phenomenon, viz. the effect of the programme (Mark, 1996:220; Patton, 2002:556, ... 1988:20-27; Steyn, 2000:1-3), was used to measure tl1e magnitude of the ...
Maatskaplike Werk/Social Work focuses on subjects relating to social work intervention on micro and macro level - individuals, families, groups and communities, health care, community development or specialist fields. Social work practice, research, programme evaluation, education and development and social work management are all covered. Original accounts of professional activities by practising social workers are just as welcome as scientifically based articles. Maatskaplike Werk/Social Work fokus op onderwerpe wat verband hou met maatskaplikewerldmlpverlening op mila'o- en makrovlak- individue, gesinne, groepe en gemeenskappe, gesondheidsorg, gemeenskapsontwildceling of gespesialiseerde terreine. Maatskaplikewerkpraktyk, navorsing, programevaluering, opleiding en ontwildceling en maatskaplikewerkbestuur word alles gedek. Oorspronklike weergawes van professionele aktiwiteite van praktiserende maatskaplike werkers is net so welkom as wetenskaplik gefundeerde artikels.
X
POVERTY, DEVELOPMENT AND DISABILITY .......... , ...................... , ............................ 251 NGathiram This paper focuses on the disproportionate rate ofpoverty amongst persons with _disability
and their families. In South Africa poverty is rife in the general population and
behaviour and changed their personal and professional lives in a very positive m This result implies that the programme in its current or adapted form could be usee. effective instrument in addressing stress-related problems in other occupatiom generic social work settings.
communities are underdeveloped with few resources and services. The environment lacks
THE USE OF THE PERSONAL NARRATIVE IN SOCIAL WORK WITH THE ELDI
functioning and quality of life as productive members of society. The author argues that zn these poor communities there has to be synergy with mainstream development and those developments that are specific for persons with disabilities. It is proposed that integration
FHowes This article describes how a lifespan approach to personality, with its developJ stages, and constructionism have broadened the knowledge base of social work pr. This has also enlarged interventive knowledge by adding the constructed narrative as at the disposal of the social worker. The narrative directs the interventive process. In work with the elderly reminiscence and life review are important elements. Nw therapy can successfully accommodate these elements.
the support and opportunities that persons with disabilities need to enhance the~r
of disability services into all development programmes at community level is essential, given the South African context. Integration of disability services into all development programmes is a cost-effective approach to deal with poverty and disability in resourcepoor settings. Challenges in implementing these recommendations are discussed. DIE AARD ENROL VAN DIE MAATSKAPLIKE WERKER SE PERSOONLIKHEID ASOOK DIE EKSTERNE OMGEWING IN DIE SUKSESVOLLE BESTUUR VAN 'N PRIVAATPRAKTYK,,,,.,.,.,,, ,,,.,,.,, ,,,, ,,,,.,, ,,,,.,,.,,,.,.,.,, ,,,.,., ,,.,, ,,,,.,,,,. 257 CHM Bloem & CSL De/port · To manage a private practice successfully, social worker's should not only have th_e necessary knowledge and skills to their disposal; they should also be able to analyse thelr . own unique personality and the environment in which they function as well as the interplay between these internal and external eleme.nts. The aim of this article is to discuss the nature and role of the social worker's personality and the manifestation thereof as internal element, as well as the environment as external element and the importance therofin social work private practice. In this context specific emphasis will be on a discussion regarding the entrepreneurial personality and emotional intelligence as internal elements and the environment and the continuous changes in the environment as external elements. THE PERCEPTION OF THE PROFESSIONAL SELF OF SOCIAL WORKERS IN PRIVATE PRACTICE.,,,,,,,,,.,.,,,.,.,.,,,,.,,,,.,.,,,,,.,.,,,.,.,.,,,,.,,,,.,.,.,,,.,,.,,,.,, 269 C Davidson & CJ Schenck Social work in South Africa appears to have low status and a negative "welfare" image. The general public seems to regard social workers and the profession with disdain and for the most part is ignorant of what social workers do apart from handing out F!'ants and removing children from their families. This exploratory research focuses on socwl r;orkers in private practice- how they view their professional selves, the fac_tors thf;lt co~t;lbute I? the development of their professional selves and the factors that hmder or facllltate thts development.
