Acts and events like the Great Expulsion of 1755. ..... determining this was in fact a violation of the NonIntercourse Act of 1794 because they were not approved ...
Maliseet Nation 1 Maliseet Nation Paul Cote, Jr. Sociology 394H Professor Lorien LakeCorral April 29, 2015
Maliseet Nation 2 Abstract The Maliseet have been along the Saint John river long before Maine entered statehood. Along the present border, separating Maine and New Brunswick, numerous families have settled on its the river banks on both sides. As part of the Abenaki federation the Maliseet moved throughout history within the same region forming long alliances with France and many unkept promises of the United States and Canada. The encroachment and settlement of the Europeans further progressed the disconnect between the natives with their families and the land they once called home. The area has a mixed history with England, France and the United States, each having their own rules and regulations dealing with the Indians. The wars were about resources on tribal lands, with the Maliseet and other indigenous people having the most to lose. Often times they were not even included in the resolutions. This thesis looks beyond the people themselves and on to how governments on both sides of the border regulated and controlled the native population through various Acts and events like the Great Expulsion of 1755. The Maliseet living in two different countries share similar experiences with war, poverty and the struggle to self govern. Two set of rules to regulate one nation, despite the many alliances and promises of the past, lead us into the current state of affairs in the tribes history, where, the struggle for power of its people are in the forefront within the complicated web constructed.
Maliseet Nation 3 Maliseet History Abenaki & Wabanaki The Abenaki, or “people of the dawnlands”, were a confederacy of Algonquianspeaking people. The eastern Abenaki were located in presentday Maine, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, having a population of 30,000 in 1524 (Grumet, 1996). Among the Eastern Abenaki were: the Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet, Micmac, Androscoggin, Kennebec, Ossipee and the Pigwacket tribes. Only the first four are current in existence. Ship logs, letters from missionaries, journals and maps give us insight into the history of the Abenaki. Samuel de Champlain sailed off the coast of Mount Desert Island (once known as Pemetic) in 1604 on a mission to map the land for France. His logs detail his interactions with the Abenaki like this: Two canoes with savages in them came within musket range to observe us. I sent out our two savages on the boat to assure them of our goodwill, but their fears of us made them turn back. These savages had come to hunt beaver and fish (Street and Elliot 1905:24). Street and Elliot (1905) claim Champlain’s journal inform us about the Abenaki whom Champlain calls Etchemin, as they guided him up to the St Lawrence River. He writes, “They wore furs, the land was good for hunting and fishing but not for settling. The wood was of an inferior kind (firs and pines)” (26). In 1604, Samuel de Champlain began to trade with the Abenaki villages for furs, establishing a French fort on the St. Croix River (26). The Abenaki began trading with the French and English for knives,
Maliseet Nation 4 brass for arrowheads, cloth, fish hooks, and iron axes in exchange for the furs (26). In 1607, England attempted to establish a colony on Abenaki land, only to leave after less than a year because of hostile encounters (27). For the next fifty years, the English and French fought over Abenaki land. The Wars The Abenaki built an alliance with the French, who would offer them protection from neighboring Iroquois tribe and guns. In 1616 and 1619, epidemics killed over half of the Abenaki people (Grumet, 1996). The French and Abenaki blamed the English and soon after, the English built an alliance with the Iroquois tribe. People in England began to settle on Abenaki land in increasing numbers, starting King Philip’s War in 1675 (Buckner, 1994). This led to the wipe out of the southern tribes in the Eastern Abenaki confederation, ending a year later. The Abenaki people who had remained neutral became part of the fight over land in the United States between the England and France. From 1689 until 1697. King William’s War was the first of many French and Indian wars (Buckner, 1994 and Greer, 1997). The Abenaki confederation joined the French in attacking the English military. The English would respond to the attacks by raiding the villages, resulting in the Abenaki retreating into areas where their French allies were in northern New England and Canada. The fighting stopped when France and England signed a peace treaty in 1697 (Buckner, 1994). The Abanaki continued fighting until 1699 when they signed an agreement to remain neutral in any further conflicts between the two countries (Landau, 1996).
