Thanks are due to the many residents, tourism business owners and managers, and key decision-makers who so kindly and willingly co-operated in this survey.
LOCAL COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS OF TOURISM AS A DEVELOPMENT TOOL: THE ISLAND OF CRETE
KONSTANTINOS ANDRIOTIS
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bournemouth University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
JUNE 2000
BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY Sponsored by the Greek Foundation of State Scholarships
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this thesis represents the fulfilment of a long-awaited goal. A number of people have contributed to this goal, to whom I would like to show my appreciation.
First, I would like to thank my thesis advisors Dr. Keith Wilkes and Dr. Roger D. Vaughan for their guidance and constructive criticism of my thesis.
Thank you to the academics Dr. Dimitrios Buhalis, Dr. Dimitrios Diamantis, Prof. Antonios Fragoulis, Prof. Nikolaos Igoumenakis, Dr. Maria Kousis, Dr. Stella Papadaki-Tzedaki, Dr. Paris Tsartas and Dr. Eugenia Wickens for their advice and support.
Thanks are due to the many residents, tourism business owners and managers, and key decision-makers who so kindly and willingly co-operated in this survey. In particular, I would like to show my appreciation to Mrs. Eleni Kambeli from the Municipality of Heraklio, Mrs. Eva Maravelaki from the Tourism Company of Crete and Mrs. Eleni Aroni, from the Region of Crete for their support and the provision of secondary data on the island of Crete.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge and thank Mrs. Lorraine Brown for her patience in reading through my chapters in an attempt to correct my numerous mistakes; the Greek Foundation of State Scholarships for funding this research; and my friends in the UK and Greece, my parents, and my grandmother for their moral support, as well as my sister Athena for her help in the collection of primary and secondary data.
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©
Konstantinos Andriotis (2000)
This thesis may not be reproduced in any form or for any purpose without the prior knowledge and written consent of the author
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DEDICATION TO THE ISLAND
«Στη μέση του θαμπού γιαλού ένα νησί είναι η Κρήτη, όμορφη και πολύκαρπη και θαλασσοκλεισμένη, πόχει κατοίκους άπειρους κι’ έχει χωριά ενενήντα…. Πόλη μεγάλη είναι η Κνωσσός της Κρήτης, όπου ο Μίνως του Δία συνομιλητής βασίλευε εννιά χρόνια». Έτσι περιγράφει ο Οδυσσέας την Κρήτη στην Ομήρου Oδύσσεια Τ (172-179) (Μετάγραση Ζ. Σιδέρη, 1956)
“Out in the dark blue sea there lies a land called Crete, a rich and lovely land, washed by waves on every side, densely peopled and boasting ninety cities… One of the ninety towns Is a large city called Knossos, and there, for nine years, King Minos ruled and enjoyed the friendship of Zeus” This is how Odysseus described Crete in Homer’s Odyssey XIX (172-179) (Translation by Murray, 1928)
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ABBREVIATIONS
AEs
Accommodation Establishments
ANOVA
Analysis of Variance
BTS
Barlett’s test for sphericity
CBD
Central Business District
CEs
Catering Establishments
EC
European Community
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment
EU
European Union
ERDF
European Regional Development Fund
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GNP
Gross National Product
GRD
Greek Drachma
HNTO
Hellenic National Tourism Organisation
KMO
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
NGOs
Non Governmental Organisations
NSSG
National Statistical Service of Greece
OTAs
Local Governments
PPS
Probability Proportionate to Size
RBD
Recreational Business District
S.A.
