Lower Danube Area

The Place for the Dead in Early and Middle Iron Age Lower Danube Area1

I. Introduction

Sorin Cristian Ailincăi

Tulcea, Romania Institutul de Cercetări Eco-Muzeale e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords: Early Iron Age, Lower Danube Area, Necropolises, complexes with human remains inside settlements. Abstract: Archaeological researches made in the First Iron Age sites in the Lower Danube area have pointed out the existence of various complexes containing human bones. After analyzing the overall discoveries, a first conclusion that can be drawn is that there were at least two types of treatment applied to the dead. One type is the macabre complexes found in settlements; the other type is an organized funeral area outside the living space. The data gathered in the last years allow new approaches and the formulating of new overall hypotheses regarding these discoveries.

The Early period of the Iron Age in the Lower Danube area has long been a topic for debates among experts interested in this period. However, despite the numerous researches made in sites of this area, the scientific approach has focused many years only on problems related to the style and chronology of the pottery. More than twenty years after the start of the researches at Babadag, S. Morintz wrote his first notes on the discovery in this site of various complexes containing human bones (Morintz 1987). This type of deposits was later documented in more sites from Early and Middle Iron Age, and recently has become a rather popular topic (Irimia, Conovici 1993; Sîrbu 1994; Jugănaru, Topoleanu 1994; Jugănaru 1997; Sîrbu 1997; Irimia 2003; Ailincăi, Miriţoiu, Soficaru 2003; Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006). The complete publishing of the necropolises at Sboryanovo (Stoyanov 1997) and Folteşti (László 2006) and of other data about funerary discoveries outside the settlements attributed to the Babadag culture (Irimia 2003) requires a new analysis. The reason for this is that, despite of being so diverse, these discoveries are spread in a relatively unitary geographic and chronological area. II. The catalogue of funerary finds from Early and 2 Middle Iron Age in the Lower Danube area Babadag, Tulcea County3 1. During the first archaeological excavations at Babadag (1962–1963), a pit with human remains was found 1

This paper is intended to be a continuation of the article Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006. 2 The catalogue is an attempt to gather the known data regarding the place and the context of the discoveries, the deposit and conservation fashion of the bones, the inventory, the funerary rite and ritual, the anthropological examination and the dating. 3 The anthropological analysis of the bones from the complexes at Babadag (except complex no. 6) was made by dr. N. Miriţoiu and A. Soficaru from „F. I. Rainer” Anthropological Research Center in Bucharest.

9


in Section no. I. Initially the presence of the lower part of a human skeleton was pointed out in the filling of the pit. The bones were in anatomical connection and showed strong traces of burning. The archaeologists considered that the bones belonged to an individual from the maturus class of age. The alignment of the found lower body was N–S (feet to the south). After removing the pottery shreds, other human bones were found, this time from the upper part of a skeleton, “less burned than the previous ones”, and considered by the excavators as belonging to “a different skeleton, rd that of a child”; the 3 phase of the Babadag culture (Morintz 1987, 68; Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 80). 2. During excavations conducted in order to verify the stratigraphical situation on the plateau lying NW from the settlement, at a depth of 1 m, some shreds and cremated bones were found under a Hallstattian dish put upside down. Chronologically, it was considered to belong to Babadag III. Due to the fact that no anthropological analysis was conducted on the cremated bones, and no ulterior similar finds appeared, there are serious question marks whether considering this find as funerary or not (Morintz 1987, 68; Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 80). 3. During the 1963 archaeological campaign, in Section A III, Pit 25 a human skeleton was found. The body was articulated, in a flexed position, deposited on the right side. In the drawing, the pit appears to be of a circular form. Except for the drawing of the complex at a small scale, no other information was found that could shed more light on the estimated chronology and stratigraphical situation of this find (Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 80). 4. In 1965, in S I (Section I), Pit 16b, another human skeleton in anatomical connection was found (fig. 2/2). The body was articulated; deposition: semi-flexed on the back; position: the knees flexed and collapsed; alignment: NW–SE. The skull and right upper arm were destroyed by later pits such as 16 and 16a. The skeleton was not on the bottom of the pit, but in the filling. Traces of burning were detected, especially in the deeper part of the pit, where a layer of ash could be noticed. A complete cup was found near the pelvis, and in the filling of the pit there were many fragments of clay wall, burned (clay with reed and rods impressions) along with “human or animal” burned bones. The pit was dug up from level 1, so it can be attributed to the third phase of the culture (Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 81). 5. During the same campaign, in S I, Sq. 36, Pit 22 a fragmentary human skeleton was found, in partial articulation. The body was not on the bottom of the pit, but in the filling, approximately 35 cm above the bottom. The drawing seems to indicate that the skull with the mandible, a part of the chest, the vertebral column and the long bones were found there. On the bottom of the pit there were traces of burning (Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 81). 6. During the 1990 campaign, in Sq. X, a pit with 3 human skeletons, differently aligned, was discovered. The pit was trapezoidal in profile, perfectly circular in form, and slightly hollowed at the bottom. A black substance covered the bottom of the pit. The bones were in good condition and belonged to 3 adults. The body in the middle was lying with the head between the others' two pelvises, and with the legs to the others' heads. Skeleton no. 1 was in the middle, flexed on the left side, hands to the head, facing skeleton no. 2. The body belonged to a mature woman (45–50 years old), over-medium height (1.60 m). The anthropological analysis revealed a medium arthrosis for the vertebral column, lumbar and sacrum bones, and also an incipient cox-arthrosis. The no. 2 skeleton was facing skeleton no. 1, and belonged to an adult woman (24–25 years old); overmedium height (1.58 m); semi-flexed on the back; head turned right; right hand to the head, left hand to the pelvis; knees flexed and collapsed. On the left humerus a badly healed fracture was visible, which caused an arthrosis of the area, with the result of a very probable disability of the left arm. Another blow was noticed on the left parietal bone, with no mention if this could have been the cause of death. Skeleton no. 3 is somehow separated from the rest, being placed rather separately and, at his head, having a jug (which contained the same black substance as that on the bottom of the rd pit). Well-preserved, this skeleton belonged to a man from the maturus III category (55–60 years old), under-medium height (1.63 m). The skeleton was deposited on the back; head to the right; left hand on the pelvis; right hand to the head; knees flexed and collapsed on the skull of the no. 1 skeleton. It showed signs of lumbar and sacrum bones arthrosis, a slight sacral osteoporosis, an affection of the distal end of the left humerus and a double parietal depression. The complex was 10

The Place for the Dead in Early and Middle Iron Age Lower Danube Area

dated to the third phase of the Babadag culture. The anthropological analysis showed no perimortem violence, and the author considered that the displacement of the bones took place during excavation (Perianu 1993; Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 81–82). 7. During the 1992 campaign, another complex was partially uncovered. Inside a pit, trapezoidal in profile, at –1.90 m below the surface, a human skeleton was found. It was deposited on the back, arms along the sides and knees slightly flexed (most probably collapsed, right foot to the right and left foot to the left); alignment S–N (head to the north). The fact that a massive stone slab was put on the skull made the find very interesting. On the left side of the pelvis there was a small ceramic vessel with three stems, made of brick-colored clay. The vessel had inside strong traces of burning. The majority of the finds in 1992 indicate that a level from the second phase of the culture was subject to excavation at that moment. This observation, corroborated to the fact that in the filling of the pit a pottery shred characteristic to this phase was found, determines us to consider this complex, with some degree of uncertainty, as Babadag II. The anthropological analysis showed that the skeleton belonged to a woman, adultus II (30–40 years old), and height 1.472 m (Morintz, Jugănaru 1995, 182, fig. 18; Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 82). 8. In 1996, the excavations inside the settlement, on the cliff, brought out another find. In Sq. IV, level II of the Babadag III phase, at a depth of –0.90 m, on a yellow clay surface, strongly hollowed, a circular spot was noticed, 1.45 m in diameter. It proved to be the mouth of a bellshaped pit, with a depth of 0.85 m. Stratigraphically, in the upper part of the pit, at 0.40 m, there was a “lid” made of black polished shreds, followed by a layer of burned earth mixed with ashes. On the bottom of the pit there was a skeleton oriented to the north (head to the north). It was lying in a flexed position; on the left side; hands under the head; knees flexed. On the chest and legs the skeleton was covered with a layer of stone slabs and shreds from a polished black vessel. On the pelvis a burned reddish clay object was found, a fragmentary valve from a mould. The vessel was big, polished, black and made from good quality clay, with the maximum diameter on the belly. On this area two pairs of small conical prominences with their tips turned upside down were applied opposite to each other, as well as a small handle. The vessel was decorated only on the maximum diameter with a row of motives in the form of a horizontal S (Jugănaru 1995, 33, fig. 8/1; Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 82). 9. An interesting situation was noticed during the 2003 campaign, for Pit 3 from section S VI which was dug up perpendicularly on the fortification structure of the Babadag settlement. The complex was sectioned like all the others on a NE–SW alignment. The pit was trapezoidal in profile and approximately circular in plan. The diameter of the opening was 0.75 m and that of the bottom 1.20 m. The filling of the pit consisted of brown earth, probably loess mixed with ashes. At half a distance between the mouth and the bottom of the pit 3 human skulls were found. One of them (on the NE side) was upside down, facing NE, while the other two, grouped towards the opposite side of the pit, facing SW. They had no mandibles, and for the two grouped skulls the upper jaws were almost completely destroyed. Skull no. 1, without mandible, was generally well-preserved, but also showed some old, as well as present, damages. There is a very important damage noticed on the lateral of the upper orbital bone, where a blow, most probably on green bone, produced a fissure of the upper side of the orbit and broke the zygomatic epiphysis of the frontal and the epiphysis of the zygomatic bone. The lack of postfractum reaction leads to the possibility of perimortem violence. The skull belonged to a woman, a young adult (around 25 years old). Skull no. 2 has a well-preserved cranial cap, with recent damage only on the left part of the coronary region, and belonged to a young adult female. Skull no. 3 has no jaw, and it was well-preserved but with old damages. The left half of the facial massive is missing, probably as a result of a violent action which broke the nasal area, the ascending epiphysis of the maxilla, the palate, the pterigoid process of the sphenoid and the zygomatic epiphysis of the temporal bone. At the same time, there can be noticed damages to the base of the skull, the mastoids, the occipital condyles and the superior part of the basioccipital. The skull belonged to a woman, of age that is difficult to be determined; however, based on the dentition and cranial sutures the maturus category (or even a more advanced age) can be advanced as a strong 11


