LNCS 8519 - Improving Sustainability through Usability - Springer Link

Improving Sustainability through Usability Vincent G. Duffy School of Industrial Engineering, School of Agriculture and Biological Engineering Center for Environment, Purdue University 47907 West Lafayette, IN, USA [email protected]

Abstract. This article proposes methodologies and applications for sustainability solutions through usability. Usability and sustainability are defined in the context of human factors and ergonomics. Economic, social and ecological considerations form the basis for the three leg platform for sustainable development. A return to fundamentals in human factors, ergonomics and industrial and operations engineering can provide insight into effective implementation of sustainability solutions. Principles such as learning curves and economies of scale are highlighted in the context of sustainable energy. It is also suggested that exposure-response curves can be derived using Bayesian networks, giving insight into potential causal effects in existing ecotoxicology data. Ergonomists have used these tools in the past to evaluate performance of other engineering implementations while toxicology can initially provide some common basis for the historical and modern view of ergonomics in the context of sustainability. Sustainability can benefit from such tools that can evaluate potential interventions under uncertainty. From other engineering literature it appears that technical solutions are already available to support sustainability, while the lag may be occurring in coordinating the social, organizational and cultural response. Lessons learned in human factors and ergonomics can support sustainability related interventions building on experience in human-system interface design and visualizations that have been an integral part of the digital human modeling community especially over the last two decades. Keywords: Usability, Sustainability, Design, Visualizations, Digital Human Modeling, Green Chemistry, Risk Management, Health and Safety.

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Introduction

Administrative solutions and policy changes can be effective but typically take longer to implement than engineering solutions. They also face a constantly changing technology landscape. One can refer to some National Academies reports when determining next goals in sustainability, but not yet the next steps for achieving those. Insight into green product and process substitutes can bring opportunities for improved market share through early entry, as well as reduced potential for losses and adverse outcomes. Awareness of intangibles and monitoring of available quantifiable A. Marcus (Ed.): DUXU 2014, Part III, LNCS 8519, pp. 507–519, 2014. © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

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measures can influence individual and organizational decisions over the life-cycle of products and processes. In addition to learning and scalability, one may apply Bayesian networks as a special case of meta-analysis to give some insight under uncertainty. Perception of performance can be considered in usability evaluations while visualizations can support decisions in multi-disciplinary sustainability initiatives. One may consider that the same treatments were used for childhood leukemia, but that those were modified in approach to implementation through coordinated care and communication among those with experience. It is reported that it took nearly 50 years for modifications to the implementation, while the underlying fundamentals of the regimen were unchanged over that time [1]. In the meantime, before process refinements many young children died without effective treatment or consistent implementation among various caregivers. It would be unfortunate if sustainabilityrelated outcomes continue on a trajectory that appear unstable and out of control. Deviations from a balanced equilibrium in ecosystems have been shown to be the result of human activity [2]. 1.1

Potential Value in Cross-Disciplinary Cooperation

There is support among our research colleagues in chemistry for cooperation on Green Chemistry and Health related initiatives [3]. These cooperative efforts could include (i) entrepreneurial efforts in development of clean pharmaceutical processes for new products, (ii) strategic reuse and reduction or capture of CO2 emissions, (iii) safe nanotechnology development and implementation based on especially organometallic compounds [4]. Many nanotechnologies are based on metals in catalyst systems including small particle and powdered iron, aluminum, nickel, silver and gold as well as various oxide compounds utilizing iron, aluminum, zirconium, titanium and zinc [5]. Cooperation between our colleagues and students in industrial engineering and chemistry could contribute to a sustainable future, building especially on past experience some industrial engineering faculty have with industrial hygiene related professional affiliations and publications. The reduction of exposures to harmful chemicals is clearly within the scope of traditional work design and occupational ergonomics. Theodore [6, p.245-252] shows how various commonly known metals are forming the basis for new materials and the emerging science of nano-technologies. [6]. However, lessons learned within the industrial workplace have applications in product design and community relations. Exposures previously considered as maximum permissible limits at work need to be considered in the context of the materials going out of our industrial facilities as waste, emissions and end-of-life products into the air, water, soil and ultimately our food chain. With the high and increasing incidence of various forms of cancer, it is imperative that the engineers provide a form of prevention at the product and process source while various medical communities continue to seek the cure. National Academies reports recognize that “meeting the goal of sustainable development requires an integration of social, environmental and economic policies, necessitating interdisciplinary coordination among federal agencies with varying missions…” [7].