Maliseet Nation 5 Queen Anne’s War erupted in 1702 when English troops were being killed by a renewed French and Abenaki alliance. The English began settling on the land which lead to the Abenaki retreating. Already in low numbers the Abenaki migrated to French territory for protection from further English colonization. In February of 1704 the French and Abenaki attacked the people of Deerfield, Massachusetts. They killed over fifty people capturing over a hundred as they burned the village, calling it the Great Massacre (Buckner, 1994). With the treaty of Utrecht signed at that ended the war, the French gave possession of Acadia (now Nova Scotia) to England, land used by the Abenaki, thus, creating the current border. The Abenaki fought back against the treaty. They would fight with Catholic priests in an attempt to defend their land in what was called the Drummer’s War in 1722 (Wood, 2006). They felt betrayed by the French, whom they allied with, for giving away their land. The Abenaki were defeated.
The English tried again to creep into the north, leading to King George’s War in 1744 (Wood, 2006). The Abenaki continued their alliance with the French in hopes of keeping them out of the Northeast until 1748. The last of the French and Indian Wars, called the Seven Year War would last from 1755 until 1763 (Faragher, 2005). England assumed control over Quebec after burning down the village in St. Francis. This led to England taking control over the rest of Canada. The Great Expulsion of the French began in 1755 (Faragher, 2005, Jennings, 1988 and Wood, 2006). England began a mass migration and settlement into former French and Abenaki lands. With so many people moving into the area it also brought with illnesses and diseases to the native populations.
Maliseet Nation 6 The Abenaki, referred to as Maliseet now, lived along with Saint John River. With the expulsion of the french, the Maliseet were now without an ally, and now being forced out themselves in search of safety. Maliseet Trail Eqpahak village, what is now Silverwood, New Brunswick, was where the Maliseet lived. They would fish salmon and sturgeon, and make maple syrup during the spring. The tribe members would gather together and in the grand council chamber, they would meet: to resolve family disputes, hold marriages and ceremonies, and assign hunting areas to families. The French built a chapel on the island and provided them with a priest (Greer, 2000). Along the western banks of the St. John River, Col. John Allan met with over 300 Maliseet Indians above Fredericton, New Brunswick (Greer, 2000). He convinced the chiefs, warriors and other members to join the Americans in their fight against the British. British troops were sent and captured Allan for treason after he sided with the Americans. After his capture, the Maliseet, now without an ally, took down the gold bell from their log chapel and began an exodus from the waterways of New Brunswick to Maine known as the Maliseet trail (Greer, 2000). Over 500 Maliseet in 124 canoes gathered at Meductic, now Woodstock, New Brunswick, and travelled down various waterways and portages until they arrived at Machias, Maine (Greer, 2000). Old Grand Chief Pierre Tomah was described as having one arm and eye left, as a result of his battle injuries from the Plains of Abraham at Quebec, led some Maliseet to the Madawaska region (Greer, 2000). The Madawaska
Maliseet Nation 7 Wolastoqiyik village is now Edmundston, NB, which was split into two when the border was defined in the treaty of Utrecht. The American Revolution When the American Revolution started, the Abenaki made an alliance with the American colonists in exchange for land they had lost. The United States formed in 1783 and lumber companies began intruding on Abenaki land, taking the lumber for profit (Cloney, 1993). Abenaki land was furthered divided between the United States and Canada when borders were declared after fighting over ownership of the lumber on the land as part of the border declared in the treaty of Utrecht. The Indians, now referred specifically as Maliseet, retreated to St. Francis, Quebec and grew, as they escaped the growing number of American settlers in the region. In 1805, the British government set aside St. Francis for the flood of Indian settlers (Cloney, 1993). The Abenaki who stayed in the United States took on American ways and traditions such as speaking in English in order to survive. Abenaki traditional ways were lost due to loggers destroying their hunting and fishing grounds. No longer able to be selfsupportive, they began selling baskets and crafts to survive (Cloney, 1993). In 1786, the Abenaki refused to sign a treaty with the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, but in 1794, more than a million acres transferred hands in exchange for supplies and food for the poverty stricken Abanaki (Gousse, 2013). By the end of 1820, the land controlled by the Abanaki was only a few thousand acres and in 1850, confined to only a few villages (Cloney, 1993).