possibility. During the 2004 campaign, the collapse of the profile due to heavy rains and flooding of the section conducted to the discovery of a fourth skull in the same pit. This was not anthropologically analyzed yet. The complex was dug up in the earthen structure of the fortification system, which was erected during the third phase of the culture. Based on this fact, the complex could belong to the VIII–VII centuries B.C. (Jugănaru, Ailincăi 2003, 49, fig. 1/3; Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 82–83). 10. During the 2004 campaign, in level 3, Sq. 5, Pit 1, together with a lot of shreds, a human jaw was also identified. Stratigraphically, the complex is attributed to the third phase of the Babadag culture (Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 82). 11. In the same year, in level 2, Sq. 8, in the filling of Pit 1, human remains from at least two individuals were found. The complex had a circular opening with the diameter of 0.60 m, a depth of 0.55 m, and an irregular trapezoidal profile, with a diameter of 1.50 m at the bottom. The bones were on the bottom of the pit, together with a fragment from a big mammal's jaw and the fragments of a big pot, with maximum diameter below the rim, where it also had a conical prominence with the tip turned up. In the filling there were also many animal bones and a great number of shreds, which came from: three dishes with the rim curved to the interior, one cup with the lower body decorated with vertical grooves and prominences on the maximum diameter, and two pots from the kitchenware category. This complex is considered as belonging to the third phase of the Babadag culture, based on the level from which the pit was dug up (Jugănaru 2005, 59; Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 83). 12. During the same campaign, another pit with human remains was found in S X1, in the eastern side of the site, at the base of the promontory. On the bottom of the pit there was a skeleton deposited on the back; knees flexed and collapsed on the right; head turned to the right; aligned NW-SE (head to NW). The pit was circular in plan and trapezoidal in profile. The left femur (drawn dotted on the plan) was found in the filling of the pit. Near the skeleton, in the northern part of the pit, there was found a fragmentary vessel from the kitchenware category. In the filling, there were a lot of shreds and animal bones. The shreds come from kitchenware with alveolar girdle or prominences below the rim, dishes and vessels with maximum diameter on the belly. Other finds: one disc-shaped clay object, perforated in the center; two clay objects of irregular conical shape and a lid. The complex is ulterior to the fortification wall, so the proposed dating is at the end of the third phase of the culture (Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 83–84). 13. During the 2006 excavations, in C VII–VIII, Sq. 2E, on the floor of a house a fragmentary human jaw was found. The complex is part of the level 5 of the settlement, as a result the find being attributed to the third phase of the Babadag culture (Ailincăi et alii 2005–2006, 84). Brăila-Brăiliţa, Brăila County 14. The rescue archeological excavations at Brăiliţa in 1973 have brought out a complex that the author considers to be a tomb. The shape and size of the pit are not mentioned, but the dead was in extended burial on back, slightly tilted left, aligned EW, the right arm stretched along the body, the left arm flexed from the elbow, and the palm facing the abdomen. The right leg was distanced from the pelvis and flexed from the knee. The left leg was stretched. Near the skull a cup was found (Harţuche 2002, 142, fig. 109/1–2). Bucu-Pochină, Bucu, Ialomiţa County 15. During the investigations there were identified numerous pits, surface houses and huts. The majority of the archeological material consists of pottery which comprises all the forms known in the Babadag culture typology. The decoration was done using the three techniques specific to this culture, mainly by stamping, which represents an argument for dating this inhabitation to the 2nd phase of the Babadag culture. A special discovery is a pit containing the skeleton of a child placed in 4 anatomical connection . 4

We herby warmly thank Mrs. E. Renta for kindly offering us this information.

12


Capidava-Roman tumular necropolis, Topalu, Constanţa County 16. In 1978, during the investigation of the Roman tumular necropolis at Capidava, in the center of tumulus no. 7 an inhumation tomb was discovered together with a vessel characteristic to the 2nd phase of Babadag culture (Morintz 1987, 68; Cheluţă-Georgescu 1979). Capidava-La Bursuci, Topalu, Constanţa County 17. During the 2004 campaign a human female skeleton, belonging to the maturus I class of age, in extended burial on back, aligned SSE-NNW, undisturbed by pits or ulterior interventions, but with missing bones. There were identified only the skull, the upper limbs without phalanges, 11 vertebrae, four ribs and one tibia. Most of the preserved bones were in anatomical connection, which excludes the possibility of the body being buried a second time. Near the left tibia a cup was found, and in the filling polished black color pottery fragments were discovered. In the same area, some pottery fragments with stamped and incised decoration patterns were also found, which nd determines us to propose the dating for this find to the 2 phase of Babadag culture (Dobrinescu, Voinea, Cărpuş 2005, 100; Vasile 2006). Cernavodă-Dealul Sofia, Constanţa County 18. In 1958, in sector A, there was discovered a complex comprising of 11 Babadag type vessels, which the finders considered part of the inventory of an incineration tomb dated to Ha C5 (Berciu, Morintz, Roman 1961, 53, fig. 3; Hänsel 1976, 114, 116, Taf. 16). Enisala-Palanca, Sarichioi, Tulcea County 19. During the 2003 campaign, Pit 8 from S II was investigated. The pit was oval in plan (1.90 × 1.25 m), its walls dug straight up to the depth of 0.70 m. In the filling of this pit there were found pottery fragments from the First Iron Age and animal bones, and at the depth of 0.60 m there was discovered a human skeleton consisting of the skull, one shoulder blade, one clavicle, one humerus and the thoracic cage which was partially in anatomical connection. The pottery discovered in this complex and in this particular site dates the habitation to the 3rd phase of Babadag culture (Jugănaru et alii 2003, 118–119). The Necropolis from Folteşti, Galaţi County The discoveries at Folteşti-Ruptura IV necropolis were attributed to the Tămăoani group (11th c. B.C.). The investigations made in 1972–1973 and 1975 brought out 9 inhumation tombs (László 1986, 67; László 2006, 105–116). 20. Tomb no. 1 was discovered at the eastern extremity of Ruptura IV, at a depth of 0.85 m. The remains of the dead consisted of the skull, a femur, a fibula, a tibia and metatarsals, without anatomical connection (László 2006, 105). 21. Tomb no. 2 contained bones from two individuals (A and B). Among the bones of skeleton A there could be noticed the skull, one clavicle, the bones of both arms and forearms, while for skeleton B there were preserved only the two arms, the shanks and the pelvis. The inventory contains a vessel found between the jaws of the two skeletons (László 2006, 105). 22. Tomb no. 3 was discovered at the NE limit of the Ruptura V promontory. The bones, among which were identified the skull, two humeri, the femurs, the iliac bone and the upper part of the skull of another individual, were not in anatomical connection (László 2006, 106). 23. Tomb no. 4 was discovered in the area of Ruptura IV, in section 2, at a depth of 0.85–0.90 m, and contained almost all the bones a human skeleton but without anatomical connection. Its alignment was SSE-NNW. The inventory consisted of a dish fragment (László 2006, 106). 5

In the illustration there are the photographs of two cups and of another four fragments of vessels with stamped decoration patterns, which were subsequently published by B. Hänsel. There are no notes regarding the disposal of the vesseles or of the cremated bones. Furthermore, during the “Pontica” archeological conference in 2003, Mr. P. Roman, as a witness to this fiind, stated that no bones were discovered at that time. Therefore, we ask ourselves whether it is possible that Mr. D. Berciu was more than necessairily influenced by his investigations of the cremation necropolises in Oltenia. For these reasons, we consider the dating of the finders to be uncertain, and thus we will not include it in our analysis.

13


24. Tomb no. 5 contained the skull, the bones of one arm, the pelvis, one shoulder blade, one calcaneus and a few fragments of vertebrae and ribs. The inventory consisted of a dish and a cup, both placed in the area of the skull (László 2006, 106). 25. Tomb no. 6 also contained bones of a skeleton without anatomical connection. Among the bones there were identified the skull, part of the limbs' bones, the iliac bone and a few ribs and vertebrae. Near the skull there was found the upper part of the skull of another individual and a cup placed close to it (László 2006, 106). 26. Tomb no. 7 can be divided into two areas. In the SSE half of the complex there was a skull lying on its right side and the upper part of the skull. Also in this area, two femurs belonging to children and two iliac bones were discovered. In the opposite side, the upper and inferior limbs and other bones, among which four humeri were found grouped. The inventory was made up of a cup placed near the upper part of the skull (László 2006, 106). 27. Tomb no. 8, like tomb no. 7, contained skeletons of two individuals. One of the skeletons was well preserved; it was flexed on the right side, its hands flexed from the elbow and palms to the face. The other skeleton was not in anatomical connection and was missing some bones. The tomb was aligned to SSW–NNE. In the area of the head of the first mentioned individual there were discovered three semispherical buttons, one spiraled ring and the lower part of a pottery vessel (László 2006, 107). 28. Tomb 9 contained a part of a skeleton, without anatomical connection: the upper part of the skull, the long bones of the upper limbs, the iliac bones and a few other fragments. All these were disposed on a 0.25 sqm area. The finder mentions a small cup with incised decoration pattern as part of the inventory (László 2006, 107). Garvăn-Mlăjitul Florilor, Jijila, Tulcea County 29. In Section I (the 1992 campaign) there was found a quadrilateral pit with rounded corners, size 0.75 × 0.70 m, dug in native rock. In profile, it can be seen how the pit starts from the level at the basis of the settlement. On the bottom of the pit there was found a skeleton of an individual flexed on the right side, its hands in front of the chin aligned NS. No other artifacts were found in the complex (Jugănaru 1997, 104, fig. 1). 30. In Section V (the 1992 campaign), at a depth of –1.10 m, on a strongly burnt surface, a skull without jaw was found. Close to it there was a large kitchenware decorated with alveolar girdles. On the entire burnt area there were scattered fragmentary animal bones, pottery shreds, stones, charcoal, and ashes. Due to the stratigraphical position and the pottery fragments discovered in the area we can date this complex to the 2nd phase of Babadag culture (Jugănaru 2005, 34). The skull was well preserved, but missing the mandible and the right zygomatic epiphysis. It also shows old signs of destruction at the base that must be noted and taken into consideration. Thus, the extremities of the mastoid epiphyses are destroyed, both occipital condyles are completely destroyed, and the right mastoid and occipital suture area is also damaged. The skull is frail, but it belonged to a male individual. The teeth show very little damage. The individual was 6 probably a young adult, around 25 years of age . 31. In 1994, in the close vicinity of the above mentioned complex (S1), at the depth of –0.90 m, a similar discovery was made. On the floor of a surface house there was a skull without mandible, surrounded by scattered animal bones, pottery fragments and stones. Unlike the above mentioned situation, the surface where the skull was placed was not burnt. The pottery pieces discovered here indicate the 2nd phase of Babadag culture (Jugănaru 2005, 34). 32. In the 1995 campaign, in Section V, on a level of the 2nd phase of Babadag culture, at the depth of 0.80 m, there was discovered a human mandible, and next to it a femur from a large animal, a slab of stone and a stone tool (Jugănaru 2005, 34).

6

The anthropological report was made by dr. N. Miriţoiu and A. Soficaru from the “F. I Rainer” Anthropologycal Center in Bucharest.