Societe Anonyme
TA/CRs
Travel Agencies/Car Rentals
YPEXODE
Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
WTO
World Tourism Organisation
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USING THE GREEK AND ENGLISH ALPHABET IN STATISTICS β
Beta coefficient
ρ
Spearman’s normal correlation coefficient (rho)
χ2
Chi square
df
Degrees of freedom
H2
Communality
r2
Coefficient of determination
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ABSTRACT
In recent decades tourism development has expanded on most Mediterranean islands. Focusing on the island of Crete, this study recognises tourism as a highly visible and controversial component of change. The existence of the necessary infrastructure, the natural beauty, the climate, the culture and the history have contributed to tourism expansion, with Crete now attracting approximately 25 percent of foreign tourist arrivals and 55 percent of the total foreign exchange earnings of Greece. The perceptions of the local community in tourism were studied using personal interviews with three community groups: local authority officials, residents and tourism business owners and managers. The aim was to examine their views on tourism development, in an attempt to establish overall desired directions for tourism development and to suggest effective tourism strategies and policies to reinforce positive outcomes and alleviate problems resulting from previous unplanned tourism development. The research findings identify much agreement among the three community groups suggesting that it is feasible to further develop tourism with the support of the community. Although the areas used in the sample were in the maturity stage of Butler’s (1980) life cycle model and therefore it might be expected that the community would be at the antagonism stage of Doxey’s (1975) model, this was not suggested by the findings. Tourism is viewed positively as a development option, and further tourism development, with conditions attached, is supported. The expansion of tourism has brought economic gains, employment creation, increased population, enhanced community infrastructure and cultural and environmental preservation. However, there is limited co-ordination of tourism activities and insufficient collaboration between the public and private sector. In addition, the island is dependent on foreign tour operators, and the tourism industry is uneven geographically and seasonally. Tourism has modified traditions and has affected the environment and society. Since community perceptions match reality (what is on the ground from development), problems are real and it is necessary to find solutions for their amelioration. As a result, policy implications emerging from the results presented in this thesis are discussed and future strategies are suggested.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................ 1
1.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY ............................................................................... 1 1.2 TOURISM IN ISLANDS AND HOST COMMUNITIES ........................................................................ 2 1.3 FOCUS, AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH ...................................................................... 5 1.4 OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH .................................................................................................... 10
C H A P T E R T W O : T O U R I S M D E V E L O P M E N T .......................................... 11
2.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 11 2.1 THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT .............................................................................................. 12 2.2 APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................. 14 2.2.1
Laissez-faire ............................................................................................................. 14
2.2.2
The diffusionist paradigm ........................................................................................ 15
2.2.3
The dependency theory............................................................................................. 19
2.2.4
The sustainable development approach ................................................................... 23
2.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES ................................................................ 27 2.3.1
Capital versus labour-intensive development .......................................................... 28
2.3.2
Exogenous versus endogenous development............................................................ 29
2.3.3
Small- versus large-scale development .................................................................... 30
2.3.4
Mass versus alternative tourism development.......................................................... 31
2.4 DEVELOPMENT OUTPUT EXPLANATIONS ................................................................................. 33 2.4.1
Life cycle models...................................................................................................... 33
2.4.2
Morphological models ............................................................................................. 38
2.4.3
Enclave versus spread development......................................................................... 41
2.5 DEVELOPMENT OUTCOMES ..................................................................................................... 41 2.5.1