Maliseet Nation 8 During The Great Depression, President Roosevelt provided programs and jobs for the ‘forgotten man,’ which included the Indians. The Abenaki, in large numbers, took part in World War II from 19391945, only to be deeply disappointed when they returned home to find the US government’s policies had retracted and became again about assimilation of Indians into mainstream society (Gousse, 2013). During the 1950’s and 60’s, Federal and State policies stripped the Abenaki of their land, which took away their fishing and hunting rights almost wiping out their self supporting economy. The Abenaki teamed up with other civil rights demonstrations voicing of their dissatisfaction during this time calling it the Red Power Movement calling for equality for all races (Johnson, 2007). United States Regulation of Indians (Indian New Deal) The Abanaki Confederacy was disbanded in 1862, each tribe becoming an independent nation in the United States. There were four nations as a result: the Abenaki (Penobscot), Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and the Micmac. In 1978, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) established rules for tribes in order to become federally recognized. With federal recognition came certain benefits. Under the Indian Reorganization Act (Indian New Deal) of 1934, an individual is considered an Indian when certain criteria are met, including: tribal membership, ancestral descent, or blood quantum (Gousse, 2013). Gaining recognition gave tribes sovereignty and selfgoverning rights. They were now able to manage their assets, which mainly consisted of land. They were not obligated to have a constitution, but if they did, they have to follow certain guidelines.
Maliseet Nation 9 The law made it mandatory to allow tribal council to hire legal representation and that no land transactions would take place without the approval of the tribe. The Association of Aroostook Indians (AAI) formed as a response to the act, where the Micmac and Maliseet formed an alliance to gain federal recognition. In 1980, under the Land Claims Act, the Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians, along with the Passamaquoddies and Penobscots became recognized by the federal government as a tribe. It was more the a decade later before the Micmacs gained federal recognition. (Gousse, 2013) To learn the history of Maliseet, in essence, is to learn about Maine history and its native people. Part of its history is political and the struggle government has placed on native populations. The Land Claims Act has roots during the Revolutionary War and the land that was included. During the Revolutionary War, President Washington made a treaty with the Maliseet to help defeat the British from invading from the north in the Madawaska region, now Edmundston. In 1794 the Maliseet and Passamaquoddy entered a treaty with the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for protection from the British, who had started occupying New Brunswick border. They were living in the northern part of the Commonwealth Massachusetts, now Maine, as a result of their alliance with Americans during the Revolutionary War. Under the treaty, The tribes agreed to relinquish all legal rights, claims, interests, and title in their land located in the northern district of the Commonwealth in exchange for 23,000 acres of reserved land, plus numerous small islands
Maliseet Nation 10 and tracts of land scattered about presentday Pleasant Point, Maine (Gousse 2013, 542). Henry Knox, a Maine native himself serving as Secretary of State for George Washington, saw that many states were signing treaties with tribes for large parcels of land. He suggested that tribes be treated as sovereign nations, as a result President Washington asked Congress to act on this, which led to the NonIntercourse Act of 1790 (Gousse, 2013, 541). This Act stipulated that any exchange or sale of land held by Native American tribes or nations to individuals or states without congress’s approval was deemed null and void. The Supreme Court in 1823 determined that if land was sold to the government that the Indians had only the right of occupancy, and they could resell the land to anyone they chose (Gousse 2013, 539). Congress ratified the land transfer from the Commonwealth of Massachusetts to Maine in 1820. Congress did not approve the sale of land from the Abenaki to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts which made the sale null and void. This would lead to the Federal District Court’s stale mate for the land claims in the 1970’s of the tribes in Maine and the final decision in 1980. The land claims came forward as a result of a 1968 land dispute between the Passamaquoddy tribe and a Maine citizen. William Plaisted hired several men to clearcut land. When confronted by the tribe Mr. Plaisted told them that he had won the land in a poker game from a nonnative. As a result the tribe won the court case in 1971 after