14


Izvoarele-Biserica satului, Lipniţa, Constanţa County During the restoration and consolidation works in 2001–2002 for the church in this community, two inhumation tombs were discovered. 33. The first tomb was discovered in the SE area of the altar. The skeleton was then partially revealed, and next to it there was a complete vessel. The investigation was not performed by a specialist, therefore there aren't notes regarding the skeleton's position or alignment, and the finders did not keep the bones (Irimia 2003, 254–255). 34. The second skeleton was discovered 20 m west from the first one. It also wasn't revealed completely. As in the other case, there are no notes regarding the skeleton's positions and orientation, and the bones were not kept. Next to the skeleton there was found a vessel identical to the one mentioned above, but was destroyed by its finders (Irimia 2003, 255). According to the vessel discovered at tomb 1, which M. Irimia considered to be analogue rd with another one discovered at Satul Nou-Valea lui Voicu, the complex was dated to the 3 phase of Babadag culture. Jijila-Popa Isac, Jijila, Tulcea County 35. At the base of vallum no. 2 of the southern fortification, in Section 5, there was investigated a trapezoidal pit dug in loess, the filling of brown earth. To the bottom of the filling, the following were found: a human skull and femur, a large piece of hearth, a massive piece of rock, a bone from a large mammal and three fragments of Babadag vessels; on top of them, for the entire surface of the pit, a 2–3 cm thick layer of coal and ashes was spread (Sîrbu, Ailincăi 2005, 202–203; Sîrbu, Ailincăi, Simion 2008). The skull was rather well preserved, but it was missing a large part at the base, the left zygomatic, the frontal process of the right maxilla, and the zygomatic arches on both sides. Only two tooth roots with wormian bones were retrieved from the maxilla. The femur comes from the left leg and the condyles and epicondyles were damaged. The bones come from 7 only one female individual (frail), approximately 155.5 cm tall and 20 to 30 years old . Jurilovca-Orgame/Argamum, Jurilovca, Tulcea County 36. In the 2000–2001 campaigns, in the Greek Enclosure Sector, in the northern extremity of section 001, aligned NS, dimensions 15 × 2 m, another complex belonging to Babadag culture was investigated. It is a pit dug in the rocky slope of the promontory, 0.80 m deep, its bottom carefully arranged, almost horizontal with the tilt of the ground. The complex was partially destroyed in the ancient times by an oval-shaped wall built directly on the rock. The pit is trapezoidal in profile, except for the NW wall that has the shape of two steps. On the bottom of the pit, directly on the rock, there were found human bones belonging to thirteen individuals, as follows: Skeleton no. 1 was found in the eastern side of the pit in the proximity of the Greek wall, which hadn't damaged it in any way. It was found flexed on the left side, head facing SE, upper limbs flexed and palms to face. The skeleton was found complete, but in a state of advanced degradation due to old age osteoporosis. The individual was a middle-sized, middle aged to senile male. Skeleton no. 2 has only the tibias, fibulae, fillets, calcaneus, and some metatarsals, because the construction of the Greek wall destroyed it from the knees up. It was probably lying on the back, lower limbs stretched and parallel, head to south. The investigation of the few remains could determine neither the sex nor the age of the individual, but we're inclined to believe it was a mature adult male. Skeleton no. 3 had also been destroyed by the construction of the wall. Only the right lower limb- with a flexed knee- was preserved along with the thighbone cut at one third above the knee, fragments of the tibia and the fibula, the fillet and the calcaneus. Originally it was probably lying 7 The anthropological analysis was made by Mr. Nicuşor Sultana from the „F.I. Rainer” Anthropological Center in Bucharest, whom we herby warmly thank.

15


flexed on the right side and was overlapped by the calves of skeleton no. 2. It was probably a mature adult female. Skeleton no. 4 was found NW of the first three skeletons and was decumbent, head to NE. The upper limbs were flexed from the elbows, palms to the shoulders, and lower limbs strongly flexed from the knee, heels near the pelvis. The skeleton was complete, only the knees were cut by the wall. It was a very robust adult male. Skeleton no. 5 was found west of skeleton no. 4 and North of skeletons no. 6 and no. 7. Even though no sign of subsequent interventions was found, the skeleton is incomplete, having just the skull, the mandible, the clavicle, the left shoulder blade, the left upper limb (humerus, radius, metacarpals and phalanxes), the cervical and chest sector of the spinal bone (atlas, axis, other three cervical and at least eight chest vertebrae), the sternum, fragments of ribs (1st rib included), and the broken knee of the right lower limb (lower third of the thighbone and upper third of the tibia). The above mentioned parts, except for the knee, were found in anatomical connection, skull and chest lying on the right side, lower left limb with the arm parallel to the chest, forearm and palm stretched ahead. Aligned south, near the elbow, there was a ceramic pot. Unfortunately, the fragment of the right lower limb that was found under the above mentioned pot was not recorded in the layout of the site. The state of the skull and mandible is very interesting for the interpretation of this case, because they both show signs of perimortem violence. The mandible shows signs of a multiple fracture that was clearly produced on the fresh bone by a blunt object that also crushed the upper jaw. According to the dentition and the state of the epiphyses, the individual was at least 16 years of age, and based on its especially frail constitution and the characteristics of the skull we incline to believe it was a female. Skeleton no. 6 was found between skeletons no. 4 and no. 7, flexed on the right side, head to north and upper limbs flexed parallel with the upper arm bones The skeleton was complete (though the pelvis and the feet do not show in the ground). The construction of the Greek wall caused only minor destructions (it fractured the coxal and sacrum bones). This skeleton shows signs of perimortem violence as well. The mandible is fractured in the chin area, and the right side facial bones were crushed with a blunt object. The individual was an adult male of rather frail constitution. Skeleton no. 7 is in an especially complicated situation, given the fact that very few bones were found in anatomical connection. The right lower limb, with the thighbone joined to its coxal (found right in front of skeleton no. 6), is strongly flexed from the knee, overlapping the right thighbone found in the same position. The skull and the mandible were found between them. The rest of the bones, not shown on the ground were lying in a pile between the skull and the knees. Only a few vertebrae were found anatomically connected. The only bone missing is the left coxal. The bones were found in a rather advanced state of degradation. After the anthropological examination no sign of intentional fracturing or de-boning by sharp objects was found. The individual was an adult female. Skeleton no. 8 was discovered in the vicinity of the north western side of the pit, flexed on the left side, head facing east, upper limbs strongly bent, and palms close to the face. The complete skeleton belonged to a mature male of an especially robust constitution. Skeleton no. 9 was found between skeletons no. 6 and no. 7 to the east, skeletons no. 10 and no. 11 to the west and the Greek wall to the south, flexed in a very sharp angle on the right side. This skeleton is incomplete; we only have the lower limbs, a part of the right coxal, the flexed right upper limb- palm stretched to the shoulder –, a small part of the left arm – forearm flexed and overlapping the thighbones and tibia –, part of the lumbar and chest segment of the spinal bone and a few ribs from the right side of the thorax. Because the spinal bone and the thorax point to NE (like skeleton no. 6), the construction of the wall affected only the pelvic region, the ending of the thighbone and the left tibia. Fragments from the sacrum, coxal and left foot bones are missing as well. No signs of “prior to death” violence or intentional breakup could be seen. The individual of undetermined sex was around 17 or 19 years of age. 16


Skeleton no. 10 has only the lumbar region of the spinal bone, the pelvis and the lower limbs flexed on the left side and overlapping skeleton no. 11. The rest of the body (thorax, upper limbs and skull) facing South East was destroyed by the construction of the wall. Undoubtedly it was a young female adult, no more than 23 years of age. Skeleton no. 11 was lying in the space between skeleton no. 8 to the north, skeleton no. 9 to the east and skeleton no. 12 to the west, head facing SE and pelvis to NW. The upper right limb is strongly flexed from the elbow, palm stretched to the shoulder, while the upper left limb was lying parallel to the axis of the trunk. The lower limbs were found lying in an unusual position: the right limb was overturned on its back, thighbone parallel to the tibia and knee pointed towards the skull; the left limb was also strongly bent with the heel at the same level as the pelvis and the left palm. The skull, the cervical vertebrae and the upper limbs were overlapping skeleton no. 10 (so the axis of spinal column was slightly shifted). Also, the left tibia and thighbone were overlapping the right leg of skeleton no. 8. The sex of the individual could not be determined but it is believed it was around 8 years old. Skeleton no. 12 partially destroyed by the Greek wall, was found between skeleton no. 11 and the western side of the pit. At first we had trouble identifying and reassembling the bones. The only parts still preserved in anatomical connection are the cervical and chest sector of the spinal bone together with the sternum and its adjacent ribs. These parts were aligned EW, parallel to the wall. The lumbar sector together with the sacrum and the coxal bones had been overlaid and displaced by the construction of the wall. It also destroyed the lower limbs out of which only two thirds of the right thighbone and half of the left had been preserved. However, the right humerus together with the right shoulder blade and the clavicle (all in anatomical connection) were found lying in a strange position that could not be explained by the subsequent interventions: these bones were lying aside perpendicularly to the thorax, shoulder joint pointing north. Other parts of the skeleton found lying in an unusual position were the left clavicle, the entire right radius and ulna plus the distal epiphyses along with some carpals, metacarpals and phalanges. According to the data we have presented above we can draw the conclusion that the body together with some loose parts (like the upper right limb) was laid flexed on the right side, head facing west. The wall probably dislocated and destroyed the skull and the mandible. It was undoubtedly a mature male of robust constitution. Skeleton no. 13 has only a mandible turned upwards, found in the vicinity of the western side of the pit. The mandible is very frail and its teeth in an advanced state of deterioration. It belonged to a mature female with no connection to the skeletons described above. Several objects were discovered together with the skeletons. A pot with four protuberances diametrically opposite to each other was found in the area of skeleton no. 5. Behind skeleton no. 8 other five iron objects were found: two arrow heads, a fishing hook and two knife blades. On the bottom of the pit were also discovered two sniping weights, another object made of finely polished stone and perforated from the base to the top, and a pair of partly preserved sharpening cockles, rectangular shaped with rounded angles and a suspension hole on the upper side. The stratigraphy is rather complicated. The presence of a layer of ashes on top the one covering the skeletons seems to be most important. In this layer pottery fragments were found belonging to 80 different pots showing traces of secondary burning (the breaking of the pots was prior to the cremation). We also found animal bones and a human humerus (from the right limb), which had been passed through the flames but not entirely incinerated (probably subjected to 300–400 ºC temperature). This is shown by the different colors of each side of the bone: one side is black, the other is dark brown. The bones belonged to an adult, robust individual, probably male. In the same layer there was also discovered a fragment of the left coxal of an adult-mature individual, probably female. We must point out that these two bones do not belong to any of the skeletons we have described above (Ailincăi, Miriţoiu, Soficaru 2003; Ailincăi, Miriţoiu, Soficaru 2006). Niculiţel-Cornet, Niculiţel, Tulcea County During the emergency rescue excavations in 1988 and 2000, more complexes containing human bones have been investigated. 17