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With that, the engineering community has opportunity to support various industrial organizations via methods by which they can show their initiative and compliance with environment, health and safety regulations that are moving to the fore with reporting requirements increasing through, for instance, REACH in Europe. REACH regulations require various forms of Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals throughout their life cycle [8]. While all who do business in Europe will have increasing requirement for reporting the use, transport and manufacture of harmful chemicals it will be important that fundamentals be better integrated into existing engineering curriculum and not simply rely on applying the experience in entry level chemistry courses to provide sustainability outcomes that are needed. 1.2

Potential Consequences of Business-As-Usual

One may also consider the costs of adverse events that have escalated with a similar pattern to CO2 emissions, as measured in the atmosphere, which have increased to near 400 parts per million (ppm). The costs of doing business as insurer now require new methods and models for setting policy premiums-revenues in addition to concerted efforts to drive costs down through design-related decisions. As noted in the book Changing Planet, Changing Health, a modest rise in average temperature by end of 21st century would trigger additional extreme economic and social consequences including the potential displacement of up to 200 million people for rising sea levels, floods and droughts in addition to likely crop failures and water shortages for one in six people worldwide [9, p.208]. Translated into dollar figures, business-as-usual greenhouse gas emissions could lead to economic losses of 5-20% of global GDP per year which could translate to between $1.7 trillion and $7 trillion per year suggesting a significant reduction of well-being and quality of life. This could potentially effect the poor in a disproportionate way, while current projections for increasing demand in developing countries assumes stability in short term 3-5 year timelines. Relatively modest expenditures on the order of 1% of global GDP could help avert such consequences [9, p.209]. Additional information about the Greenhouse effect and evidence for its enhanced effect as seen in the measure of increased CO2 concentration (ppm) from 185 in the mid-1800s until today can be found in intrductory chemistry texts in the section on thermochemistry [10, p.250251].

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Usability and Sustainability

Usability is an emergent property that depends on the interactions among users, products, tasks and environments [11, p.1267]. The measurement or the accomplishment of global task goals could be considered as a primary focus of usability [11, p.1271]. Problem discovery could be a goal of usability testing [11, p.1268] and quality in use could form a measure giving insight into usability-related parameters such as functionality, reliability, efficiency and maintainability. Think