Economic impacts of tourism ................................................................................... 44
2.5.1.1
The effects of tourism on the balance of payments, employment and income .................44
2.5.1.2
Revenue for the government.............................................................................................47
2.5.1.3
Regional development ......................................................................................................48
2.5.1.4
Leakages/Linkages ...........................................................................................................50
2.5.2
Environmental impacts of tourism ........................................................................... 51
2.5.3
Social impacts of tourism ......................................................................................... 55
2.6 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER THREE: TOURISM PLANNING ................................................... 61
3.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 61 3.1 THE NATURE OF PLANNING ..................................................................................................... 62 3.2 PLANNING APPROACHES ......................................................................................................... 64
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3.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF PLANNING ............................................................................................. 68 3.3.1
A systems approach to tourism planning ................................................................. 68
3.3.2
Market/product strategic options ............................................................................. 70
3.4 OUTPUTS OF TOURISM PLANNING............................................................................................ 72 3.4.1
Partnerships in tourism planning............................................................................. 72
3.4.2
Community participation in tourism planning ......................................................... 73
3.5 MEASURING TOURISM IMPACTS .............................................................................................. 80 3.5.1
Economic measures.................................................................................................. 80
3.5.2
Environmental measures.......................................................................................... 81
3.5.3
Social measures........................................................................................................ 81
3.5.4
Other measures ........................................................................................................ 82
3.6 RESEARCH INTO COMMUNITY OPINIONS ON TOURISM IMPACTS ............................................ 82 3.7 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 91
C H A P T E R F O U R : T O U R I S M - R E L A T E D D E V E L O P M E N T I N C R E T E ....... 93
4.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 93 4.1 DEMAND ASPECTS OF TOURISM ................................................................................................ 94 4.1.1 Tourist arrivals ........................................................................................................... 94 4.1.2 Market segmentation................................................................................................... 97 4.2 TOURISM SUPPLY – EVOLUTION AND PATTERNS..................................................................... 100 4.2.1 Tourism accommodation and other enterprises ........................................................ 100 4.2.2 Transportation – Accessibility – Infrastructure ........................................................ 105 4.2.3 Coastal resorts morphological transformation ......................................................... 109 4.3 OUTCOMES OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................ 111 4.3.1 Economic outcomes................................................................................................... 111 4.3.2 Social Outcomes........................................................................................................ 117 4.3.3 Environmental Outcomes .......................................................................................... 121 4.4 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 125
C H A P T E R F I V E : T O U R I S M - R E L A T E D P L A N N I N G I N C R E T E ...............127
5.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 127 5.1 REASONS FOR INTERVENTION ............................................................................................... 128 5.1.1
Seasonality ............................................................................................................. 128
5.1.2
Dependence on tour operators............................................................................... 128
5.1.3
Competition............................................................................................................ 129
5.1.4
The political environment ...................................................................................... 130
5.1.5
Black economy ....................................................................................................... 130
5.1.6
Other weaknesses ................................................................................................... 131
5.2 THE GOALS AND STRATEGIES OF TOURISM PLANNING ........................................................... 131