37. Pit no. 1 (1988) had the diameter of the mouth of 1.20 m and the diameter of the bottom of 1.70 m.; the filling consisted of clean black earth; on the bottom of the pit, on a bed of pottery shreds there was a human skeleton laid on the back, aligned NE–SV, right hand on the thorax and left hand on the abdomen. The pottery shreds belonged to amphorae, dishes and kitchenware. The stamped decorations on the pottery determined the authors to date the complex to phase II of Babadag culture (Jugănaru, Topoleanu 1994, 71; Topoleanu, Jugănaru 1995, 204, fig. 3/1). 38. The finders could not identify the exact dimensions and shape of pit no. 2 (1988), except for the diameter of the lower part (0.80 m) and the depth of 0.20 m. In this complex, the head, the upper and lower limbs of a mature individual were found. The disposal of the bones suggests that the skeleton was in a flexed position. Among the discovered bones, some atypical pottery shreds were also found (Jugănaru, Topoleanu 1994, 72, fig. 1/2, 2/2; Topoleanu, Jugănaru 1995, 204, fig. 3/2). 39. The diameter of pit no. 3 (1988) was 1.70 m. On its bottom, on a bed of pottery the investigators found a skeleton lying on the back, hands on the abdomen, aligned NS, surrounded by 4 skulls, upper and lower limbs, and thorax pieces. The pottery shreds discovered in the complex are decorated with stamped patterns and belonged to cups, dishes and amphorae; thus, the complex was dated to the 2nd phase of Babadag culture (Jugănaru, Topoleanu 1994, 72, fig. 2/3; 5; Topoleanu, Jugănaru 1995, 204, fig. 3/3, 5/3). 40. The inferior base of pit no. 4 (1988) was oval shaped, 1.60 × 1.20 m in size. On the bottom of the pit was found the same bed of pottery shreds on which two human skeletons in partial anatomical connection were lying. The pottery shreds discovered in this complex belonged to cups, amphorae and coarse ware which can be dated to the 2nd phase of Babadag culture (Jugănaru, Topoleanu 1994, 72, fig. 1/4; 6; Topoleanu, Jugănaru 204, fig. 3/4, 5/4). 41. On the bottom of a pit investigated in 2000, in Square 4, were found the incomplete human bones, in partial anatomical connection, of at least two individuals. In the northern part of nd the pit, the bones were partially covered by a layer of pottery shreds and ashes; 2 phase of Babadag culture (Ailincăi, Topoleanu 2003, 45, fig. 1). 42. S VI, square 6, pit no. 1 (2000); on the bottom of the pit, the investigators found the incomplete skeletons of two individuals flexed on the right side, hands to chin. The skeleton in the southern part of the pit is missing the upper part of the skull and is aligned 131o E-SE – 311o V-NW; its feet go under the skull of the second individual that was aligned 219o S-SE – 39o N-NW; 2nd phase of Babadag culture (Ailincăi, Topoleanu 2003, 46, fig. 2). 43. In large pit that was investigated in S K in the 2000 campaign, a skull, a mandible and one nd radius were discovered. The bones were strongly burnt; 2 phase of Babadag culture. 44. In the filling of a pit from S VII that was investigated during the 2000 campaign, a human arm in anatomical connection was discovered; phase II of Babadag culture. Novosel'skoe II-Teraphont, Reni District, Odessa Region, Ukraine 45. Tomb 3 was found in a rectangular pit with rounded corners, aligned NS, size of 2 × 0.90 m; the skeleton was in extended burial position on the back, head to the south; next to it, an iron knife and a small jar with alveolar girdle were found (Bruiako, Noviţkii 1997, 117, fig. 14/4–6). 46–47. In the same site, there were identified nine small tumuli which, most of the times, had pits below. In the pits below tumuli 1 and 4 fragments of human mandibles were found. However, the investigators state that there are no arguments for dating these complexes, which they consider similar to those discovered in the settlement belonging to the Saharna-Soloceni culture at Hlinjeni II th th (Bruiako, Noviţkii 1997, 118); 10 –9 c. B.C. 48. In 1989, in the filling of pit no. 7 (tomb 5, according to some authors) from the southern sector, trapezoidal in profile, a human skeleton in partial anatomical connection was found. The drawing shows the skull with an out of place mandible, the left arm, a part of the spine and a long bone which was probably part of a lower limb. One mug, two dishes and one fragment of a coarse vessel were also discovered in the pit (Bruiako, Noviţkii 1997, 124–125, fig. 15; Bruiako, Yaroševič 2001, fig. 20); 3rd phase of Babadag culture. 18


49. Another similar complex was identified in pit no. 11, which was circular in plan and trapezoidal in profile (tomb 7). The skeleton was discovered on the bottom of the pit, flexed on the right side, head to S-SE. The individual was probably a female and approximately 50 years of age. In the pit, a bowl and a trapezoidal stone object with circular perforation were also found (Bruiako, Noviţkii 1997, 121, fig. 16/4–6); 3rd phase of Babadag culture. Orlovka – Cartal, Reni District, Odessa Region, Ukraine 50. During the archeological investigations in 1998, in complex no. 46 a human skeleton was found very near to the middle of the pit, 15–20 cm to the lower part of the complex. The skeleton belonged to an adult; it was flexed on the right side, head to the west. Its legs were strongly flexed, its right hand also strongly flexed to the pelvis, and the left hand slightly flexed to the face. In the filling of the pit some pottery shreds from large vessels were also discovered (Vančugov et alii 1999, rd 137, fig. 9/1, 17/1); 3 phase of Babadag culture. Rasova-Malul Roşu, Constanţa County 52. In tomb 1 there was probably a teenager. The skeleton was discovered at a depth of 0.20 m from the surface, partially disturbed by the terracing activities for planting trees. The pit is rather oval in shape and the skeleton was flexed on the left side, aligned NS; left hand flexed from the elbow to the abdomen, right hand stretched along the body. No inventory items were found in the tomb. In the earth covering the pit there were discovered Babadag and gethian pottery shreds; the rd pit was partially overlapping another less deeper pit where atypical Babadag shreds were found; 3 phase of Babadag culture (Irimia 1974, 124–125, fig. 6). 52. Tomb 2 was discovered at the depth of 0.18 m and contained the skeleton of a child, flexed and aligned NS. Next to its pelvis a sniping weight was found; 3rd phase of Babadag culture (Irimia 1974, 125). Revărsarea-Dealul Tichileşti, Isaccea, Tulcea County 53. In section III, starting with square 13, at 1.15 m of depth, the floor of house no. 3 was found and partially investigated. In the floor there was a pit (pit 22) where the investigators found a th th human mandible and a bronze fibula, specific to the 10 –9 c. B.C. The mandible was complete, frail, rather small, belonging to an elder female individual (Haimovici 2003, 481); 2nd phase of Babadag culture (Simion 2003, 102). Revărsarea-Cotul Tichileşti, Isaccea, Tulcea County 54. In the 1990 archeological campaign, in S II, at the depth of –1.65 m, the investigators found a pit with an incomplete and fragmented human skeleton, in extended position, aligned 8 SW–NE, belonging to a mature male (35–40 years old), approximately 162 cm tall (calculated based on the length of the humerus). Next to its legs there was a mug (Baumann 1995, 231, fig. 23); 3rd phase of Babadag culture. Satu Nou-Valea lui Voicu, Constanţa County 55. In S I, the squares 1N–2N, level 1 (superior), a few isolated human bones, among which a maxilla and two skulls were found. On a small area of 12–13 m long and 2–2.30 m wide, next to the two skulls and human bones many animal skeletons and bones were found; phase III of Babadag culture (Irimia, Conovici 1993, 52–65, fig. 1, 3/8, 22/1–2; Irimia 2003). 56. Pit 41 contained a human skeleton which was flexed and face down, the skeleton of a child and that of a dog. The filling of the pit consisted of ashes, pottery shreds and stones, all placed at the bottom of the pit. The skeletons were discovered in the filling, and not on the bottom of the pit; phase III of Babadag culture (Irimia, Conovici 1993, 53, 89). 8

The source of the anthropological analysis is a document from the archives of the Eco-Museological Research Insitute in Tulcea, that doesn't mention the author of the report.

19


57. In pit 43, S Ib, rhombus 3N, at approximately 70 cm south from pit 41, a skeleton of a mature female was discovered, flexed, knees tight to the body and face down. The skeleton was lying on a layer of stones arranged in a circle; there were more stones in the NNV direction. The pit also contained ashes, pottery shreds and animal bones. Among the pottery shreds, there are mentioned fragments from amphorae, a cup, mugs, dishes and coarse vessels; 3rd phase of Babadag culture (Irimia, Conovici 1993, 53, 89, 91). 58. On the bottom of pit 44, the investigators found a human skeleton, flexed, face down, surrounded by pottery shreds and animal bones. On top of the skeleton there were many rocks, and under it there were household waste, ashes and pottery shreds. In the same pit, the archeologists discovered a fragment from a large vessel and numerous shreds of amphorae and coarse vessels; phase III of Babadag culture (Irimia, Conovici 1993, 53, 91). 59. Pit 46 contained the remains of a human skeleton: one leg in anatomical connection, one pelvis bone and a few vertebrae together with animal bones, pottery shreds, ashes, rocks and a large stone slab; phase III of Babadag culture (Irimia, Conovici 1993, 53, 94). Sava Conevo, Varna Region, Bulgaria 60. In a pit under the hearth of a sanctuary many skeletons of individuals around 20 years old were deposited, in anatomical position, without inventory; 9th–7th c. B.C. (Sîrbu 1994, 90). The necropolis at Sboryanovo, Varna Region, Bulgaria In 1984, during a rescue excavation, a necropolis was identified, made of five small tumuli, with stones in the embankment, at approximately 500 m from the great tumulus at Sveshtari, in Nivata na Pevetsa (Stoyanov 1992, 93). The five tumuli were investigated in 1986–1987 and were published in a monographic study (Stoyanov 1997). 61. Tumulus no. 1 had a diameter of 14–16 m and was approx. 0.8 m tall. The embankment contained numerous stones. Under this layer there was the skeleton of an adult male, deposited in extended position on the back, facing south. At 0.5 m south from its head the tip of an iron spear was found, and an iron knife was discovered in the area of the pelvis. A dish containing a two-ear cup was found in the area of the legs. The observations made during the investigation do not exclude the possibility of a stone coffin (Stoyanov 1997, 13–20). 62. Tumulus no. 2 was similar and shape and design. Under the stone layer there were identified five burials. The first individual (Burial no. 1), a female adult, was buried in the eastern quarter of the tumulus in extended position on the back, head to south. Next to the skeleton there was a bronze fibula, and 0.5 m NW from the legs two amphorae of different sizes were placed on top of each other. B4 was made of skull fragments, ribs and spine (the bones belonged to two male individuals, one a teenager, the other mature) and was lying parallel to B5 (a mature female); both were probably aligned as B1. No inventory items were found, but in this area a fragment from an iron knife and numerous pottery shreds decorated with stamped and grooved patterns were discovered. Two or more cremation tombs were discovered in the SW part of the center of the tumulus, but they were almost completely destroyed by the treasure hunters (Stoyanov 1997, 20–29). 63. Tumulus no. 3 was approximately 25 m south from tumulus no. 2, was approx. 8 × 10–11 m in size, and 0.8 m tall. Its design is similar, and under the main layer there were four burials. The earliest tomb is a cremation one found in the south of the center of the tumulus. The burnt bones of an adult male were lying directly on the ancient soil. In this area there were four vessels. Another tomb lay 2 m west from the first one. It was of a senile female, lying in extended burial on the back, head to the south. The skeleton had burning marks in the area of the skull, the ribs and the arms. Next to the right shoulder the archeologists discovered an iron fibula, one cup was found near the legs and 0.60 m west other two small vessels were found. On a superior level, in the NE of the tumulus, two more inhumation tombs were discovered. Both skeletons were in extended burial position on the back, head to the south. B3 was a male of 35–40 years of age. Next to the left arm were discovered fragments from a two-ear cup. Skeleton no. 4 belonged to a 45–50 year old woman, buried in similar circumstances next to B3 (Stoyanov 1997, 29–35). 20