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aloud methods, where participants are encouraged to talk about their experience and give verbal reports, could give additional insights into potential measures and sustainability-related parameters that have traditionally not been considered in relation to usability. Intel is contributing to the development of such products that can include a smart thermostat, remote management and home screen [12]. These would have sustainability and energy management at the core among product functionality and performance objectives. It is suggested that long term problems will require long-term solutions with deliberate, integrated and consistent and sustained actions to move us in a more secure and sustainable energy system that meets especially the nation's economic and environmental needs [7]. A new energy system may include a "smart grid" and related appliances that may not be initially of interest or easily usable without close cooperation among those with domain knowledge and expertise in usability. Prototypes, such as those at Intel, are available early in this transition which provides design opportunities for usability. The chemical related effects of various emissions provide additional opportunities for the use of visualizations in decision making and computer-aided engineering of new products and processes. Current digital human modeling tools may be limited in supporting these initiatives until sustainability objectives are more explicitly considered and included in computer-aided engineering and Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) systems. Human performance and related simulations in the recent versions included anthropometric, comfort based on joint angles, motion timing, fatigue, strength, lowback risk assessments and human motion tracking [13]. A three leg model for sustainability shows social, ecological and economic objectives. Social refers to the consequences of a process including culture, justice, decision-making and equity. Ecological sustainability refers to the health of the ecosystems that support both human and non-human life. Economic sustainability focuses on the economic viability of process, project, enterprise or community [14]. Energy management has typically seen significant industrial emphasis when energy costs are high. However, sustainability has only recently become a catalyst for some energy management initiatives [15]. Industrial boilers account for 30% of energy used in manufacturing industries and manufacturing industries are responsible for 1/3 of all world energy consumption while contributing 36% of the CO2 emissions [16]. Sustainability challenges have arisen in the past. An energy crisis developed toward the end of the 17th century when demand for wood for fuel exceeded supply [17]. For a time, wood buildings were banned in London. A new technology, coalbased power, provided a solution while coal was still hard to mine and led to visually noticeable pollution and health problems, especially when fog carried contaminants to low altitudes in towns and cities [17]. Some common experience has been seen in China in recent years and the need for engineering as well as administrative solutions has become evident to the Government of China. Achieving sustainability will require the participation of citizens to utilize and support solutions to these and other potential sustainability-related problems that are not always as visible.


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Reliability and maintainability were at the core of system effectiveness criteria even before the quality movement. Reliability is generally defined as the probability that a given system will perform its intended function satisfactorily under the projected environmental conditions of use [18]. Maintainability is defined as the probability that a failed system can be made operable in a specified interval of downtime including failure detection, active repair time, logistics time for repair and administrative time giving indications for how long a system may remain in the failed state [18]. It is commonly expected that reliability and maintainability activities should span the entire life cycle of the system [18].

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Quantifying Improvement

Scientists have reported that climate change is also largely caused by human activities, with CO2 as one of the main greenhouse gases and direct atmospheric measurements increasing significantly in modern times [19, p.5]. Coal burning, as a means to meet growing electricity demand, is a significant contributor to CO2 emissions that contribute trapped heat that can be measured in oceans and at the earth's surface [19]. Eccleston notes that the United Nations Agenda 21 declares environmental protection as an integral part of the development process and suggests that it should not be considered in isolation in order to achieve sustainability, while Sustainable Development is one of the U.N.'s stated Millenium Goals [18, p.60]. Specific to that, one objective or "target" is to integrate principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs. Another is to reduce the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by half [18]. Though administrative objectives are proposed and supported through U.N. initiatives, it is expected that engineering solutions will ultimately need to also be implemented. It has been noted that engineering solutions are typically more effective than administrative solutions in the long term [20]. Past legislative solutions for pollution include the Clean Air Act which contains a combination of mandated administrative as well as engineering controls. While toxic chemical release reporting is already a part of Community Right to Know legislation [21, p.185], more recent court deliberations were about whether the U.S. EPA could consider regulating greenhouse gas emissions within the Clean Air Act [22, p.99]. A "safety first" corporate culture provides opportunity for improved sustainability related outcomes and relies on continuous improvement and quality related teachings of Deming [21]. An outline supporting companies interested in pursuing this in more detail is available as a part of Occupational Safety and Health principles as shown in Goetsch [21]. Haslam and Waterson consider definitions for sustainability including "development that meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." A different definition these authors also offered for sustainability is "Improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems" [23]. Within the second definition