•
PROACTIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT: THE nature, effect AND IMPLICATIONS OF TliE SOUTH AFRICAN POLICE SERVICE'S "MANAGING STRESS EFFECTIVELY" .PROGRAMME,.,.,,,,,.,,,,,.,,,,.,,,,,.,.,,,,.,,,,.,.,.,,,,,,,,.,.,.,,.,.,,,,.,.,,,,.,,,,.,, 281 HM Williams & ML Weyers The work ofpolice officials is generally regarded as highly stressful. Because of this and other factors, the SAPS's Social Work Service developed the proactive "Managing_ Stress Effe.ctively" programme to improve personnel's practical stress-m~nagement stratewes an_d techniques. This programme's effect was measured by means of srx measurement scales m a research project that involved 384 experimental and comparison group members and 32 presenters. The measurements showed that it had a significant effect on the respondents'
AN INSIGHT INTO RECIDIVISM AMONG MALE AWAITING-TRIAL YOUTH OFFENDERS AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE,,,,,,,,,,.,.,,,,.,,,,, TGxubane This article outlines and describes major variables associated with recidivism a1 rehabilitation of male awaiting-trial youth offenders. It is based on a study the undertaken by the author to investigate the problem specifically from the perspecJ awaiting-trial juvenile recidivists. Findings in the study revealed that financial gain ~ddiction and peer pressure were the major driving forces and motivating factor znjluenced the respondents to become repeatedly involved in criminal behaviour. Lac stable source of income, denial of readmission at school, rejection by family and ft and lack of a stable home and accommodation were some of the major factors that reintegration into the community difficult for the respondents during the period qfte1 previous release. Reintegration and after-care services were identified as areas th. grossly neglected in the field ofprobation and in social work services generally. In v the key findings of the study, recommendations are outlined with regard to pro strategies for the management and control of recidivism among male awaiting-trial offenders. GROOTMOEDERS IN KA YAMANDI SE.ERVARING VAN FAMILIE-PLEEGSORC D van Rensburg & S Green An exploratory study with a descriptive design has been used in order to gain a understanding of the experience of grandmothers as kinship caregiver (family . parent) for their grandchildren. The increase in the number of grandmothers wh acting as kinship caregivers, as well as the shortage of indigenous literature o. phenomenon in South Africa, were the motivation for the study. The aim of the stud) provide some guidelines to social workers for service rendering to these grandmothe1 foster children. The study Presents a profile of the grandmother as kinship caregiver as well as the. child in Kayamandi The findings of the study show that the experiences of the grandn as kinship caregiver are marked with mixedfeelings, but are overall a positive experie The recommendations focus mainly on grandmothers' needfor social and material SUJ
... __ , _ , . . , __ . _ h i
·-·
···-
. .,_
,_ ..............
r
280 MALHERBE, B.R. & HENDRIKS, E. 2004. An investigation into the d~tenninants of i?b satisfaction and the improvement of quality of work life of grassroots sacral workers. Social Work!Maatskaplike Werk, 40(1):25-40. MEYER, W.F., MOORE, C. & VILJOEN, H.G. 1989. Personality theories: From Freud to
PROACTIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT: THE NATURE, EFFI IMPLICATIONS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN POLICE SERVIC "MANAGING STRESS EFFECTIVELY" PROGRAMME
Frankl. Johannesburg: Lexicon Publishers. MOUTON, J. & MARAIS, H.C. !991. Basic concepts: In the methodology of the social sciences. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. NEW DICTIONARY OF SOCIAL WORK. !995 (rev ed). Sv "private practice". Cape Town:
HM Williams, ML Weyers
INTRODUCTION The need for a stress-management programme can generally be attributed to the
CTP.
REAL, T. 1990. The therapeutic use of self in constructionist/systemic therapy. Family Process, 29:255-270. ROGERS, C.R. 1951. Client-centred therapy. London: Constable. ROGERS, C.R. 1978. Carl Rogers on personal powers: Inner strength and its revolutionary
developed for the South African Police Service (SAPS).