64. Tumulus no. 4 was 150 m SE of T 3 and was similarly constructed. It had a diameter of 10x12 m and was 0.6 m tall. Six burials were discovered under the main layer, among which three were located in the central part. Burial nos. 3–4 is a double one, containing the remains of a teenager and an adult male. In the area of the skulls three cups were placed – kantharos and two iron knives. B2 was located 0.5 m east from skeleton no. 3, and contained the remains of an adult male of 22–25 years of age. In the eastern part of the shoulder the ear of a cup and fragments from another ear were discovered. The other three burials were all aligned identically, but on a superior level. B1 was lying 0.55-0.60 m east from B2. The individual was a male, around 50 years of age. Next to its skull a kantharos was found, together with more pottery shreds and a small iron knife. B6 was found 0.45 m east from B1 and the upper part of the skeleton was strongly burnt. B5 was in a similar situation, as only its legs were relatively well preserved. Next to these tombs numerous pottery shreds were found. In the southern area of the tumulus the investigators found many fragments of broken vessels, probably part of a ritual. 65. Tumulus no. 5 was located approx. 200 m south from T 4; it had a diameter of 6 m and was 0.2–0.3 m tall. In the central area of the tumulus, four burials deposited directly on the soil were discovered. B1 contained the skeleton of a teenage girl, lying in extended burial on the back, head to the south. The investigators found a bronze fibula next to the skull, and fragments of a cup next to the right leg. B2 was found 0.5 m west from B1, and contained the skeleton of a 12–13 year old child; next to it were fragments from a cup. B3 was located west of B2, and the skeleton belonged to an adult female. Next to the skull there were fragments from two cups. B4 contained the skeleton of a 7 year old child, at a close distance from B3. Next to the skull, fragments from a cup were also found. Based on the detailed analysis of the tombs' inventory, the author of the investigation considers that T 5 is the earliest and can be dated to the beginning of the 11th c. B. C., followed by T 4, th and the first burials from T 2, T 3 and T 1, dated to the 10 c. B. C. The secondary burials from T 2 and th th T 3 probably took place at the end of the 10 and beginning of the 9 century B. C. (Stoyanov 1997, 83). Siliştea-Conac, Brăila County 66. The complex discovered at Siliştea is a pit dug in the Eneolithic platform, “noted at the depth of 0.85–0.89 m”, quadrilateral in shape, with rounded corners, aligned NS. The northern limit of the pit was disturbed by a Hallstattian pit, which indicates that most probably the complex dates to the Iron Age. The individual was found in extended burial on back, aligned NS, right hand along the body, left hand on the abdomen. No offerings or inventory items were found in the pit. Also, st there are no notes regarding the position of the skeleton on the bottom of the pit or in the filling; 1 phase of Babadag culture (Sîrbu, Pandrea 1994, 31). Suceveni-Stoborăni, Galaţi County 67. A special discovery from Suceveni-Stoborăni is a pit on the bottom of which four skeletons were found: “lying in an unusual position, which, at first sight, leaves the impression that the dead were randomly thrown into the pit.” The author considers this complex as belonging to “the Halstattian population, more precisely the Basarabi culture” (Dragomir 1996, 365–372); phase II of Babadag culture. Tămăoani, Galaţi County 68. Another discovery that can be included in this category is pit no. 2 from Tămăoani, where th a right lower limb in anatomical connection was identified; the Tămăoani group (11 c. B.C.) (László 1986, 68). III. The space and the place of the burial One of the major problems of funerary archaeology is understanding the space and the place of the burial. It is difficult to assume that the funerary space was randomly chosen, even if the rules upon which the communities established the burial area are still very little known (Chicideanu 2000, 109). 21


60 50

complexes with human bones outside the settlements

40 30

complexes with human bones inside the settlements

20 10 0

Table 1. The comparative situation of tombs and complexes with human bones inside the settlements.

Taking into account the total finds in the catalogues, we can first classify them according to the place of discovery. Thus, we can observe that most of the complexes containing human bones are found inside the settlements (48 complexes with bones belonging to approximately 72 individuals)9 (Table 1). On the other hand, we hold certain information about two necropolises situated outside the inhabited area: the necropolis at Folteşti (9 tombs containing bones from approx. 12 individuals) and the necropolis at Sboryanovo (5 tumuli with 23 buried individuals), to which we can add the briefly published finds from Capidava – the Roman tumular necropolis (1 tomb) and Izvoarele (2 tombs). IV. The dead among the living. Macabre finds inside the settlements A. Observations regarding the skeletons' state of representation One criteria for classifying these finds is the different kinds of deposition of the dead. For this classification we will consider the state of preservation (with or without anatomical connection) and the state of representation of the individuals (complete or partial skeleton). a) Complexes discovered inside the settlements containing individuals mostly or in total anatomical connection. In this category we can include the complexes 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 at Babadag; 14 (Brăiliţa), 15 (Bucu), 17 (Capidava-la Bursuci), 29 (Garvăn-Mlăjitul Florilor), 37 (Niculiţel), 48 (Novosel'skoe), 50 (Orlovka), 51 (Rasova), 56, 57, 58 (Satu Nou), 60 (Sava Conevo), 66 (Siliştea). Most of these complexes contain only one individual disposed in extended burial on the back or flexed. Regarding the number of individuals, there some exceptions in the Sava Conevo complex (the number is not mentioned) and complex 56 at Satu Nou. The state of anatomical connection of these individuals points to a possible primary deposition in these complexes or at least to a deposition in a shorter time that wouldn't allow the destruction of the joints. The missing bones or the unusual position of some bones are probably due to the position of the body at deposition, the ulterior involuntary interventions, the movements during decomposition or the natural decay of small bones etc. (Duday 1995, 36). b) Complexes discovered inside the settlements containing individuals without anatomical connection. The complexes 1, 5, 11, 12 (Babadag), 19 (Enisala), 38, 40, 41 (Niculiţel), 48, 49 (Novosel'skoe), 52 (Rasova), 54 (Revărsarea-Cotul Tichileşti), 59 (Satu Nou) belong to this category. The position of the dead at deposition could cause the loss of anatomical connection once the body decomposes (Hawkes, Molleson 2000). Other causes could also be the ulterior manipulation of the bones or of the bodies (or parts of them) in an advanced state of decay, or the preliminary selection of body parts (this is the case of the skeletons listed in the next category) (Duday 1995, 52). Because of the lack of anthropological analysis, it is difficult to count the individuals found in these complexes. c) Complexes discovered inside the settlements containing parts of skeletons (skulls or limbs). Overall, the finds we are referring to indicate various treatments applied to the bodies. The findings of skeleton parts, especially skulls and limbs are a special case. Regarding the deposition of the 9

The catalogue contains 48 of such finds, if we exclude the finds from Cernavodă (cat. no. 18) and Babadag (cat. no. 2), as we have some restraints regarding the presence of human bones on these locations.

22


skulls, we draw attention to the four skulls placed in the filling of a pit dug in the fortification at Babadag (cat. no. 9), and to a similar situation at Jijila where a skull and a femur were found (no. 35 in the catalogue). Depositions of skulls were also found on some platforms or floors at Garvăn (cat. nos. 30 & 31) and at Satu Nou (cat. no. 55), to which we can add a skull with mandible found in a pit at Niculiţel (cat. no. 44) and the complete or fragmentary mandibles found in some pits at Babadag (cat. nos. 10 & 13), Garvăn (cat. no. 32) and Revărsarea-Dealul Tichileşti (cat. no. 53). A special case is the “ash mounds” found at Novosel'skoe (cat. nos. 46–47), containing fragments of human mandibles; a similar situation is also found in the settlement at Hlinjeni, belonging to the SaharnaSoloceni culture. The limbs were also treated in a special way, as it can be seen in the finds at Tămăoani (cat. no. 68), Niculiţel (cat. no. 44) and Satu Nou (cat. no. 59). The discovery of numerous isolated skulls, usually without the mandible, indicates a special treatment of this anatomical part and the possibility of a cult of the skulls. Also, we cannot exclude the possibility that, in some cases, especially the fragments of skulls or mandibles could have entered the respective culture level due to involuntary actions. d) Mixed complexes. As it can be noticed in the catalogue, there are complexes containing human skeletons in anatomical connection, together with skeletons without anatomical connection and isolated bones. Such a case is the complex found at Jurilovca (cat. no. 36). By analyzing the state of the skeletons (position, integrity and anatomical connection), we can estimate the initial state of the dead disposed in the pit: complete bodies placed in “normal” positions (flexed on the left or on the right side), like cases 1, 6 and 8, or in more “unusual” positions, like 4 and 11 (the latter seems to have been randomly thrown into the pit); incomplete bodies but with parts in anatomical connection, like case 5, which is missing the main lower part, and 9, missing a large part of the upper body (including the skull); bodies already in an advanced state of decay with few parts in anatomical connection and missing bones, like case 7; isolated bones that had suffered different treatments, burnt (the humerus) or not (the coxal and the mandible). Cases 2, 3, 10 and 12 are difficult to assess, due to the damages caused by the Greek wall. Cases 10 and 12 can be included in category a. or b. Also, as a result of this classification, we must observe that the dates of death of the individuals are successive, even though the deposition must have taken place at the same time for all the bodies (Ailincăi, Miriţoiu, Soficaru 2003, 313–314). Because none of the incomplete skeletons (or isolated bones) showed marks of blows by sharp objects, or traces of animal bites or gnawing, the only explanation for their state is the long exposure (in special places) resulting in the degradation of the soft parts, drying up and stiffening of ligaments, which lead to fragmentation by ulterior manipulation (Ailincăi, Miriţoiu, Soficaru 2003, 312). Another case is complex no. 39 at Niculiţel where a skeleton was found in extended position on the back, bones in anatomical connection, together with bones from other individuals, scattered all over the pit. Unfortunately, the information regarding this complex is limited, due to the lacks in the investigation and the absence of an anthropological report. Also in the settlement at Niculiţel, in the second pit with human remains discovered in the 2000 campaign (no. 42 in the catalogue), we can observe the skeletons of two individuals. One of them (the skeleton found in the northern part of the complex) has most of its bones, while the other does not. 20 15 10 5 0 a

b

c

d

Table 2. The comparative situation of the complexes containing human bones inside the settlements by the state of preservation of the skeletons.