Maliseet Nation 11 determining this was in fact a violation of the NonIntercourse Act of 1794 because they were not approved by Congress (Wunder, 1996). In order to proceed the Maine tribes would have to sue the Commonwealth of Massachusetts who would in turn file suit against the State of Maine. In the settlement, the Maliseet, along with the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot tribes wanted twothirds of the land in Maine, essentially all the land above Bangor, Maine. The United States Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) proceeded with suing the state of Maine on behalf of the tribes. This stalled in the legal system because of the sovereignty issue in question (Wunder, 1996). State leaders refused to deal with the issue until in 1976 a Boston law firm stated it would not longer give approval of municipal bonds issued within a disputed area. The municipalities and Maine Municipal Bond bank were frozen until the issue was dealt with (Gousse, 2013 and Wunder, 1996). Governor Longley called for a federal block on the issue because it affected over 300,000 homes, large paper mills and lumber companies in this disputed land (Gousse, 2013). Maine Congress introduced bills to eliminate all native titles and limit monetary damages. President Carter intervened appointing various people to negotiation which lasted until 1980 (Gousse, 2013). In 1980 Maine enacted the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act (MICSA). This Act set forward: “the powers and limitations of the tribes and the state in regard to a wide variety of social, political and environmental issues ranging from authority
Maliseet Nation 12 of levy and collect taxes, to regulation of fish and wildlife. . .to tribal eligibility for State funding” (Gousse, 2014, 549). Tribal land was considered special, which was different than that of a municipality. Land would be divided into two categories: reservation and trust. Reservation land would be where the native would live and call their homeland, whereas, “trust land” would be other land they do not live on held in trust with the BIA. Part of the act enables a tribe to “enjoy all the rights, privileges, powers and immunities . . . of a municipality of and subject the laws of the State, provided, however, that internal tribal matters. . .shall not be subject to regulation by the State” (Gousse, 2013, 553). Across the US border the Maliseet had another side to tell. Canadian Regulation of Indians Acadia changed from French and English ownership between the years of 16041710 (Plank, 2001). As a condition of the Treaty of Utrecht was the cessation of Acadia. The French Port Royale was across from the Maliseet villages. The Arcadian’s refusal to submit to the English crown resulted in the British’s forces to be sent here. Canadian Cultural historian Peter Moogk (2000) states the Arcadians were organized the same as the Natives in the area. They formed in family hierarchies. The population increased in this area from 400 in 1671 to 2,528 in 1714 and 1750 with over 13,000. The native population had become self sufficient in a system where there was no class stratification (Blum, 2005, 3237). In 1727 Governor Armstrong sent armed forces in an attempt to get the Maliseet to pledge allegiance to the British Crown. In exchange they would forgive the Maliseet
Maliseet Nation 13 for their disobedience and would allow them to continue to live on the land. The Maliseet lived as hunters, fishers, and gatherers who migrated to different areas during the seasons to find food (Greer, 1997, 9293). The Micmac and Maliseet speakers were over 4,000 at the end of the sixteen hundreds (Bloom, 2005 and Greer, 1997). This created problems due to the fact they shared a long history with the French settlers in the region. Cultural homogeneity became secured as the Acadians intermarried within tribe. The Europeans who were colonizing the land had interrupted the Maliseet migration patterns where the families would move inland in the winter and spread out for their hunting season (Maillard, 2010). With the population growing it created a shortage of natural resources for the natives from the tearing down