The programme that was developed by the section Police Social Work Services (Pt was given the title "Managing Stress Effectively". It formed part of a comprehensi· seven personnel capacity-building programmes. The others were entitled "Colleagu1 "Substance Dependency'', "Be Money Wise", "IDV/AIDS Awareness'\ "ill' Educators Training" and "Life Skills".
impact. London: Constable. ROWAN, J. 1998. The reality game: A guide to humanistic counselling and psychotherapy
(2"' ed). New York: Routledge. RUBIN, A. & BABBlE, E. 1993. Research methods for social work (2"' ed). California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. SCHENCK, c.J. 2003. Rural social work in South
Afric~: The pe~ception and experiences of
A need arose for the comprehensive and scientific measurement of these programn personnel. This was required to ensure that they met their proposed outcomes, repre! effective intervention mechanism and, ultimately, that PSWS made a meaningful c< the personnel's effective social functioning. Therefore, in 2001 the coinprehensive]
practitioners. Unpublished report, University of South Afrtca, Pretona. THE CONCISE OXFORD DICTIONARY. 1964. Sv "professional". Great Britain: Oxford.
Personoel Capacity-building Programmes (EPCaP) study was launched. The evah "Managing Stress Effectively'' progranune formed part of this study.
UNGAR, M. 2004. Surviving as a postmodem social worker: Two ps and three rs of direct practice. Social work, 49(3):488-492. WATZLAWICK, P. 1984. The invented reality. New York: Norton. WINSTON, c., STINSON, L. & STINSON, E. 2004. The public's perception of social work: Is it what we think it is? Social Work, 49(2):164-174.
t
work is often extremely stressful and that police officials tend to suffer from a va1 induced physiological, psychological and behaviOural disorders. McCraty, Atkinson (1999:1-3) argue that particular attention should be given to occupational stress in potentially negative consequences affect society in more direct and critical ways other organisations. It was, therefore, crucial that a stress-management programJ
i.
In this overview of the nature and results of the research there are three main themes. nature of the "Managing Stress Effectively" progranune, the scientific verification of the implications that the results might have for social work services in other settings.
THE OUTCOMES AND STRUCTURE OF THE PROGRAMME Mrs Colette Davidson, MA(SS) Mental Health student, UNISA and Prof Rinie Schenck, Department ofSocial Work, UNI SA, Pretoria, South Africa.
The outcomes of the programme The "Managing Stress Effectively" programme falls within the category of person programmes. These can be defined as structured intervention mechanisms that are im} empower employees with the knowledge, attitude and behaviour that they require (more) resilient (Stutterheim & Weyers, 2002:10). Within the SAPS context, r"' viewed as " ... the process, capacity and outcome of successful adaptation to cha adversity, sustained competence under threatening circumstances and the ability to r trauma" (Stutterheim & Weyers, 2004:11).
The programme's specific aim is to empower participants with the ability to develof stre~s-management strategies and techniques that suit their unique personalities, imm environments and personal lives. To achieve this result, they must understand the natl (knowledge), be willing to adopt new stress-management behaviour (attitude) and be at newly acquired lmowledge and ski11s to design and implement a personal stress mana! (behaviour).
--- - ---- ----···
imbal~~ce between the level of demand placed on people, as they perceive it, and t capabzllty to meet the demands" (Selye, 1956:15). By discussing and agreeing defim~on of stres~, the P.articipants are also enabled to understand how they, as uniq1 expenence stress m a unique way.
THE PROGRAMME CONTENT The programme takes 16 hours to complete and is presented in a workshop format. This format maximises group participation, but is also able to meet individual needs. Experiential learning is
emphasised throughout and each session follows the basic social group work process. The approach followed in the programme is that stress is a normal part of everyday life, but that dealing with it appropriately is the challenge. The proceedings, therefore, start with an overview of the basic nature and causes of stress. This is followed by activities that enable participants to draw up a profile oftheir stress and stress reactioo.s. The third part ofthe progranune :lO:uses on strategies and techniques that could potentially be used in stress management and, in the final part, participants
When the subject of the causes of stress is introduced, it is emphasised that stress everyday occurrence and has come to characterise modern life (Ross & Altmaier, eve~ ~ore prevalent amongst SAPS personnel due to challenges associated with la'-' Participants are warned that if they ignore the existence of stress and its real , produ~tivity and metal health can be negatively affected. The programme then f potenttal causes and enables participants to identify the particular causes of their stre realise that what they experience as the main cause of their stress is not necessaril' · another person.
are enabled to draw up a personal stress-management action plan. These four parts, together with the contents and main teaching activities of the programme, are summarised in Table 1.