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5.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF TOURISM PLANNING ............................................................................ 133 5.4 THE CONTENT OF TOURISM PLANNING .................................................................................. 142 5.4.1
Carrying capacity and manipulating tourism demand........................................... 142
5.4.2
Characteristics of the economy .............................................................................. 143
5.5 THE OUTPUT OF TOURISM PLANNING .................................................................................... 145 5.6 THE OUTCOME OF TOURISM PLANNING ................................................................................. 146 5.7 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 153 C H A P T E R S I X : R E S E A R C H M E T H O D O L O G Y .......................................156
6.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 156 6.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................ 156 6.2.1
Stakeholder or community approach ..................................................................... 156
6.2.2
The qualitative or quantitative debate ................................................................... 159
6.2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS ....................................................................................................... 161 6.2.1
Formulation of research problem .......................................................................... 163
6.2.2
Review of related research..................................................................................... 164
6.2.3
Determination of aim, objectives and questions .................................................... 165
6.2.4
Research design ..................................................................................................... 166
6.2.5
Data collection techniques..................................................................................... 170
6.2.6
Selection of subjects ............................................................................................... 173
6.2.7
Questionnaires design............................................................................................ 181
6.2.8
Pilot survey ............................................................................................................ 183
6.2.9
Data analysis ......................................................................................................... 184
6.3 LIMITATIONS AND ISSUES OF VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY .................................................... 199 6.4 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 206
C H A P T E R S E V E N : K E Y C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F T H E S A M P L E ............207
7.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 207 7.1 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF ENTERPRISES .............................................................................. 207 7.1.1
Ownership and number of outlets .......................................................................... 208
7.1.2
Capacity and category of AEs................................................................................ 210
7.1.3
Enterprises year of foundation............................................................................... 211
7.1.4
Demand for services and prices charged ............................................................... 212
7.1.5
Sources of capital................................................................................................... 215
7.2 KEY CHARACTERSISTICS OF OWNERS/MANAGERS................................................................ 216 7.2.1
Position of respondents.......................................................................................... 217
7.2.2
Tourism education and work experience ............................................................... 218
7.2.3
Length of residence ................................................................................................ 220
7.2.4
Employment background........................................................................................ 222
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7.3 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF RESIDENTS ......................................................................... 224 7.4 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 229
CHAPTER EIGHT: OUTPUTS AND OUTCOMES OF THE DEVELOPMENT A N D P L A N N I N G P R O C E S S ..................................................................231
8.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 231 8.1 TOURISM OUTCOMES ............................................................................................................ 231 8.1.1
Outcomes for family and society ............................................................................ 231
8.1.2
Outcomes for employment and income .................................................................. 234
8.1.3
Shortage/mobility of labour in the tourism industry .............................................. 242
8.1.4
Linkages/Leakages ................................................................................................. 244
8.1.5
The effects of tourism on the balance of payments................................................. 252
8.2 PROBLEMS FACED BY THE CRETAN TOURISM INDUSTRY ....................................................... 254 8.2.1