of the forests for lumber and the tearing up of land for colonists. The natives controlled the area allowing the French to have priests and missionaries in their territory. The Catholic clergymen were sent from France on a mission to convert the Native Americans to Catholicism, during the catholic colonization (Devons, 1992). France’s alliance with the Maliseet viewed in an egalitarian perspective as equals. The French would share their agricultural ways, and in turn, the Maliseet would share their knowledge of the waters and forests. The English viewed the French and Indian population as inferior to the English (Prins, 1996 and Wood, 2006). They were hunters and farmers, while the English were military based politically. Because of the lack of allegiance from the French with its Maliseet and Micmac nations, England started the expulsion of the french from the region to gain control. The British promoted
Maliseet Nation 14 colonization as a solution to the Native American population and their alliance with the French (Wood, 2006). The British requested weapons to deal with the Maliseet, Micmac and other Abenaki during the war in 1755 (Prins, 1996). The French had a friendly relationship with the Maliseet and Micmac partly because their small agricultural communities did not interfere with the migration patterns. When the English moved in the French and Indians had a common enemy (Faragher, 2005). The Indian Act The Canadian Federal Government in 1876 passed a set of laws grouping all previous agreements with the Indians in Canada under one act; The Indian Act. This was an attempt to make the Indians of Canada civilized, hoping to get them to renounce their Indian status in favor of becoming part of the Canadian society. Under the act the British set forth the rules, regulations and definitions in dealing with the Indians. The Act granted complete authority that included: economical, social and political decisionmaking to an outside legislature body. With this authority the Canadian government was able to control every aspect of the Indian’s lives (Cloney, 1993 and Titley, 1986). The governments theorize that if they could control every element of their lives, they would integrate into white society (Titley, 1986, 13). The Department of Indian Affairs in the Maritimes provided agents to visit the reserves, provide relief or payments, and supervise the tribes activities and report back to the department annual. This act would have
Maliseet Nation 15 “fiftysix clauses related to reserves and resources, nine to the procedure for enfranchisement; seven to the prohibition of intoxicants; five to the privileges awarded exclusively to Indians; three to the disabilities inherent in Indian status; four to the procedure for obtaining legal evidence from nonchristian Indians and five miscellaneous subjects” (Cloney, 1993: p.6) The three main concerns of the act that were of importance were land and land tenure, defining Indian status and rights and the move to selfgoverning itself. Agents had the authority and the backing of the Canadian government to enforce the act. Another responsibility was to enforce values of the nonIndian culture to the Indians they worked for. They had absolute power and could tell the Indians they would not get food or their money for the lumber if they did not do something they wanted. The term Etchemin was changed to Maliseet, Passamaquoddy and Penobscot at the end of the 17 century. Changes in native names reflected the political, social and cultural developments. Maillard writes of Chief Madockawando in his 1758 journal. He was born near the St. John River and referred to him as the ‘Chief of the Malicites’ in an area the natives were called Etchemin. The Maliseet have been directly called the heirs of the St. John Indians once named Etchemin. They were seminomadic following a summerwinter cycle; in the summer months they would come together and in the winter seasons they went into small groups for hunting (Maillard, 2010). Small groups of family members were in hunting groups where their nearest neighbor was 50 miles away. Gyles and Hannay (1875) talks about the scarcity of food and not being able to eat in four days while he was held captive of the Maliseet in
