program. For those programs, as part of the admissions process students must take a test or otherwise certify that they have the listed competencies. Thirty-nine percent required students to have mastered the listed competencies by the first class. Twenty-five percent of programs made a diagnostic test available for incoming students to assess their ICT knowledge, without making it a requirement for entering the program. Pro-

Table 5: Categories Observed for Internet Skills. Percentage of Face-to-face All Schools Programs (N = 57) (N = 32) Setup Able to transfer files to a remote server using FTP Set up an internet connection and connect to the internet SSH Communication Open, compose and send email Add and open attchments to email Use email lists, listservers Resources Use of a search engine Research subjects'and locate resources using an OPAC Knowledge of online information resources Web 2.0, Social Networking Blog Create wikis

Online Programs (N = 25)

11% (6) 9% (5)

0 3% (1)

23% (6) 15% (4)

7%(4)

3%(1)

12%(3)

42% (24) 26% (15) 14% (8)

34% (11) 19% (6) 9% (3)

50% (13) 35% (9) 19% (5)

23% (13) 12% (7)

22% (7) 13% (4)

23% (6) 12% (3)

11% (6)

9% (3)

12% (3)

5%(3) 2%(1)

3%(1) 3%(1)

8%(2) 0

LIS ProgramExpectations of Incoming Students' Technology Knowledge and Skills

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Table 6: Level of ICT Requirement Upon Entry into Master's Program. Percentage of Face-to-face All Schools Programs

(N = 57) Admission requirement Requirement for first day of class Diagnostic Remediation

grams used three techniques to assess student knowledge and skills: • Checklists or self-assessments that students complete on their own • Pre-admission test Post-admission test

7% 39% 25% 44%

(4) (22) (14) (25)

Online Programs

(N = 32)

(N = 25)

9% (3) 31% (10) 19% (6) 34% (11)

4% 46% 31% 54%

(1) (12) (8) (14)

remediation and support resources for students. Overall, 44% of all programs (34% of face-to-face programs and 54% of online programs) listed some form of remediation or support resources. This included:

"*ICT Workshops offered by school or The University of North Texas is an example of a program that uses a self-assessment checklist: The SLIS Information Technology Knowledge and Skills (ITKS) Diagnostic Tool assists you in assessing your level of ITKS. This is a self-assessment, and only you see the scores resulting from using the tool. The faculty have established Information Technology Knowledge and Skills that they believe are necessary for success in the programs. All students are presumed to have these skills when beginning their study. (http://www.lis.unt.edu/main/ITKS/) The University of Hawaii requires applicants to complete a "LIS Computer Literacy Checklist" (http://www.hawaii.edu/ lis/content/admissions/computerliteracy. doc) and submit it as part of the application. Wayne State University requires students to take a series of three commercial tests, the Internet and Computing Core Certification (IC3) and submit satisfactory scores to the program. Although students may be admitted without this, they "cannot proceed past the first class until the requirement is met" (http://slis.wayne. edu/prospective/admissions.php). Almost half of all programs provided

university-For example, UCLA "offers the Intensive Technology Workshop that provides introductory hands-on training the skills required for first year courses and in the hardware and software environment in which students will be working throughout their degree program. The one-week course is typically offered, to incoming students only, just prior to the start of fall quarter." (http://is.gseis.ucla.edu/ admissions/requirements.htm) "*ICT Workshops through local schools-University of Hawaii lists some local workshops that students can attend, as well as online tutorials (http://www.hawaii.edu/lis/students. php?page=complit). "*Online tutorials-San Jose State University provides online tutorials for selected topics, including RSS feeds and Blackboard (http://slisweb.sjsu.edu/ ecommunication/software.htm). "*Required courses on technologyEmporia State University has a required class, "Technology Skills for Graduate Students" that covers topics such as Blackboard, online searching, using presentation software, and creating a website (http://slim.emporia.edu/ index.php/prospective-students/ technology-requirements/).