Financial problems of tourism enterprises ............................................................ 254
8.2.2
Seasonality ............................................................................................................. 257
8.2.2.1
Occupancy rates .............................................................................................................258
8.2.2.2
Variance on turnover ......................................................................................................260
8.2.3
Dependence on tour operators............................................................................... 262
8.2.4
Other problems faced by tourist enterprises .......................................................... 265
8.3 ATTEMPTS TO OVERCOME THE PROBLEMS ............................................................................ 271 8.4 PLANS BY TOURISM ENTERPRISES FOR EXPANSION ............................................................... 275 8.5 LOCAL AUTHORITIES ACTIVITIES FOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ............................................ 277 8.6 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 280
CHAPTER NINE: PERCEPTIONS OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING P R O C E S S .............................................................................................283
9.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 283 9.1 LOCAL AUTHORITY OFFICIALS’ VIEWS OF RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS .................................... 284 9.2 COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ....................................................... 285 9.2.1
Residents perceptions of tourism development ...................................................... 286
9.2.1.1
Perceptions of the total sample .......................................................................................286
9.2.1.2
Single explanatory factors of residents’ attitudes ...........................................................290
9.2.1.3
Important factors for residents attitudes .........................................................................295
9.2.1.4
Segmentation of residents by their attitudes towards tourism.........................................301
9.2.2
Perceptions of owners/managers ........................................................................... 308
9.2.3
Local authorities officials perceptions................................................................... 313
9.2.4
Differences in perceptions among the three study groups ..................................... 315
9.3 RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS ON THE ACTIONS OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR ..................................... 317 9.4 PROMOTION OF TOURISM IN CRETE....................................................................................... 328 9.5 SUPPORT AND ACTIONS FOR FURTHER TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ........................................... 333
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9.2 MAJOR ACTION FOR PLANNING TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ...................................................... 341 9.3 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 344
C H AP T E R T E N : D I S C U S S I O N O F T H E T O U R I S M D E V E L O P M E N T AN D PLANNING PROCESS .............................................................................346
10.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 346 10.1 THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS ................................................................................. 347 10.2 THE TOURISM PLANNING PROCESS ........................................................................................ 350 10.3 PERCEPTIONS OF THE OUTCOMES OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING PROCESS ............................................................................................................................ 353 10.3.1 Positive and negative outcomes ............................................................................. 353 10.3.2 Major discriminators of community perceptions of tourism development ............. 357 10.3.3 Actions / suggestions of the study groups for the solution of the problems and the strengthening of positive outcomes ........................................................................ 361 10.3.4 Support for further development ............................................................................ 365 10.4 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 367
CHAPTER ELEVEN: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................369
11.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 369 11.1 SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS FROM THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING PROCESS ... 369 11.2 IMPLICATIONS - RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 374 11.2.1 Community involvement in the development and planning process....................... 375 11.2.2 Education, training, awareness raising ................................................................. 376 11.2.3 Better use of existing resorts and future focus on small-scale development .......... 378 11.2.4 Controlled growth and conservation of resources ................................................. 380 11.2.5 Elimination of the seasonality pattern and dependency on tour operators / Increase of economic benefits................................................................................................... 382 11.2.6 Stable tourism policy and co-ordination of activities............................................. 385 11.2.7 Planning - monitoring - timing .............................................................................. 387 11.3 FUTURE RESEARCH PRIORITIES ............................................................................................. 388 11.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS ........................................................................................................ 392