Maliseet Nation 16 Meductic (p.37). They lived in wigwams consisted of birch bark, they were light and able to house up to twenty people. There was no system of leadership. The chief, or sakom , was looked to for leadership among his community, but they have to choice to follow. Because there was no formal organized religion of shamans Europeans made the assumption that they were a people without a religion. They were viewed as pagans. Some of the priests and missionaries saw that some men and women were called motowolon and were able to communicate with the unseen world and possessed sacred powers. When the tribes hunting, knowing they must kill in order to survive, recognized that it was not just food, but members of the earth. They had certain rules and rituals in homage to these animals that were thought to surrender themselves as food. Maliseet th mortality in the first half of the 17 century was said to have reached 67% from the
Europeans bringing diseases (Snow and Lanphear, 1988, 1620). There was great demand from Europe for furs that were traded, resulting in the Maliseet’s food supply decimating. As technology and trading increased the old ways of survival were becoming more of a struggle for the Maliseet tribes. Even their religious leaders and medicine people were challenged when they could not ward off the diseases coming onto the reserves (Snow and Lanphear, 1988). This enabled the missionaries and priest to introduce their religion along with food, medicines and other goods (Cloney, 1993). Britain used New Brunswick and Maine for its wealth of the forest and its furs. They had no real intention to colonize as a goal. By 1825 over 200,000 pine trees had
Maliseet Nation 17 been cleared and was exported this continued to rise and by 1850 over 640,000 acres had been cleared out of the St. John River for the new 200,000 new inhabitants on Indian land (Parenteau, 2013). The animals the Maliseet were hunting and selling for the furs had gone away along with its environment which led to suffering as a they now had to find other means of economic stability. Maliseet who lived closer to white communities had began to make crafts at the times to sell. These items ranged from moccasins, baskets, canoes, jewelry (Maillard, 2010, and Prins, 1996). By 1840 the government in Canada had relayed that the Maliseet needed to abandon their wandering habits and use agriculture as a way of life (Cloney, 1993). They stressed the need for education, having a religion and becoming domesticated in their ways. In 1787 the St John River School was started in an attempt to civilize and assimilate the Maliseet despite their resistance. The school became attractive to the Indians living in poverty conditions by offering clothing, food, and other needed items. This only further deepened the dependency as a means to survive well into the mid 1800’s. Tobique Reservation and Kingsclear Reservation 1840’s. Perley (2011) found that major aspects of their economy were from hunting, salmon fishing, and lumbering. Kingsclear immersed in the white community of Fredericton. They began trading their handcrafted goods and began to cultivate the land. th Throughout the 19 century the Maliseet began congregating on the reserves of the St.
Maliseet Nation 18 John River. The Southern Maliseet would be found in Oromocto, Fredericton and Kingsclear, and the northern ones would be found at Woodstock, Tobique and Edmundston (13). The Tobique reserve began producing potato baskets which turned out to be prosperous with the local farmers during harvest season. Women on the reserve made items such as baskets and the harvesting of berries, potatoes, fiddle heads and fish. As the area became more populated it took away from areas that were used for these activities. The Maliseet would have to go through their represented Indian agent or religious leader for help. The Maliseet now would become a patron of the Crown and not on the same level. They would find themselves ignored and their living conditions continued to decline. Agents would sell Maliseet land and lumber using the money to provide relief to these reserves (Titley, 1986). The natives under the Indian Act had no authority to protect their own resources and did not always see the money from these sales. Tobique was mostly full of vast virgin forests, which the Europeans wanted and made several attempts to get the Maliseet to move out (Titley,1986). Monies that were to support them from the sale of lumber was beginning to be a losing battle with many squatters coming onto the land and the BIA not enforcing any of its rules. Those who had hunted began to involve themselves in becoming guides, farming and good manufacturing building a dependence on the white community for fur and trade of goods. Prior they had been able to provide themselves with clothing, food and local medicine to illnesses and be selfsupportive (Perley, 2011).