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there appear to be opportunities for further development of ergonomics science in the context of usability. Haslam and Waterson refer to estimates by Drury [24] that suggest "In the future, all of our actions as ergonomists will have to take into account their impact on sustainability"[23, 24]. Baird defines anthropogenic as a man-made influence [25, p.60] and shows how emissions of carbon-based compounds, as part of photochemical reactions [25, p.31], contribute to the increasing environmental effect experienced as weather extremes within climate change [25, p.62-63]. With emissions as catalysts [25, p.37] for these larger scale effects referred to in National Academies reports, a cradle-to-grave analysis is outlined and encouraged for pollution prevention [25, p.9]. Rouse and Boff propose a framework originnally used in military for estimates related to toxic chemicals and suggest that it may have applications more broadly for cost-benefit analyses within human factors and ergonomics assessments [26]. In outlining strategies for sustainable energy, Tester, Drake and co-authors emphasize the need for life cycle assessment and show sample analyses related to learning curves and economies of scale [27]. They describe how economies of scale can be estimated mathematically using a scale exponent to illustrate how “bigger is cheapter” per unit output using renewable energy replacement options [27, p.225]. In Hancock and Bayha [28], it is shown that the number of cycles increases the time per cycle or cost per cycle decreases either as "human learning" or as "production progress functions". These can be considered in cost projections when assessing potential alternative materials, energies, process substitutes or modifications intended to reduce risk. Estimates of time standards and maintenance times should consider experience and be careful not to allow data for "inexperienced" operators or processes to improperly influence decisions [28].

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Improving Health and Safety Outcomes

"Industrial Processes…are rarely benign. These processes often require strong acids, strong bases or other aggressive chemicals." Further "…the potential for problems is always present: technological processes have the 'potential to pollute (PTP)." As well, T.E. Graedel suggests that "…engineers and other technologists should take account of the potential environmental consequences of their engineering decisions, whether those consequences are immediate or may occur far into the future [29]. According to Graedel and Howard-Grenville, green engineering is a necessary (though not sufficient) condition for the sustainable development …" [29, p.19] Green chemistry is founded on principles that reduce or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and use of chemicals. By definition this design, manufacture and use is a 'usability' matter. "Green engineering seeks to provide a framework for the design of new materials, products, processes and systems that are benign to human health and the environment" [29]. Based on Karwowski [30], it is evident that a Committee on Human-Systems Integration from the National Academies is expected to provide new perspectives on theoretical and methodological issues concerning the relationship of individuals and organizations to technology and the environment [30, p.31]. Japan’s Ministry of


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Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) published issues and problem statements of interest in 21st century including nanotechnologies and changes in human habitat future directions and support the development of human factors and ergonomics a discipline focusing on the science, engineering, design, technology and management of human-compatible systems [30]. Cranor asks us to imagine a world in which companies' new and existing products would be tested to determine hazardous properties so that any risks would be reduced or the products would be removed or prevented from entering the market before contamination occurs [31]. Then there should have been no thalidomide babies or women with cervical cancer [31, p.208]. Persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), banned fire retardants such as polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) and existing fire retardants (eg. PBDEs) may have affected few or no children. Men might be at lesser risk from prostate cancer and reproductive disfunction because of bisphenol A (BPA). Fewer children's cognitive function and behaiour might have been adversely affected by exposure to lead, mercury and other neurotoxicants [31]. Legislative and regulatory assumptions made years ago are being challenged as technological advances allow more sensitive measurement of toxic substances, present new risks or reverse beliefs about the relationship between certain hazards and health effects [32, p.vii]. Policy makers and judges are forced to deliberate about complex issues beyond the understanding of most jurists or elected officials while epidemiologists, geneticists, toxicologists and other scientists are regularly called upon in court proceedings [32]. A 2011 report concluded that green chemicals will save industry $65.5 Billion dollars by 2020 [33]. Engineering graduates and ergonomists need to know more about how substituting renewable energies and green chemicals contributes toward usability and improved sustainability. For instance, coal can have significant environmental impacts at every stage of its production and utilization. Hence, in the context of life-cycle assessments, decisions to utilize coal-based electricity production need to be considered carefully for their potential health effects to the community in which the workforce resides [34]. Link and Albers considered uncertainty and a Bayesian Multimodel Inference in predicting the non-human reproductive pattern of certain birds under various non-lethal concentrations of methylmercury [35]. Spadaro and Rabl consider a dose-response function to provide an estimate of economic and social decrement by analyzing the cost of damage and loss of IQ (Intelligence Quotient score) from atmospheric emissions of methyl mercury [36]. There were documented diseases induced by metals that increased with increasing production of various metals such as copper, lead and zinc. [37, p.34]. As well, an increasing number of endocrine disrupters were shown in the environment and especially in water. These are chemicals that stimulate or retard the production of hormones [37]. In reviewing research incorporating no-observed-effect levels (NOELs) and lowest-observed-effect levels (LOELs), the authors conclude that there are flaws in practice of implementing environmental toxicology, risk assessment and management decisions [38]. Instead, although new to most environmental toxicologists, the editorial by Landis and co-author favors the derivation of exposure-response curves