REFERENCES ........................................................................................391 A P P E N D I X A : M A R K E T / P R O D U C T S T R A T E G I C O P T I O N S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1 A P P E N D I X B : D E V E L O P M E N T L A W S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A7 AP P E N D I X C : E X C H AN G E R AT E S O F 1 , 0 0 0 G R E E K D R AC H M AS ( 1 9 9 1 - 1 9 9 9 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A9 AP P E N D I X D : E U R O P E AN P R O G R AM M E S O F T H E P AS T AN D P R E S E N T R E L A T E D T O T H E T O U R I S M D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E I S L A N D . . . . . . . . . . A1 0 A P P E N D I X E : G R E E K F I V E - Y E A R P L A N S F O R T O U R I S M D E V E L O P M E N T . A1 3
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A P P E N D I X F : H N T O O R G A N I S A T I O N A L S T R U C T U R E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1 5 AP P E N D I X G : P L AN S D E S I G N E D E X C L U S I V E L Y F O R T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F C R E T E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1 6 A P P E N D I X H : P O L L I N G D I S T R I C E S A N D E L E C T O R S ( 1 9 9 6 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1 7 A P P E N D I X I : Q U E S T I O N N A I R E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1 8 A P P E N D I X J : E N T E R P R I S E S ' χ A N D C R A M E R ’ S V S T AT I S T I C S . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3 6 2
A P P E N D I X K : E N T E R P R I S E S ' S P E A R M A N ’ S ρ C O E F F I C I E N T S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3 9 A P P E N D I X L : E N T E R P R I S E S A N A L Y S I S O F V A R I A N C E ( A N O V A ) T E S T S . A4 0 AP P E N D I X M : M I N I M U M P R I C E S O F H O T E L E S T AB L I S H M E N T S F R O M 1 - 1 - 9 7 T O 3 1 - 1 2 - 9 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4 4 A P P E N D I X N : O W N E R S ’ / M A N A G E R S χ A N D C R AM E R ’ S V S T A T I S T I C S . . A4 6 2
A P P E N D I X O : O W N E R S ’ / M AN A G E R S ’ S P E A R M A N ’ S ρ C O E F F I C I E N T S . . . . A4 7 AP P E N D I X P : O W N E R S ’ / M AN AG E R S ’ AN AL Y S I S O F V AR I AN C E ( AN O V A) T E S T S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4 8 AP P E N D I X Q : R E S U L T S O F T H E R E S I D E N T S ’ S U R V E Y χ AN D C R AM E R ’ S V S T A T I S T I C S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5 4 2
AP P E N D I X R : R E S U L T S O F T H E R E S I D E N T S ’ S U R V E Y AN O V A AN D T T E S T S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5 6
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LIST OF TABLES TABLE 2.1: HYPOTHETICAL CYCLE OF TOURIST AREAS……………………………………………… 38
TABLE 4.1: BEDNIGHTS (1980-1997)…………………………………………………………………96 TABLE 4.2: ALLOCATION OF ACCOMMODATION UNITS (EXCLUDING ROOMS TO RENT AND CAMPINGS) PER PREFECTURE (1997)…………………………………………………………..102
TABLE 4.3: ALLOCATION OF TOURIST ENTERPRISES BY PREFECTURE (1993)……………………….104 TABLE 4.4: SUBSIDIES THROUGH DEVELOPMENT LAWS TO HOTELS FROM 1-1-1982 TO 13-10-1995 (MILLION GRD)………………………………………………………………………………..105 TABLE 4.5: GNP PER SECTOR (1981, 1991)…………………………………………………………113 TABLE 4.6: TOTAL WORKFORCE AND PERCENTAGE OF UNEMPLOYMENT……………………….…..114 TABLE 4.7: EMPLOYMENT BY SECTOR………………………………………………………………114
TABLE 5.1: DEVELOPMENT PLANS AND PROGRAMMES WITH EUROPEAN CO-FINANCING - PAYMENTS AND COMMITMENTS (1986-2000)…………………………………………………….………..135
TABLE 5.2: TOTAL BEDS PER 1,000 HABITANTS……………………………………………………..146
TABLE 6.1: QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH………………………………………160 TABLE 6.2: AREAS USED IN THE TOURISM BUSINESSES SAMPLE……………………………………. 174 TABLE 6.3: POPULATION, SAMPLING FRAME AND RESPONSE RATE………………………………….176 TABLE 6.4: TOTAL SAMPLE AND RESPONSE RATE……………………………………………….…..179
TABLE 7.1: TYPE OF OWNERSHIP……………………………………………………………………209 TABLE 7.2: NUMBER OF OUTLETS……………………………………………..…………………….209 TABLE 7.3: BED CAPACITY………..…………………………………………………………….….. 210 TABLE 7.4: CATEGORY AWARDED TO AES………………………………………………………….210 TABLE 7.5: ENTERPRISES’ YEAR OF FOUNDATION…..………………………………………………212 TABLE 7.6: NUMBER OF INCOMING TOURISTS ACCOMMODATED AT THE AES…..…………………..212 TABLE 7.7: PROPORTION OF TURNOVER COMING FROM INTERNATIONAL TOURISM…………………213 TABLE 7.8: VARIANCE IN AES’ ROOM RATES……………………………………………………….215 TABLE 7.9: SOURCE OF CAPITAL BY SECTOR….……………………………………………………. 216 TABLE 7.10: POSITION OF RESPONDENTS….…………………………………………………….…..218 TABLE 7.11: OWNERS/MANAGERS WITH TOURISM EDUCATION……………………………………..219 TABLE 7.12: WORKING YEARS WITHIN THE BUSINESS……..………………………………………..220 TABLE 7.13: OWNERS/MANAGERS LIFE-LONG RESIDENCE IN CRETE………………………………..222 TABLE 7.14: LENGTH OF RESIDENCE………….……………………………………………………..222 TABLE 7.15: PREVIOUS OCCUPATION…………………….………………………………………….224