23


We need to point out an interesting situation in the case of the find at Suceveni (no. 67 in the catalogue), where a pit with four individuals was found. From the published photography of the complex it can be seen that skeletons 2 and 4 were almost complete, skeleton 3 was missing part of the bones of the upper limbs, and skeleton 1 was missing both tibias and fibulas. Through this comparative analysis (Table 3) we can see how most of the complexes contain skeletons in anatomical connection (18 complexes), but not less than 31 complexes contain incomplete skeletons, with or without partial anatomical connection and isolated bones from other individuals. Many situations that prove the absence of rules regarding the deposition of the dead have already been registered. For the skeletons discovered in anatomical connection we can assume that the dead were disposed in the incipient stages of decay, while for the other skeletons all clues lead us to support the theory of exposure of the bodies in special places for decomposition. The lack of evidence for deliberate dismembering of the bodies (like signs of cutting) proves that they were decomposing normally, in open air, and were subsequently disposed in such complexes inside the settlements. The precarious state of preservation of some skeletons or the missing parts of some may have been caused by later involuntary interventions, like in the case of the complex at Jurilovca, where several skeletons were destroyed due to the construction of the Greek wall, or the skeleton missing the upper part from complex 4 at Babadag, due to a later dug pit. B. Data regarding the position and alignment of the dead The entries regarding the alignment of the dead are incomplete, as this data is missing from the description of some complexes. Therefore, we will try to establish if there exists a standard alignment according to the position of deposition. The skeleton in complex no. 3 at Babadag was found flexed on the right side, aligned NNW– SSE. In the same settlement, skeleton no. 1 from complex no. 6 was lying flexed on the left side and aligned SSW–NNE, while skeleton no. 3 was placed flexed on the right side and aligned NNW–SSE. In the case of the skeleton found in complex no. 12 at Babadag, we can assume it was flexed on the right side and aligned WSW–ENE. Depositions in flexed position on the left or right side are also common in the complex at Jurilovca (cat. no. 36): two skeletons flexed on the left side (skeleton nos. 1 and 8), aligned NNE–SSW, and other two flexed on the right side (skeletons nos. 5 and 6), almost identically aligned NNE–SSW. The skeleton inside complex no. 8 at Babadag is also flexed on the left side. Unfortunately, there aren't any notes regarding its alignment. The alignment information is also missing for the skeleton contained in complex no. 38 at Niculiţel, and skeleton no. 50 at Orlovka. The two skeletons in complex no. 42 at Niculiţel were found flexed on the right side, aligned ESE–WNW and SSE–NNW. The skeleton in complex no. 29 at Garvăn was in the same position, but the approximate alignment was NS. The partial skeleton in complex no. 48 at Novosel'skoe, probably in flexed position on the right, was aligned SSE–NNW, while the skeleton in complex no. 51 at Rasova was found in an almost flexed position on the left side, and was aligned NS. The skeletons in extended position on the back also have various alignments: skeleton no. 2 from complex no. 6 at Babadag was aligned NNW–SSE; the skeleton in complex no. 7 was aligned SN, the same with the skeleton contained in complex no. 47 from Novosel'skoe and approximately the same with the skeleton at Siliştea-Conac (cat. no. 53); the alignment of the skeleton found at Brăiliţa (cat. no. 14) was EW, while the individual at Capidava-La Bursuci (cat. no. 17) was aligned SSE–NNW; skeleton no. 4 in the complex at Orgame (cat. no. 36) was aligned NNE–SSW, and skeleton no. 11 from the same complex was aligned SSE–NNW. There is also incomplete data regarding the skeletons in extended position on the back found at Niculiţel (cat. nos. 37, 39) and Suceveni (cat. no. 67). As it is showed in the Table 3, we cannot establish a standard orientation of the individuals buried in the settlements. However, we can observe that the alignment SN and EW is characteristic only for the skeletons in extended position on the back, while the alignments SSW–NNW, NS, WSW–ENE and ESE–WNW are exclusive for the dead in flexed deposition. Also, it seems that the most frequent alignment for both positions is NNE–SSW and NNW–SSE. 24


3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5

Flexed Position

1

Extended Position on Back

0,5 0 NNE-SSW NNW-SSE

SSW-NNE

SN

NS

WSW-ENE

ESE-WNW

EW

Table 3. Alignment of the skeletons found inside the settlements by their position. C. The place of deposition Even though, up to now, there have been many debates regarding the existence of funerary spaces inside the settlements (Perianu 1993, 163; Morintz, Jugănaru 1995, 182), this theory could not be confirmed due to the lacks in the field investigations, mainly concerning the topography in plan view of all the discovered complexes. We can draw the conclusion that most of the human bones were discovered in pits of different sizes, mainly circular with trapezoidal profile, similar to what archeologists usually consider household waste pits. In this category we can include the finds from Babadag (cat. nos. 1, 3 – 13), Bucu (cat. no. 15), Enisala (cat. no. 19), Garvăn (cat. no. 29), Jijila (cat. no. 35), Jurilovca (cat. no. 36), Niculiţel (cat. no. 37 – 44), Novosel'skoe (cat. no. 45–49), Orlovka (cat. no. 50), Revărsarea (cat. no. 53, 54), Satu Nou (cat. no. 56–59), Suceveni (cat. no. 67) and Tămăoani (cat. no. 68). Some of the discovered pits were oval or rectangular, which is probably evidence for the fact that they especially dug for burying the bodies, like the finds at Brăiliţa (cat. no. 14), Novosel'skoe (cat. no. 45), Rasova (cat. no. 51) and Siliştea (cat. no. 66). For the complexes at Capidava-La Bursuci (cat. no. 17) and Rasova (cat. no. 52) there are no notes regarding the existence of pits, but it is possible the pits were destroyed by ulterior landslides or farming activities. There are also some other interesting cases: two skulls and one mandible were found on the floor of a house in the settlement at Garvăn (cat. nos. 30–32); several skulls together with animal – pigs and dogs – bones were discovered in the “ravine” at Satu Nou (cat. no. 55); also, some human skulls were found in the fortification of Babadag, but the connection between the find and the construction is not very certain; a pit containing a skull and a femur was discovered at the base of vallum no. 2 at Jijila. As stated earlier, we cannot yet confirm the existence of a special area inside the settlements for burying the dead. The settlement at Babadag provides us with the most information; the majority of the 13 complexes belong to the 3rd evolution phase of the settlement, when the fortification was built and the entire promontory became inhabited. Even though we don't know the exact location of the complexes, most of the discoveries were made inside the settlement, excepting complexes 9 and 12 found in the fortification area, which, to the end of the Hallstattian habitat became a household waste area. Another settlement providing a great deal of information regarding this aspect is the one at Niculiţel. During the two preventive archeological campaigns, 8 complexes containing human bones under various forms were found. Unfortunately, the lack of a topographical situation makes more difficult the identification of a possible area for burial of the dead. The site at Satu Nou is a special case. The Hallstattian vestiges were investigated several times: in 1991–1992, 2001 and 2002; they are disposed in two levels, in a sector (“the ravine”) which lies almost longitudinally on the NS direction of the site, being 2 to 4 m wide; the level is thicker on a 30–32 m long portion. In the upper level, 5 pits – three containing human bones – were discovered, while in the lower level a hut, a hearth and pit were found. The situation at Satu Nou determines us to consider these finds different from those inside the settlements: first, the area of these finds is rather small, hence the name – “the ravine”; second, the nature of the finds – 25


a large quantity of human and animal bones – shows that this area couldn't have been inhabited; third, no traces of dwelling were discovered (the hut from the second level was questioned even by its finders, and its size – 3 × 1.1 m – is not adequate for dwelling. In our opinion, these finds indicate an area for depositing waste or for deliberate deposition of the human and animal remains for decomposition (this hypothesis is consolidated by the finding of many skeletons in anatomical connection). D. Observations regarding the assumed existence of rituals accompanying the deposition of the dead inside the settlements In many cases, placing offerings and arranging the tomb are closely related to the burial. These practices differ depending on the communities, areas and eras. More than often, these are the only preserved elements from the funeral ritual. The observations and the analysis of the various ways of arranging the funerary space and the offerings lead to important conclusions regarding the organization of cemeteries, the social organization, and the differentiating criteria between sexes or the setting out of a relative or absolute chronology. In many cases, these rituals are reflected by certain standards. The situation is different in the case of the finds in the settlements dated to the beginning of the Iron Age in the Lower Danube. All this doesn't support the theory of a typical deposition of the dead regarding the space, the representation of the body, the funerary arrangements, the alignment, etc. The catalogue of the finds leads us to the discussion of a standard inventory. More than often, the pottery discovered in the complexes is fragmentary; in very few cases the investigators found complete vessels whose position would connect them directly with the bodies: in complex no. 7 at Babadag, there was a small vessel placed next to the left shoulder of the skeleton; in another complex at Babadag (cat. no. 5), on the same level with the bones of the three individuals, a mug was found (Perianu 1993, 164); another vessel that could be made complete was discovered on the same level with the skeleton in complex no. 12 from the Babadag settlement. Close to skeleton no. 5 in the complex at Jurilovca, there was an amphora of medium size, broken by the weight of the earth, and five other iron objects were found in the back of skeleton no. 8. Also, at Novosel'skoe, there were found: a jar and an iron knife in complex no. 47; a bowl and a box of stone in complex no. 48; and a dish and a cup in complex no.49. At Brăiliţa (cat. no. 14), in the upper part of the skeleton, a mug was found, and at Revărsarea-Cotul Tichileşti (cat. no. 54), in the lower part of the skeleton there was a similar vessel. In some cases, more evidence of the rituals probably accompanying the depositions was found: at Capul Dolojman, in the layer of ashes spread on the skeletons, the investigators found fragments from approx. 80 vessels, animal bones, a human humerus and a coxal bone, as well as more objects at the skeleton level. This was not a singular find. In four of the pits at Niculiţel (cat. no. 37–40), the skeletons were placed on a “bed” of pottery shreds (Jugănaru, Topoleanu 1995, 71–72; Topoleanu, Jugănaru 1994, 204–205). Also at Niculiţel, during the 2000 campaign, over some part of the bones a layer of ashes with pottery shreds was found (cat. no. 41). On the bottom of the same pit the following objects were also discovered: a cup that could be made complete, a shoulder blade from a ruminant animal and a horn object, probably a dibble (Ailincăi, Topoleanu 2003, 39). In a complex at Babadag (cat. no. 6) there was found one skeleton covered with slabs of stone and a layer of pottery shreds (Jugănaru 2005, 33). Layers of ashes and pottery shreds were also found in pits no. 41, 43, 44 and 46 at Satu Nou (Irimia, Conovici 1993, 53, 89, 91, 94). The burning marks on the bones discovered in these complexes indicate the use of fire inside the pit (cat. no. 1, 5) or outside the pit, like the strongly burnt human bones found in the filling of the pit at Jurilovca (cat. no. 36), where signs of secondary burn were found on the pottery (which was first broken then burned and spread in a compact layer over the bones). We must not pass over the fact that in many of the discovered complexes, the human bones were found in the filling and not on the bottom of the pit, as would seem normal. This observation makes us wonder whether the initial purpose of pit was funerary or the bodies were merely “thrown” into pits for household waste, out of sanitary considerations. 26