TABLEl THE STRUCTURE AND PRESENTATION OF THE "MANAGING STRESS EFFECTIVELY" PROGRAMME Subject Opening
Methods
•
Presentation: Introduction, orientation to the programme and its intended
Part 1: "What is stress?" • Defining stress • The causes of stress
• • •
Presentation: Introduction to the theme and procedure Small group activity: Symbolic drawing of the definition of stress Group discussion on the causes of stress and whether stress is good or bad
• The physiology of stress Part 2: "My personal stress profile".
•
Small group activity: Body drawing, indicating all the stress reactions on a
• •
Presentation: Introduction to the theme and procedure Individual activity: Completing checklists covering the participant's level
Part 3: "Strategies for dealing with stress" Part 4: "My personal stress-management action plan" Closing
At this stag~, the question "How does stress affect me?" is introduced. Participants tf ~1e conc~usmn that stress c~n actually be good (motivational). However, if prolo Ignored, II could have a detrunental effect on them physically and emotionally, as w of behaviOur. These negative effects are illustrated through body drawings (see Tab!
•d'J(~/dl
It had a
lot of
20
84
194
(6.58%)
(27.63%)
(63.82%)
35 (11.55%)
16 (5.28%)
19 (6.21%)
21
Ill (36.63%)
109 (35.97%)
81 (26.47%)
90
!50 (49.50%)
173 (57.10%)
197 (64.38%)
187
!ld1rr·
3.633
3.532
3.333
3.485
3.522
3.501
O'diff
0.665
0.707
0.770
0.675
0.742
0. 711
Value (effect size)
Scales/ questions
1. 7**
n
ll
"
d-Value (effect sizr
Scale 5
289
3.512
0.400
2.53**
22. The course/programme stimulated my creative thinking.
284
3.415
0.528
1.73**
23. I will be able to apply the new knowledge and insights that I have gained in my job.
287
3.473
0.546
1.78**
24. I feel that the course/programme will help me do my job better.
283
3.487
0.521
1.89**
25. I will be able to apply the new knowledge and insights that I have gained in my daily life.
289
3.453
0.532
1.79**
26. I feel that the course/programme will help me to live my life in a better way.
287
3.505
0.534
1.88**
27. All SAPS personnel should receive this course/programme.
288
3.763
0.464
2.72**
1.5**
1.0**
1.5**
1.4**
1.4**
•Reliable scale: a_- 0.5+. **Practical stgmficant effect: d- 0.8+ With an overall effect size of2.53 (see Table 7), it is clear that the stress-management had an extremely high relevancy value. The probable reason for this effect is that the successfully addressed an issue that represented a felt need within the organif conclusion is substantiated by the fact that the effect size in the case of Question 27 personnel should receive this course/programme" was extremely high (d=2. 72). There are a number of additional conclusions that could be drawn from the effect siz by the other questions. These include the following: •
All the scores tended to be high. This indicates that the relevance of the programrr be attributed to only one factor, but to the combined effect of all its components.
294 •
•
If the two questions that relate to the effect of the programme on a person's job performance (questions 23 & 24) are compared to those that focus on their personal lives (questions 25 & 26), no overall trend emerges. This implies that the programme should not be seen as either a job-enrichment instrwnent or a personal-empowerment tool, but rather as a combination of the two. ·
Provision was also made in the qu~tionnaire for recommendations regarding the i the programme. Some of these are mcluded in the guidelines.
FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS The three main research findings and their implications can be summarised as follm:
Questions 23 to 26 inter alia also dealt with knowledge, attitudes and behavioural change. In tenns of triangulation, their high effect size further vindicates the conclusions reached regarding flaws in some of the scales that were used. It is, therefore, clear that the programme must have had a practical significant effect on respondents' knowledge, attitudes and
The av?ilability sampling produced experimental and comparison groups that carrel well With the profile of the SAPS population. The programme should, therefore, type. of effec~s _on all other SAPS personnel, irrespective of their rank/post n provmce of ongm. '
behaviour.
•
Through the triangulation of measurements it became clear that the programmE had a practical sz"p:ificc:nt effect on SAPS personnel's stress-related kuowledg behaviOur. In addtbon, It empowered them to function more effectively on both and a ~e~sonal le~el. The programme, therefore, succeeded fully in the purpm was ongmally designed.
•
The third _general finding was that the presentations of the programme were of a and contributed positively to its effect.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE PROGRAMME PRESENTATION Because poor presenters and presentations will have a detrimental influence on any programme's effect, it was necessary to measure the overall quality of the stress-management programme's presentations. For this purpose Scale 6 was developed and iricluded in the presentation evaluation questionnaire. This scale consisted of21 questions that were grouped into four subscales. Only the results for these four subscales are included in Table 8.
TABLES EFFECT SIZES OF SCALE 6 (QUALITY OF PROGRAMME PRESENTATION). Subscalc
n
d-Value
"
(effect size)
a
0.468
1.99**
0.83
GUIDELINES FOR IMPROVING THE PROGRAMME In spite .of the programme's proven effect, value and relevance, it is not , sh~rtc~mmgs. _The research results were, therefore, also used as a basis to formulate guidelmes for Its further improvement:
Subscale 6.1: Evaluation of the presenter
290
" 3.434
Subscale 6.2: Evaluation of the presenter's presentation skills
290
3.699
0.507
2.36**
0.84"
Subscale 6.3: Evaluation of the learning prOcess
290
3.471
0.445
2.18**
0.88"
289
4.304
0.569
2.29**
0.78"
2.21 **
0.83"
Subscale 6.4: Evaluation of the presentation context Average
289.8
1111
•Reliable scale: a. - 0.5+. **Practical s1gmficant effect: d = 0.8+ The average rating for the four scales that covered the quality of the programme presentation came to an astonishing 2.21 (see Table 8). This would, firstly, indicate that the presenters generally succeeded extremely well in their task of presenting the programme in an effective and professional way. A second implication is than any weaknesses in the effects of the programme could not be attributed tO the presenters, but rather to the contents of the progranune.
THE'rRESENTER'S EVALUATION OF THE PROGRAMME The presenters of the programme also had to complete the presenter's evaluation questionnaire. This questionnaire, which was similar to the presentation evaluation questionnaire, enabled them to evaluate their own expertise and presentation skills, as well as the learning process, the learning context and the relevance of the programme. The data showed strong similarities between the presenters' and respondents' evaluations. The only marked difference was that the presenters tended to evaluate their presentation skills at a lower level than those attributed to them by the respondents.
Social Work/Afaatskao/ike Werk 2006:42f3/4J
•
The elements of the programme that the presenters found least helpful and mos1 should be reformulated.
•
It should b~ome standard. practice to revise and update the programme ev• months_. ~.this proc~ss and m order to comply with the principles of experientia the actiVIties, exerctses, checklists and examples should be re-evaluated and order to make them even more relevant and effective.
•
The nature of the pr?gra~e makes it an imperative that only suitably qu workers from the Pollee Soctal Work Services should present the programmE ens.~e ~ even higher presentation standard, all the presenters should receive facxhtatton and presentations skills course.
•
The KAB scales should be improved and used on a continual basis in the eval P:ogramme's effect. This will help to ensure that all new participants will rece htgh standard of service delivery.
CONCLUDING REMARKS The. "Managing S~ess Effectively" programme represents an important attempt b Social Work Ser.vtces to. enhance SAPS personnel's ability to face the rigours of s~ressful occ~patt_ons. It I~, therefore, quite significant that the research has prover hi~.Iy effectt:ve mterventmn .mechani~m that succeeds fully in the purpose for ~ ongmally destgned. Through Its proactive stress-management abilities the personnel to lea~ more productive professional lives and to serve all of South Africa's comm effectively.