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TABLE 7.16: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE……………………..……...225
TABLE 8.1: FAMILY AFFECTED BY TOURISM...………………………………………………..……..232 TABLE 8.2: WAYS THAT RESPONDENTS’ FAMILY HAVE BEEN AFFECTED BY TOURISM………..….… 233 TABLE 8.3: ORGANISATION EMPLOYED…..……………………………………………………..…. 234 TABLE 8.4: WAYS THAT RESPONDENTS’ JOB HAS BEEN AFFECTED BY TOURISM…………………… 235 TABLE 8.5: LEVEL THAT JOB HAS BEEN AFFECTED BY TOURISM…..………………………………...237 TABLE 8.6: OWNERS’ MULTIPLE BUSINESS ACTIVITY……………………………………………….238 TABLE 8.7: EMPLOYMENT IN THE TOURIST ENTERPRISES……………………………………….…..240 TABLE 8.8: PURCHASE OF SUPPLIES…………………………………………………………………246 TABLE 8.9: PURCHASE OF CAR/BIKES BY LOCATION………………………………..……………….247 TABLE 8.10: PURCHASE OF SUPPLIES BY SIZE OF AES………..………………………………..……248 TABLE 8.11: PURCHASE OF SERVICES BY ENTERPRISES…..…………………………………………249 TABLE 8.12: PURCHASE OF SERVICES BY SIZE OF AES…..…………………………………………. 250 TABLE 8.13: SUFFICIENCY OF THE ISLAND ON SELECTED PRODUCTS/SERVICES……………………. 251 TABLE 8.14: EXTENT OF CRETAN OWNERSHIP………………………………………………….….. 251 TABLE 8.15: OWNERS’ SATISFACTION FROM BUSINESSES’ INCOME…….……………………….…. 251 TABLE 8.16: REASONS FOR DISSATISFACTION………………………………………………………255 TABLE 8.17: EXISTENCE OF SEASONALITY PROBLEM…..……………………………………………257 TABLE 8.18: REASONS FOR VARIANCE IN OCCUPANCY RATES….……………………………….…..260 TABLE 8.19: PROPORTION OF CUSTOMERS THROUGH TOUR OPERATORS…….………………….…..262 TABLE 8.20: PERCENTAGE OF ORGANISED TOURISTS WITHIN CUSTOMERS………………………….263 TABLE 8.21: REASONS THAT ENTREPRENEURS PREFER INDEPENDENT TOURISTS……………………264 TABLE 8.22: REASONS THAT ENTREPRENEURS DO NOT PREFER INDEPENDENT TOURISTS………….. 264 TABLE 8.23: KIND OF PROBLEMS FROM THE CO-OPERATION WITH TOUR OPERATORS………….… 264 TABLE 8.24: OWNERS’/MANAGERS’ AND OFFICIALS’ OPINIONS ON THE PROBLEMS FACED FROM TOURISM ENTERPRISE NEEDING ATTENTION FROM LOCAL AUTHORITIES………………………266
TABLE 8.25: OWNERS’/MANAGERS’ OPINIONS ON THE PROBLEMS FACED FROM TOURISM ENTERPRISE NEEDING ATTENTION FROM THE HNTO…………………………………………..268
TABLE 8.26: OFFICIALS’ OPINIONS ON THE PROBLEMS FACED FROM TOURISM ENTERPRISE NEEDING ATTENTION FROM THE HNTO…….…………………………………………………….……..
268
TABLE 8.27: OPINIONS ON THE PROBLEMS FACED FROM TOURISM ENTERPRISES NEEDING ATTENTION FROM THE GOVERNMENT..……………………………………………………………………..270
TABLE 8.28: ACTIONS TAKEN BY ENTERPRISES TO OVERCOME SEASONALITY PROBLEM………..…. 272 TABLE 8.29: LOCAL AUTHORITIES’ ATTEMPTS TO OVERCOME THE SEASONALITY PROBLEM………. 273 TABLE 8.30: ATTEMPTS MADE BY ENTERPRISES TO OVERCOME PROBLEMS FACED BY THEIR COOPERATION WITH TOUR OPERATORS……………………………………………………….…..274
TABLE 8.31: LOCAL AUTHORITIES’ ATTEMPTS TO OVERCOME THE PROBLEM OF DEPENDENCE FROM TOUR OPERATORS…….………………………………………………………………..………274
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TABLE 8.32: PLANS OF ENTERPRISES FOR EXPANSION…….…………………………………….…..275 TABLE 8.33: KIND OF ENTERPRISES’ EXPANSION……………………………………………………276 TABLE 8.34: REASONS FOR LACK OF PLANS FOR EXPANSION OR CHANGES FROM ENTERPRISES…….276 TABLE 8.35: ACTIVITIES OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES FOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT……………………279
TABLE 9.1: RESPONSES TO TOURISM STATEMENTS BY RESIDENTS…………………………………..287 TABLE 9.2: FACTOR ANALYSIS RESULTS…..…………………………………………………….…..296 TABLE 9.3: INFLUENCE OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES ON FACTORS…………………………………300 TABLE 9.4: RESIDENTS SEGMENTATION……………………………………………………………..302 TABLE 9.5: EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF CLUSTERS…….………………………………………307 TABLE 9.6: RESPONSES TO TOURISM STATEMENTS BY OWNERS/MANAGERS………………………..308 TABLE 9.7: RESPONSES TO TOURISM STATEMENTS BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES’ OFFICERS…………….313 TABLE 9.8: RATINGS OF THE STUDY GROUPS………………………………………………………..315 TABLE 9.9: CONTRIBUTION OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT…………………..318 TABLE 9.10: CONTRIBUTION OF THE HNTO TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT…………………………..318 TABLE 9.11: CONTRIBUTION OF GOVERNMENT TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT…..……………………320 TABLE 9.12: WAYS THAT THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES CONTRIBUTE TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT……. 321 TABLE 9.13: REASONS THAT THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES DO NOT CONTRIBUTE TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT…………………………………………………………………………………323
TABLE 9.14: WAYS THAT THE HNTO CONTRIBUTES TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT………………….324 TABLE 9.15: REASONS THAT THE HNTO DOES NOT CONTRIBUTE TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT…….325 TABLE 9.16: WAYS THAT THE GOVERNMENT CONTRIBUTES TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT…………..326 TABLE 9.17: REASONS THAT THE GOVERNMENT DOES NOT CONTRIBUTE TO TOURISM DEVELOPMENT…………………………………………………………………………….…...327
TABLE 9.18: OWNERS’/MANAGERS’ OPINIONS ON CHANGES/IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PROMOTION OF CRETE BY THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES…..……………………………………………………….329 TABLE 9.19: OFFICIALS’ OPINIONS ON CHANGES/IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PROMOTION OF CRETE BY THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES…………………………..…………………………………………..329