Two complexes, cat. nos. 9 and 35, are of particular interest: the location of the pits containing skulls in the fortifications at Babadag and Jijila may indicate “foundation depositions” of some human body parts, especially skulls. V. Do the cemeteries really exist? Taking into account the separation from the inhabited space and the obvious disposal of the funerary space, we can consider the finds at Folteşti and Sboryanovo to be proper necropoleis. In this category, with some uncertainty, we can include the discoveries at Capidava and Izvoarele. Comparatively, though considered partially contemporaneous, the two known necropoleis from the Lower Danube area are very different; on common characteristic is the limited number of buried individuals. The necropolis at Folteşti consists of plane inhumation tombs, situated at 6–7 m apart. One of the characteristics of this necropolis is the presence in the tombs of some skeletons or parts skeletons without anatomical connection. The lack of anatomical connection or the missing bones reflects the manipulation of the bodies. There is one exception: on individual in tomb no. 8, found in a flexed position and in anatomical connection. Regarding the inventory, pottery vessels, mainly dishes and cups were found, and some bronze objects in tomb no. 8. A similar but isolated case is the tomb at Hansca, attributed to the Hansca-Holercani cultural group (Leviţki 1985, 125–128; Leviţki 1994, 222–223). The first visible difference from the necropolis at Sboryanovo is that in the latter the funerary disposal is tumular and contains more individuals. The funerary rite is bi-ritual, with a clear preference for inhumation (83%). The five tumuli take up a compact space and are aligned NS, on a distance of approx. 500 m (Stoyanov 1997, 93). The necropolis contains 24 burials of individuals of ages between 7 and 55, of both sexes, in an interval spanning 2 to 3 generations. Regarding the deposition of the inhumated dead, it is obvious the preference for the extended position on back and the alignment SN (Stoyanov 1997, 100–101). The funerary inventory consists of a large number of cups and dishes placed in the area of the head or legs, together with one-ear cups, numerous shreds of large amphorae, spear tips, knives, fibulas, anthropomorphic statuettes etc. These items determined the finder to date the necropolis to th th the interval between the end of the 11 century and middle of the 9 c. B.C. (Stoyanov 1997, 85). The two necropoleis are isolated phenomena in the Lower Danube area and in the entire Carpathian-Balkan space. While the necropolis at Folteşti has analogies in the isolated find at Hansca, the necropolis at Sboryanovo has partial analogies in the tumulus investigated at Meri, and especially the necropoleis belonging to the Saharna-Solonceni culture (characterized by tumuli containing more individuals, burials in cases of stone and inventories of pottery vessels and metal pieces). VI. The chronological distribution of the finds th

The finds included in this study are dated to the interval from 11 century to the beginning of the 7th c. B.C. In order to better observe the evolution of the funerary phenomenon in the Lower Danube area, we consider that an objective chronological distribution of the find is necessary. Due to the lack, in most cases, of precise chronological clues, we will set intervals that would also reflect the evolution of the archeological cultures in this area. Thus, the first chronological interval is set to the 11th c. B.C., characterized by the incised th th pottery horizon. The second interval corresponds to the stamped pottery horizon (10 –9 c. B.C.), rd and the third interval refers to the period and area of the 3 phase of Babadag culture; the complexes in this last interval are very important for a complete analysis of the finds in the Babadag culture area. In the first chronological period we can include the burial from tumulus 5 (cat. no. 65) at Sboryanovo, the 9 tombs at Folteşti (cat. nos. 20–28) and the complexes containing human bones from Tămăoani (cat. no. 68), Garvăn (cat. no. 29) and Siliştea-Conac (cat. no. 66). 27


The second interval includes the tombs from tumuli 1 (cat. no. 61), 2 (cat. no. 62), 2 (cat. no. 63) and 4 (cat. no. 64) from the necropolis at Sboryanovo and the complex at Capidava, the tumular necropolis (cat. no.16); also belonging to this interval are the complexes with human bones at Babadag (cat. no. 17), Brăila (cat. no. 14), Bucu (cat. no. 15), Capidava-la Bursuci (cat. no. 17), Garvăn (cat. nos. 30, 31, 32), Jijila (cat. no. 35), Jurilovca (cat. no. 36), Niculiţel (cat. nos. 37–44), RevărsareaDealul Tichileşti (cat. no. 53), Sava Conevo (cat. no. 60), Suceveni (cat. no. 67). rd Many of the finds inside the settlements, and the finds and Izvoarele are attributed to the 3 phase of Babadag culture: complexes with human bones at Babadag (cat. nos. 1, 4, 6, 8, 9–13), Enisala (cat. no. 19), Novosel'skoe II (cat. nos. 45–49), Orlovka (cat. no. 50), Rasova (cat. nos. 51–52), Revărsarea-Cotul Tichileşti (cat. no. 54) and Satu Nou (cat. nos. 55 – 59). Even though, at present, we don't have information regarding the dating of two complexes from Babadag (cat. nos. 3, 5), it is our hope that this problem will be solved after the study of the complete documentation drawn up by the investigators at this site.

25 20 Tombs

15

Complexes with human bones inside the settlements

10 5 0 11th century BC

10th – 9th century BC

8th – 7th century BC

Table 4. The comparative situation of the tombs and complexes containing human bones inside the settlements for the three chronological periods in the Lower Danube area.

According to this chronological distribution we can observe that most of the finds considered as tombs are dated to the 11th c. B.C. These complexes decrease in number in the second interval (tumuli nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 at Sboryanovo and probably the find form Capidava – the Roman tumular necropolis), while in the third interval there only the uncertain finds from Izvoarele. The situation of the complexes inside the settlements, distributed in the three intervals, is rather reversed: for the 11th c. B.C. there are only three of such finds, while their number increases in rd the second interval and peaks in the 3 phase of Babadag culture. VII. Anthropological analyses A) Demographic aspects. Demography can include physical anthropological data as well as archeological data. Of most importance are the references about sex and age, anthropometry, pathology, anomalies and historical data (Spargue 2005, 33). The known anthropological data about 20 the early Hallstattian populations in the Lower Danube area are limited, at present, to 49 15 infans II individuals, among which 19 were female, 20 teenager 10 were male, and 10 of undetermined sex. adult Regarding the age categories, we have mature 5 data about the following ones: infans II, senile juvenilis, adultus, maturus and senilis, most 0 individuals belonging to the adultus and Table 5. The comparative table of the age categories. maturus categories. 28


12 10

infans II

8

teenager

6

adult

4

mature

2

senile

0 female

male

undetermined sex

Table 6. The comparative situation of the age categories by sex.

Table 6 shows that the average lifespan is higher for male individuals, while both categories have one senilis member: the woman discovered in tumulus 3, tomb 3 at Sboryanovo, and skeleton no.1 from the complex at Jurilovca. The data regarding the height of the individuals mostly comes from the analysis of the necropolis at Sboryanovo, and also from complexes nos. 6 and 7 at Babadag and no. 54 at Revărsarea-Cotul Tichileşti. All measurements conclude that the average height of the individuals was from 1.52 m (the woman from tomb 3, tumulus 5 at Sboryanovo) and 1.67 m (the adult male found in tomb 6, same tumulus). b) Pathology. The pathology data points out to a case of osteoporosis – skeleton no. 1 at Jurilovca (Ailincăi, Miriţoiu, Soficaru 2003, 308) and another two cases of spondylosis – an adult male discovered in tomb 3, tumulus 4 and an adult woman from tomb 5, tumulus 2 at Sboryanovo (Stoyanov 1997, 227–239). The analysis of the spine of skeleton no. 1 from complex no. 6 at Babadag showed signs of medium arthrosis in the dorsal, lumbar and sacral region, and incipient cox-arthrosis in the coxofemoral region. Skeleton no. 2 suffered from lumbar-sacral arthrosis, a mild sacral osteoporosis, had an osteophyte on the distal end of the left humerus and double parietal depression. The observations regarding skeleton no. 3 are also very interesting: the left humerus was fractured and repaired, and the left parietal area showed signs of a powerful blow. c) Signs of violent death. In the complex at Jurilovca, the skull and the mandible of skeleton no. 5 show signs of perimortem violence. Thus, the right part of the mandible had a multiple fracture with slivers, which was clearly caused by a blow with a blunt object on the fresh bone, crushing the upper jaw too. Similar signs are found on skeleton no. 6 from the same complex: fractured jaw with slivers in the chin area, and the right side of the face (upper jaw and zygomatic) crushed by a blow with a blunt object (Ailincăi, Miriţoiu, Soficaru 2003, 314–315). Skull no. 1 from complex no. 9 at Babadag also showed signs of violence: destruction of the lateral side of the right supraorbital margin, where a blow, most probable on the green bone, fissured the supraorbital margin and broke the zygomatic epiphysis of the frontal and zygomatic bones. The lack of postfractum reactions leads us to assume that it could be a case of perimortem violence. These situations can have multiple interpretations; one of the most often given explanation is the performing of human sacrifices. However, we must also consider the inevitable conflicts between communities or inside the community (Martin, Frayer 1997; Thorpe 2003, 145–165). This kind of dangers could also explain the construction of the impressive fortifications at Babadag or Jijila. d) Postmortem interventions on the bones. Skull no. 3 is well preserved but suffered ancient damage. Thus, the left half of the facial massive is missing, as it was probably displaced by violent action which broke the nose, the upper epiphysis of the jaw, the palate, the pterigoid process of the sphenoid and the zygomatic epiphysis of the temporal. There are also signs of destruction at the base of the skull, on the mastoids, the occipital condyles and the upper part of the basioccipital. Postmortem interventions on the bones are also mentioned for the necropolis at Sboryanovo, where the femur of a senilis female had signs of incisions made with a sharp object (Stoyanov 1997, 231, fig. 6). 29