296
The study's results have, however, implications that stretch beyond the narrower ambit of police or even occupational social work services. They indicate that social workers do have the ability to develop, implement and evaluate stress-management programmes. Such programmes could and should become an integral part of generic practice.
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McCANN, T.V. & SHARKEY, R.J. 1998. Educational intervention with intematio changes in knowledge, attitudes and willingness to provide care to patients wi1 Journal of Advanced Nursing, 27:267-273. McCRATY, R., ATKINSON, M., TOMPSON, M. 1999. Impact of the Hea Management Program on Psychological Stress in Police Officen http://www.heartmath.org/ResearchPapers/Police/welcome.html [Accessed: 4 Decen MITCHELL, C.M. & KAUFMAN, C.E. 2002. Structure of kuowledge, attitudes, , among American Indian young adults. AIDS Education and Prevention, 14:401-40 PATTON, M.Q. 2002. Qualitative research & evaluation methods. London: Sage
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WORKING PARTY ON DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION AND ENVIRONMENT. 1999. , ~I
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communication
tools
towards
sustainable
THE USE OF THE PERSONAL NARRATIVE IN SOCIAL W( THE ELDERLY
WPDCE see Working Party on Development Cooperation and Environment.
F Howes
ZECHMEISTER, E.B. & POSAVEC, E.J. 2003. Data analysis and interpretation in behavioural sciences. Belmont (CA): Thompson/Wadsworth.
INTRODUCTION
Superintendent Heiletje Williams, social worker with the South African Polke Service, Pretoria and Prof Mike Weyers, EPCaP Project Manager, Soczal Work DlVlswn, NorthWest University (Potchefttroom Campus), Potchefttroom, South Africa.
Reminiscence and life review have always been regarded as integral parts ofthe aE the past, however, a stereotypical view of the aged often prevailed. Accordin~ (1978:19), this view entails that " ... we view them as categories and not as indivk meaning of their characteristic behavior is already fixed in our minds, without au them the kind of finely tuned hearing which is vital to understand another 1 Stereotyping the elderly means that reminiscence and life review are dismissed < intellectual decline; living in the past; approaching dementia or second childhood; c of loneliness; lack of new experiences or clinging to a previous identity (Lewis & Kaminsky, 1978). Social workers and other professionals working with the elderly frequently dismissed these phenomena as meaningless, boring, time consuming an an irreversible condition. Two trends in present-day social work have contributed to change this situation, approach to human development and a humanistic approach to social work. TI therefore investigate the influence of the lifespan and the humanistic approach on social work. It will explain how the narrative has become a central construct in thi~ how it has lead to a new emphasis on reminiscence and life review as helpint gerontological social work.
A LIFESPAN APPROACH TO AGING Several theories of personality emphasise the developmental stages of personality~ the social environment influences development. Although some theorists development only up to a specific life stage, for example adolescence or adulthood, (1959) focused on social development throughout the full life cycle. According to E1 cycle from birth to old age and death moves through eight developmental stages. In stages the individual has to master some developmental tasks. If the individual cannc tasks, a major conflict or crises may ID-ise. Unsuccessful resolution of a developmen influence successive stages of the life cycle. At each stage of the life cycle the actively incorporating or reconciling in new, age-appropriate ways, those psychos that were ascendant in earlier periods (Erikson, 1963). The final life stage, old age, has its own developmental tasks, viz. ego integrity v• According to Hooyman and Kiyak (I 991 :228), the goal of this stage is to establi, meaning in one's life versus a feeling of despair or bitterness that life was waste. characterised by loss- of economic and social status, friends, abilities -and by inevit~ life-shattering changes in health status. This requires of the older person to cope witl and changes and the new circumstances they brought about. The older person 1 his/her own life choices, whether or not they were "successful" in a socially defint final life task is to achieve integrity. Erikson's definition of this concept is as folio acceptance of one's own and only life cycle and the people who have become signi: something that had to be and that, by necessity, perrni~ed of no substitution
Social Work/Maalskap/ike Werk 2006:42{3/4)