TABLE 9.20: OWNERS’/MANAGERS’ OPINIONS ON CHANGES/IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PROMOTION OF CRETE BY THE HNTO…..……………………………………………..……………………….330 TABLE 9.21: OFFICIALS’ OPINIONS ON CHANGES/IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PROMOTION OF CRETE BY THE HNTO….……………………………………………………………….…………….…..331
TABLE 9.22: OWNERS’/MANAGERS’ OPINIONS ON CHANGES/IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PROMOTION OF CRETE BY THE GOVERNMENT………………………………………………………………….331 TABLE 9.23: OFFICIALS’ OPINIONS ON CHANGES/IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PROMOTION OF CRETE BY THE GOVERNMENT………..……………………………………………………………………332
TABLE 9.24: OWNERS’/MANAGERS’ OPINIONS ON CHANGES/IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PROMOTION OF CRETE BY ALL PUBLIC BODIES INVOLVED IN TOURISM….……………….…………………….332
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TABLE 9.25: OFFICIALS’ OPINIONS ON CHANGES/IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PROMOTION OF CRETE BY ALL PUBLIC SECTOR’S BODIES…..…………………………………………………………….. 333
TABLE 9.26: DESIRABILITY OF FURTHER TOURISM DEVELOPMENT………………………………… 334 TABLE 9.27: TYPES OF TOURISTS BENEFICIAL FOR CRETE….……………………………………….335 TABLE 9.28: TYPES OF TOURISM FACILITIES BENEFICIAL FOR CRETE……………………………….336 TABLE 9.29: ADDITIONAL FACILITIES OR IMPROVEMENTS OF EXISTING PROPOSED BY OFFICIALS…. 338 TABLE 9.30: ACTIONS FOR FURTHER TOURISM DEVELOPMENT…..………………………………… 339 TABLE 9.31: REASONS FOR NO FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE ISLAND……………………….…..341 TABLE 9.32: MAJOR ACTION PROPOSED BY OWNERS/MANAGERS FOR PLANNING TOURISM DEVELOPMENT….……………………………………………………………………………...342
TABLE 9.33: MOST ESSENTIAL ACTION PROPOSED BY OFFICIALS FOR PLANNING TOURISM DEVELOPMENT…………………………………………………………………………………343
TABLE 11.1: DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING / REALITY, PERCEPTIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS…………………..………………………………………………………….…..374
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1.1: THE THREE KEY ISSUES OF THE FUTURE OF THE CRETAN TOURISM INDUSTRY……….…9
FIGURE 2.1: THE COMPONENTS OF THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS………………………... 12 FIGURE 2.2: TOURISM SPACE DYNAMICS…………………………………………………………... 16 FIGURE 2.3: ENCLAVE MODEL OF TOURISM IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES………………………….. 21 FIGURE 2.4: STRUCTURAL MODEL OF TOURISM IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES……………………… 22 FIGURE 2.5: MODEL FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM…………………………………………………. 26 FIGURE 2.6: HYPOTHETICAL EVOLUTION OF A TOURIST AREA………………………………….…. 34 FIGURE 2.7: MODEL OF URBAN TOURISM SPACE…………………………………………………... 40 FIGURE 2.8: TOURISM IMPACTS……………….…………………………………………………… 43 FIGURE 2.9: KEY IMPACTS OF TOURISM IDENTIFIED BY VARIOUS RESEARCHERS………………….. 44
FIGURE 3.1: THE COMPONENTS OF THE TOURISM PLANNING PROCESS……………………………...62 FIGURE 3.2: THE THREE ENVIRONMENTS OF THE TOURISM SYSTEM……………………………….. 69 FIGURE 3.3: ECOLOGICAL MODEL OF TOURISM…………………………………………………..…76 FIGURE 3.4: MULTI-FACTOR STUDIES AND DEGREE OF POSITIVITY TOWARDS TOURISM DEVELOPMENT……………………………………………………………………………….. 87
FIGURE 3.6: TYPOLOGY OF TOURIST TYPES LINKED TO COMMUNITY IMPACTS……………….….... 88 FIGURE 3.6: DOXEY’S IRRIDEX OF RESIDENT IRRITATION……………………………………….. 89
FIGURE 4.1: BEDNIGHTS OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC TOURISTS (1980-1997)…………………….. 95 FIGURE 4.2: ARRIVALS BY CHARTER FLIGHTS (1990-1997)………. ……………………………… 97 FIGURE 4.3: NATIONALITY CLASSIFICATION OF ARRIVALS THROUGH CHARTER FLIGHTS IN HERAKLIO AND CHANIA AIRPORTS (1997)…………… …………………………………….. 99 FIGURE 4.4: CATEGORY OF HOTEL UNITS BY PREFECTURE………….…………………………… 103 FIGURE 4.5: LAND-PLANNING ALLOCATION OF HOTEL UNITS IN CRETE (1993)………………….. 104 FIGURE 4.6: MORPHOLOGICAL ZONES OF UNPLANNED CRETAN COASTAL RESORTS……………... 109
FIGURE 6.1: STAKEHOLDER GROUPS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CRETAN TOURISM INDUSTRY…..……………………………………………………………………………….
157
FIGURE 6.2: COMMUNITY GROUPS USED IN THE SURVEY………..……………………………….. 158 FIGURE 6.3: STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS………………………………………………... 162 FIGURE 6.4: COMPONENTS OF DATA ANALYSIS: INTERACTIVE MODEL…….…………………….. 198
FIGURE 7.1: TOURISM EDUCATION…….…………………………………………………………. 218 FIGURE 7.2: PREVIOUS OCCUPATION OF OWNERS/MANAGERS…………………………………… 226
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FIGURE 8.1: LEVEL OF EFFECT ON JOB BY TOURISM……………………………………………… 238 FIGURE 8.2: TYPE OF OWNERS/MANAGERS BUSINESS ACTIVITY …………………………………. 239 FIGURE 8.3: TYPE OF OWNERS/MANAGERS SECOND EMPLOYMENT……..………………………... 239 FIGURE 8.4: OPENING OF TOURIST ENTERPRISES THROUGHOUT 1996……………………………. 258 FIGURE 8.5: OCCUPANCY RATES……..…………………………………………………………... 259 FIGURE 8.6: MONTHLY VARIANCE ON TURNOVER…….…………….……………….…………… 261
FIGURE 9.1: MEAN SCORES OF RESIDENTS’ RATINGS………..…………………………………… 288 FIGURE 9.2: MEAN SCORES OF CLUSTERS………..………………………………………………. 303 FIGURE 9.3: DEGREE OF CLUSTERS’ POSITIVITY TOWARDS TOURISM IMPACTS………………….. 307 FIGURE 9.4: MEAN SCORES OF OWNERS/MANAGERS RATINGS…………………………………… 309 FIGURE 9.5: MEAN SCORES OF LOCAL AUTHORITY STATEMENTS……….……………………….. 314 FIGURE 9.6: MEAN SCORES OF THE STUDY GROUPS…….………………………………………... 316
FIGURE 10.1: FRAMEWORK OF OPTIONS OF THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING PROCESS……………………………………………………………………………….……. 347
FIGURE 11.1: HYPOTHETICAL LIFE CYCLE FOR CRETE – REALITY AND PERCEPTIONS OF THE COMMUNITY………………………………………………………………………………....373
MAP 4.1: CRETE…………………………………..…….………………………………………... 108
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