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* Providing only list of software and/or competencies without any additional information

Limitations This study only examined material published on the websites of LIS master's programs, and the analysis focused on the admissions and technology pages within those websites. It is possible that some programs have materials that were overlooked by our data collection method. However, this method is representative of material that prospective students are likely to find if they browse program websites, so we believe the method isjustified. Since we only analyzed published expectations, these competencies only reflect competencies that have been recognized as important for students. There may be needs not yet recognized or formulated that our methods did not identify. Therefore we consider these competencies to be an essential but not necessarily complete set.

skills are quite basic, we were surprised at the lack of consistency. We surmise that many programs have implicit expectations that are not being articulated. For example, we suspect that many programs expect students to use removable media like USB drives effectively and efficiently, even though orily I1 % of programs articulate this expectation. However, an internal survey of the new master's students at the Catholic University of America's School of Library and Information Science suggests that at least 13%-more than I in 10-have only a basic understanding of how to use removable media. Making students aware of this expectation is an important step to helping them acquire the skill. Although OL programs generally listed more expectations than F2F programs, no core set of expectations was found in common within either OL or F2F programs. Only the above three categories were listed by at least half of the OL programs:

"*Use word processor (62% OL vs. 47% Discussion

F2F)

"*Read & send email (50% OL vs. 34% This research yielded 29 technical competencies that one or more LIS program(s) have indicated are important for incoming master's students to succeed (Tables 1-5). We found few consistent expectations between programs. Programs commonly expressed expectations in terms of skills (24 categories) rather than conceptual knowledge (5 categories). Expectations were expressed at a variety of granularities and specificity. The most common category (Use a word processor to create and edit a text document) was listed by only 54% of programs. Only two other categories (Open, compose and send email, and Create a spreadsheetusing spreadsheetsoftware) were listed by at least one-third of :the programs. We expected to find some variation between programs, but since many of the

F2F)

"*Create spreadsheet (50% OL vs. 28% F2F) The analysis identified several practices to assess students and provide support, including: requiring a set of baseline competencies for admission, administering a diagnostic assessment, requiring an ICT course of all students, offering optional ICT workshops or online tutorials, providing recommendations of other places to take courses, and providing a list of software. Applying the Competencies Many programs use competency statements as a framework for curriculum development (Lester & Fleet, 2008). We propose that these 29 competencies can

LIS ProgramExpectations of Incoming Students' Technology Knowledge and Skills

form the basis of a competency statement for incoming master's students. We believe that incoming students would benefit from clearly defined expectations. The competencies identified from this study could form the basis of a more comprehensive set of expectations and student support mechanisms. We are doing that within our own program, applying the competencies in several ways. First, we used them to create a list of technical knowledge and skills and published it on our web site for our prospective and incoming students (http://slis.cua.edu/ tech/base-tech.cfm). We have incorporated them into our incoming student orientation to ensure that students recognize their importance early. We have also created a survey for incoming students, in which they self-assess their own awareness. This data is shared with their faculty advisors so they can help students identify strategies and resources for addressing weaknesses. For example, if students are weak in several areas, we recommend they take a number of workshops in their first semester and enroll in the most technology-intensive of our four required courses (LSC 555: Information Systems in Libraries and Information Centers) after that. We are currently using these competencies to review our own co-curricular resources (face-to-face workshops and online tutorials) to identify areas for additional development.

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Appendix A. Online Programs as of October 2008 Clarion University Drexel University Florida State University North Carolina Central University Rutgers University San Jose State University Southern Connecticut State University Syracuse University Texas Women's University University of Alabama, School of Library and Information Science University of Arizona University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign University of Kentucky University of Missouri University of North Texas University of Pittsburgh University of South Carolina University of South Florida University of Southern Mississippi University of Tennessee-Knoxville University of Washington University of Wisconsin-Madison University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Valdosta State University Wayne State University Acknowledgements Research assistance was provided by Matthew Banta, and Abbey Gerken.

Conclusion Given the dynamic nature of technology in the LIS curriculum, the competencies students need to possess will continue to evolve. Any list will need to be reviewed and revised on an ongoing basis. This study contributes to our understanding of the technical knowledge and skills students need and how these needs are being addressed. It is one step toward ensuring that incoming students are technologically prepared to succeed in an LIS program.

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Author: Kules, Bill; McDaniel, Jennifer Title: LIS Program Expectations of Incoming Students' Technology Knowledge and Skills Source: J Educ Libr Inf Sci 51 no4 Fall 2010 p. 222-32 ISSN: 0748-5786 Publisher: Association for Library and Information Science Education 65 E. Wacker Place, Suite 1900, Chicago, IL 60601

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