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using a Bayesian approach [38]. Initial findings are described after using a software that performs Bayesian Inference Using Gibbs Sampling (BUGS). It is described as an expert system software used to determine a Markov chain-based Monte Carlo simulation scheme based on a Gibbs sampler and is shown at http://www.openbugs.info/w/. Additional information and sample analyses related to Bayes' Rule and Decision Trees can be found in Winston [39, p.767]. Much is known about toxicology in the workplace. Mercury and other Inorganic compounds are shown for their neurotoxic agents [40, p.6.13.2]. Many Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) were developed by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) [40, 6.13 p.1-12]. Information about the effects of various solvents is also shown. These are typically made of some type of hydrocarbon with fundamentals in organic chemistry. Additional information about the properties of solvent related organic molecules and the study of chemical reactions can be seen in Wade‘s book covering fundamentals of Organic Chemistry [41, p.38, 124]. Green substitutes and less hazardous solvents can be found in the literature and purchased from various sources. These need to be included in commercially available design software as material options during process and work design. Individuals typically try to minimize their expenses, but they do not always buy or do what is cheapest per unit of performance or cheapest over the long term [42, p.541]. In regard to environmental economics, some have proposed a Human Development Index as a supplement or substitute for the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [42, p.543]. In the U.S. it was found that States with stronger environmental programs outperformed states with weaker programs in employment growth and wages [42, p.545]. "Decisions about ecological effects are often perceived as arising from selfless protection of the Earth." Instead they could be considered in the context of value placed on free services provided by our ecological systems. "These services include the generation of clean water, air and production of food…" [43, p.xv]. A framework for evaluating environmental costs is provided here. Environmental cost is not typically well captured in engineering economic evaluations [44]. Table 1. A Summary of Methods and Measures for Usability and Sustainability Methods contributing to usability Thinking aloud Learning curves Economies of scale Reliability Maintainability Digital Human Modeling Bayesian approach and networks

Measures to assess improved sustainability Reduced Greenhouse gas emissions including CO2 Reduced exposures to harmful chemicals New pharmaceuticals developed in clean processes “Safety first” corporate culture Reduction of Persistent Organic Pollutants such as PCBs, PBBs, PBDEs and BPAs Monitor processes for their ‘Potential to Pollute’. Green chemistry and Green manufacturing

These principles here include costs not normally assigned to individual projects such as administrative and regulatory environmental costs as well as liability or compliance costs typically assigned to overhead or indirect costs. And reducing the


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expected value of liability costs through improved usability can provide further opportunity to contribute improved profitability. Personnel costs associated with reporting as well as staff productivity, morale, and turnover can be influenced by poor environmental performance that may be reflected in workplace conditions increased rates of illness [44]. Personal protective equipment is a last line of defense [45, p.1072]. Engineering controls such as "substitute a less harmful material" are preferred over administrative controls including reducing exposure.