VIII. Final considerations Analyzing the total amount of the funerary finds from the Lower Danube area, a first conclusion would be that there are at least two ways of disposing the dead. The first could be represented by the complexes with human remains found inside the settlements, and the second could refer to the organization of an extra-mural funerary space, like is the case with the necropoleis from Folteşti and Sboryanovo. An overlook on the complexes with human remains from settlements brings to the conclusion that can't be observes rules concerning the number of individuals placed in one complex, the degree of anatomical connection, the position, the deposition, the orientation and alignment, the sex and age, or the existence of special characteristics (like for example malformations or physical anomalies). On the whole, some hypotheses can be presented with regard to the proceedings followed by the communities in order to arrange the disposal of the dead inside the settlements. First of all, not one of the fragmentary skeletons or disparate bones, anthropologically analyzed, shows signs of mechanical defleshing, conducted with cutting tools. Also, there are no signs of animal activity, like gnawing of the bones. So, the state of the human remains seems to be rather the result of prolonged exposure to air, in special places that led to the degradation of the soft tissues, and the drying and rigidity of the ligaments, the fragmentation intervening only with the following manipulation of the bodies. The lack of traces showing the intervention of predators reflect the fact that the place chosen for exposure was protected through the covering of the bodies or their placing on platforms, and why not inside the inhabited space (special structures or dwelling places). Such a place could have been the ravine excavated inside the settlement from Satu NouValea lui Voicu, mentioned before. The degree of articulation, in other words the choice of only some parts of the skeleton, is, we believe, intentional, the rest of the body most probably being subject to a different treatment (perhaps it was cremated, buried in a different place, kept inside dwelling places or even just abandoned). This way there could be explained the finds consisting of isolated bones or parts of bodies, especially skulls and limbs. Turning back to the complexes found inside the settlements of the Lower Danube area, it can be important the observation of some signs of perimortem violence in some cases: skeletons 5 (adolescent/female) and 6 (adult/male) from Jurilovca-Orgame; skull no. 1 (adult/female) from the complex cat. no. 9 from Babadag. All three show the smashing and fracture of the facial region (maxilla and mandible) as the result of applying blows with blunt objects. The absence of any postfractum reaction of the affected bones indicates the fact that the individuals didn't survive the violence exerted towards them. Outside this, like already mentioned, the anthropological examination didn't bring any evidence of infirmities, malformations or anomalies of the bones. As well, there can't be determined any criteria for the selection of those individuals (sex, age, social status, cause of death). Also, the large range of time during which this way of disposing the dead is practiced normally would exclude the possibility that we face the result of an epidemic. Although the variations in the treatment of the deceased – inhumation shortly after the moment of death, the prolonged exposure and the subsequent placement inside the pits of only parts of skeletons or isolated bones – can't be so far explained and motivated, they still suggest the existence of a coherent assemble of practices, with stages observed together or separately for this category of finds. Following this line of argumentation, the burials from the necropolis of Folteşti could be also a stage in this funerary practice, with the majority of the deceased disposed without anatomical connection, as a result of the manipulation of the bones. In the Lower Danube area, this phenomenon can be noticed starting with the 11th century th th B.C., and reaching a special intensity during the 10 –8 centuries B.C., period that coincides, at least in the above mentioned area, with a clear drawback of the funerary complexes organized in cemeteries. For some zones, it looks like the two modalities used in the disposal of the dead are used at the same time, a case being noticed for the Saharna-Solonceni culture. 30


If the ritual observed for the necropolis from Folteşti presents similarities with what is known about the complexes found inside settlements, the necropolis from Sboryanovo detaches itself, being more closely related to the tumulus from Meri (Moscalu 1976, 77–78) and the graves from the Saharna-Solonceni culture. Further more, the presence in this case of some cremation burials and grooved pottery sends rather to the funerary practices from the western part of Romania, the area of Banat and Oltenia. At the same time, we need to notice that, while the majority of the excavated settlements produced such finds, namely complexes with human remains, the “normal” graves are represented by two sites, with a rather eccentric position, and two isolated finds (Capidava and Izvoarele), with uncertain chronological and cultural determination. In such a situation, one question arises: which of the two manifestations reflects the funerary conception of the Early Iron Age communities from the Lower Danube area? The data at our hand at this moment clearly represent only a small part of what is needed in order to answer to this question. This leaves us with the hope that the future finds will finally enable us to throw some light to this essential part of the life of past societies. Translated in English by Cristina Ailincăi and Diana Gherasimiuc

BIBLIOGRAPHY Ailincăi, S., Miriţoiu, N., Soficaru A., 2003, O groapă cu oseminte umane atribuită culturii Babadag descoperită în nivelul precolonial de la Orgame (com. Jurilovca, jud. Tulcea), ArhMold 26, p. 307–324. Ailincăi, S., Miriţoiu, N., Soficaru, A. 2006, A pit with human remains attributed to the Babadag culture discovered in Pre-colonial level at Orgame, p. 81–107. In: Orgame/Argamum. A la Recherche d'une Colonie (Ed. M. MănucuAdameşteanu), Actes du Colloque International. 40 ans de recherche archéologique à Orgamé/Argamum, Bucarest-TulceaJurilovca, 3–5 octobre 2005, Bucarest. Ailincăi, S., Topoleanu, F. 2003, Noi complexe cu oseminte umane în aşezarea de tip Babadag de la Niculiţel „Cornet”, Peuce 14, 45–50. Ailincăi S., C., Jugănaru G., Ţârlea A., C., Vernescu M. 2005–2006, Early Iron Age Complexes with Human Remains from the Babadag Settlement, Peuce S.N. 3–4, 2007, p. 77–108. Chicideanu, I., M. 2000, In: Alexandrescu, P., Marinescu – Bâlcu, S., Motzoi-Chicideanu, I., Babeş, M., Avram, A., Barnea, A., Barnea, I, Harhoiu, R., Mormânt. In: Enciclopedia Arheologiei şi Istoriei Vechi a României (C. Preda coord.) 3, Bucureşti, 108–154. Baumann, V., H. 1995, Aşezări rurale antice în zona Gurilor Dunării. Contribuţii arheologice la cunoaşterea habitatului natural (sec. I–IV p. Chr.), Tulcea. Berciu, D. , Morintz, S., Roman, P., Şantierul arheologic Cernavodă, Materiale 7, p. 49–55. Bruiako, I., V., Noviţkii, E., Iu. 1997, Grădiştea Novosel'skoe II (Satu Nou II) – Un nou complex tracic la Dunărea de Jos, Cercetări Arheologice în Aria Nord – Tracă 2, p. 114–168. Bruiako, I.,V., Yaroševič, Iu., I. 2001, Gorodiše u s. Novosel'skoe na nižnem Dunae, Germes. Cheluţă-Georgescu, N. 1979, Cercetări efectuate în necropola romană de la Capidava (Capidava – 1978), Materiale, p. 179–182. Dobrinescu, C., Voinea, V., Cărpuş, L. 2005, Capidava, com. Topalu, jud. Constanţa, Punct: La Bursuci, CCAR. Campania 2004, 99–100. Dragomir, I., T. 1996, Mormântul colectiv hallstattian de la Suceveni, jud. Galaţi, Danubius 16, p. 365–372. Haimovici, S., Studiul paleofaunei descoperită în trei situri hallstattiene din Nordul Dobrogei, Peuce S.N. 1, 2003, p. 477 – 476. Hänsel, B. 1976, Beiträge zur regionalen und Chronologischen Gliederung der Älteren Hallstattzeit an der Unteren Donau, vol. 1, 2, Bonn. Harţuche, N. 2002, Complexul arheologic Brăiliţa, B.Thr 35, Bucureşti. Hawkes, L., Molleson, T. 2000, Refleshing the Past. In: Towards reflexive method in archaeology: the example at Catalhöyük (Ed. I. Hodder), Ankara, p. 153–166. Irimia, M. 1974, Cercetările arheologice de la Rasova – Malu Roşu. Raport Preliminar (Cu privire specială asupra Hallstattului în Dobrogea), Pontica 7, 75–132. Irimia, M. 2003, Den Grabritus und die Grabrituale der Babadag – Kultur – Gemeinschaften betreffend, Thracia 15, p. 251–268.

31


Irimia, M., Conovici N. 1993, Descoperiri hallstattiene în zona davei getice de la Satu Nou, com. Oltina, jud. Constanţa, Pontica 26, p. 51–114. Jugănaru, G. 1997, Manifestări timpurii ale primei epoci a fierului în Dobrogea (Descoperirile de la Garvăn “Mlăjitul Florilor”, Jud. Tulcea). In : Premiere Age du Fer aux Bouches du Danube et dans les régions autour de la Mer-Noire – Actes du Colloque International, Tulcea, p. 103–110. Jugănaru, G. 2005, Cultura Babadag, 1, Constanţa. Jugănaru, G., Topoleanu, F. 1994, Gropi funerare în aşezarea hallstattiană de la Niculiţel “Cornet” (jud. Tulcea), Istros 7, p. 71–81. László, A. 1986, Grupul Tămăoani. Asupra orizontului hallstattian cu ceramică incizată din Moldova, MemAntiq 12–13, p. 65–77. László, A. 2006, Sur les coutumes funéraires des populations du Bas – danube au début de l Âge du Fer. In: Pratiques funéraires et manifestations de l'identité culturelle (Âge du Bronze at Âge du Fer) (Eds. Lungu V., Simion G., Topoleanu F.), Actes du IV e Colloque International d Archéologie Funéraire, Tulcea, p. 105–116. Leviţki, O. 1985, Pogrebenie rannego železnogo veka u. Gansk, AIM v 1981, p. 125–128. Leviţki, O. 1994, Grupul Holercani-Hansca, aspectul pruto-nistrean al complexului hallstattian timpuriu cu ceramică incizată. In: Relations Thraco-Illyro-Helléniques (Eds. P. Roman, M. Alexianu), Bucureşti, p. 219–256. Martin, D., L., Frayer D., W. 1997, Troubled Times. Violence and Warfare in the Past, Amsterdam. Morintz S. 1987, Noi date şi probleme privind perioadele hallstattiană timpurie şi mijlocie în zona istro-pontică (Cercetările de la Babadag), Thraco-Dacica 8, 1–2, p. 39–72. Morintz, S., Jugănaru, G. 1995, Raport privind săpăturile arheologice efectuate în sectorul V al aşezării hallstattiene de la Babadag (1991–1992), Peuce 11, p. 177–202. Moscalu, E. 1976, Die Frühhallstattzeitliche Gräber von Meri, Thraco-Dacica 1, 77–86. Petrescu-Dîmboviţa, M. 1953, Cercetări arheologice în aşezarea din prima epocă a fierului de la Tămăoani (raionul Galaţi), SCIV 4, 3–4, p. 765–778. Sîrbu, V. 1994, Sacrificii umane şi practici funerare insolite în arealul tracic în Hallstatt şi La Tène, Istros 7, p. 83–120. Sîrbu, V. 1997, Sacrifices humains et pratiques funéraires insolites dans l'areal thrace du Hallstatt et La Tène. In: Premier Âge du Fer aux Bouches du Danube et dans les Régions autour de la Mer Noire, Tulcea, 193–221. Sîrbu, V., Pandrea, S. 1994, Cercetările arheologice de la Siliştea, Jud. Brăila , Istros 7, p. 27–62. Sîrbu, V., Ailincăi, S. 2005, Jijila, com. Jijila, jud. Tulcea, CCAR. Campania 2004, p. 202–203. V. Sîrbu, S. Ailincăi, G. Simion 2008. Jijila-Cetăţuie, dép. de Tulcea – un établissement fortifié de la culture Babadag au nord-ouest de la Dobroudja (in press). Spargue, R. 2005, Burial Terminology. A Guide for Researchers, Oxford. Stoyanov, T. 1997, Early Iron Age Necropolis. Sboryanovo I, Sofia. Thorpe, I., J.,N. 2003, Anthropology, archaeology, and the origin of warfare, World Anthropology 35, 1, p. 145–165. Vasile, G. 2006, Un schelet incomplet atribuit primei epoci a fierului descoperit la Capidava La Bursuci – studiu antropologic, Studii de Preistorie 3, 215–223.

32


20 – 28 68 45–49 67 66

14

50 29 – 32 35

37–44

53–54 1–13 19 36 15

16 – 17 33-34

55–59 51–52 61–65

60

0

22,5

45

90 km

SCA-TI

The map of the funerary finds in the Lower Danube area (the numbers correspond to the catalogue in the text).

33