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Systems Approaches in Usability, Water and Food Safety

The ergonomics community could justify participation in this area by considering prior definitions as inspired by Chapanis (1995) and shown by Helander [46, p.4-5]. "Ergonomics and human factors use knowledge of human abilities and limitations to the design of systems, organizations, jobs, machines, tools and consumer products for safe, efficient and comfortable human use." A new image of ergonomics emerged beginning in the early 1990s as the discipline of human-computer interaction developed further. Certainly usability and human reliability have been at the core of ergonomics in recent years [46, p.13]. A focus on continuous improvement in organizations provides additional opportunity to re-emphasize the safety aspects of human use [46]. For instance, number 48 rank on the top 100 ways to live to be 100 years of age is to Test Your Tap Water for Toxins. The EPA has found that 20 percent of public ground-water systems are contaminated with manmade pollutants and 1/3 of those serving larger communities are contaminated with chemicals [47, p.108] Lifethreatening danger includes cancer, birth defects, miscarriages, heart abnormalities, hyperactivity and reduced mental functioning [47]. Fresh water has already been shown to be of limited availability in various countries in recent years while populations continue to move into areas with already limited water supplies and changing climate could reduce available fresh water supplies even further. Some chemicals are not easily removed through water filtration systems [48]. Where risk typically has been considered in terms of human error probabilities multiplied by the severity of the hazard, in regard to sustainability one must consider the exposures. Manahan [49, p.456] shows that the risk is proportional to the severity of the hazard presented by a product or process multiplied by the exposure of humans or other potential targets or recipients. He points out that much of the design and practice of Green Chemistry is about risk reduction [49]. An appropriate implementation supported and influenced by ergonomists, engineers and correct visualizations can support usability and hence sustainability. Additionally, foodborne illnesses can be linked to improper maintenance and reliability of process equipment [50]. Repair is essentially a human activity. Hence, designing for maintainability must include consideration for human capabilities and limitations in the maintenance environment. Human factors and ergonomics aspects include anthropometry, human perception and design of the controls, displays and tools and equipment and the workplace [51, p.270-273]. Effective strategies for

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supporting performance include fault isolation, part standardization and interchangeability, modularization and accessibility and proactive maintenance. Predictive maintenance methodologies are shown in more detail in Ebeling [51]. Such estimates can support further investment in usability and maintainability to support sustainability. Usability specialists may borrow from lessons learned in standards previously implemented more broadly related to quality when considering energy management and environmental related objectives. An ISO 50001 flowchart shown by Eccleston and co-authors [52] includes establishing (i) general requirements, program and scope, (ii) roles, responsibilities and authorities of management, (iii) energy policy, (iv) plans, (v) operating, implementing and maintaining essential performance records, (vi) observe operations, examine records and report on performance, (vii) review and direct corrective and preventive actions to improve performance [52]. This framework is designed around the continuous improvement plan-do-check-act approach utilized in ISO 9001 for Quality and similar for ISO 14001 for Environmental Management [52].

6

Conclusions

In conclusion, a multi-disciplinary approach and contributions from various disciplines will be needed to ultimately achieve sustainability. Usability experts, ergonomists and industrial engineers have experience in providing safe humansystems interactions. Reducing exposures to hazardous conditions, some chemicallybased, has some common elements in environmental chemistry. Environmental chemistry can provide a platform for decisions considering that materials coming into industrial facilities will go out as products or as waste. There are common necessary for consideration in minimizing exposure to chemically-based hazards inside and outside the factory that ultimately can effect water, soil, air and food. An understanding in these areas can provide a foundation for supporting and contributing to new ventures that can enable green substitutes in product and process design. These are core elements of sustainability that are highlighted within this paper, and they can be supported through traditional methodologies that facilitate good usability in operations and systems. Acknowledgements. The author would like to thank the Fulbright Program in Washington, D.C. and Moscow, Russia. In addition to IIE (www.iienet2.org) and HFES (www.hfes.org), interested readers may find additional information on usability or sustainability at Institute for Ergonomics and Human Factors–formerly the Ergonomics Society (ergonomics.org.uk), American Society for Quality (www.asq.org), American Chemical Society (www.acs.org) and National Academies Press (www.nap.org).


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