Maliseet Nation 19 When the Crown designated reserves it also defined the rules of the reserve along with the rights of those who live on it. The government would never give the tribes money directly, they would be given to either the agent of parish priest to control. The misappropriations of the monies for the Maliseet only deepened their dependence on the government (Prins, 1996). The tribe would have to go to the Agent from the Indian Bureau for these monies. The agents could refuse or undervalue the land and resources, collecting the profits for themselves. The Bureau did not enforce many of its rules nor deal with the concerns and issues of the Maliseet leading to a stalemate. Despite the theory of having the Indians become selfsufficient the Canadian government placed barriers that would prevent them from improving their living conditions. As part of the act Indians were not able to vote in federal and provincial government (Titley, 1986). A foreign government was imposed on them where they had limited power, and being considered wards of the government, were not included in any of the political, social or economical activities in the province. The Maliseet reserves continued to make complaints that the agents visited their reserve only a few times a year and their suffering and distress needs were not being listened to. The Act stated that if a tribe were to be selfgoverning it would need to have members that were over the age of 21 and male, which excluded women. Maliseet were traditionally matrilineal, tracing ancestry through the women. However, Indian traditions are irrelevant to the architects of the Indian act, and regardless of traditional values and practices, the Act uniformly imposed the
Maliseet Nation 20 nineteenth century patrilineal European view of women as essentially the property of men (Silman, 1987, p13). In 1904 a dispute over the parish priest in Tobique hiring a policeman erupted. With the selfgoverning portion of the new act, the tribe chief claimed they should be able to hire their own police if they chose to, and not the representative. He expressed that if this policeman was being paid from the department of their funds that they should be able to appoint him (Cloney, 1993, p72) Section 15 defined a person born before 1869 that lived with a band was considered an Indian. If they did not live with the band they were nonIndian. Section 3 of the 1876 Act stated that if any women were to marry a nonIndian her status as an Indian would cease. If an Indian man married a nonIndian woman he would not only retain his status but also pass it onto his wife. Children in these families would also retain status. If you married a Maliseet man you were instantly Maliseet (Cloney, 1993: 93). One of the problems this created was if a Maliseet woman married a white man. Even though she could speak the language and was part of her tribe since birth, she would not have legal status from the government as an Indian. This creates a struggle when she wants to move onto a reserve and is refused because she is no longer considered Indian according to the rules from the government. In the 1930’s the DIA began their policy of centralization of all the reserves of the St. John River by using force (Cloney, 1993). They had started actions to move Oromocto to the Kingsclear and Tobique reserves. The department never consulted band
Maliseet Nation 21 members before the planned evacuations and as a result they protested and stayed. Agents would sell blankets the government had given to them to be dispersed to the Indians, keeping the money, while giving the band members only coats to use for blankets (Cloney, 1993, 117). Conclusion Through the Maliseet were once a nation in unity, many issues have arose over the last few hundreds of years leading to the current state of the nations. Governments have regulated and attempted to keep the native population under its control by holding onto their monies and land. While the paper only gives a glimpse into the impact it is beyond the scope to go into further detail. Further research would be needed in looking at the various tribes individually. Most of the resources and information is drawn upon a white perspective. It would be appropriate to do further inquiry into the tribes and how they define its membership of who is and is not an Indian. One of the limitations of the paper is the discussion on name changes. The tribe names have appeared spelled differently depending on the context and political climate. The Maliseet, like many other indigenous tribes throughout the world are an oral tribe, whereas, much of its history is transferred from the elders to the other generations. This point of view deserves future research along with how the current status affects the tribes which have been disconnected from each other of different sides of the Maine and New Brunswick border. Native populations is one of the few races where blood quantum is used. Society does not question how much black or Asian one is, yet with natives, how much Indian are
Maliseet Nation 22 you seem to be common place. Is there any difference between someone who is half native or not native at all and to whom? Despite the attempts to appear in the best interest of the native populations rules and regulation as an attempt to assimilate native populations it creates dependency where the tribes are never truly able to be selfsupporting and selfgoverning.
Maliseet Nation 23 References Blum, R. (2005). Ghost brothers: Adoption of a French tribe by bereaved native America: A transdisiplinary longitudinal mutilevel integrated analysis . Montreal: McGillQueen's University Press. Buckner, P. A., & Reid, J. G. (1994). The Atlantic region to Confederation: A history . Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Calloway, C. G., & Calloway, C. G. (1991). Dawnland encounters: Indians and Europeans in Northern New England . Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. Cloney, R. J. (1993). Doctor, lawyer, Indian chief: Dependency among the Maliseet and the impact of the Indian Act . Halifax, N.S.: Saint Mary's University. Devens, C. (1992). Between the Missionary Eras & Separate World. In Countering colonization: Native American women and Great Lakes missions, 16301900 . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Faragher, J. M. (2005). A great and noble scheme: The tragic story of the expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland . New York: W.W Norton &. Gousse, J. G. (2013). Waiting For Gluskabe: An Examination of Maine's Colonialist Legacy Suffered by Native American Tribes Under the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act of 1980. Maine Law Review, 66 (2), 535568. Retrieved March 20, 2015, from http://www.mainelawreview.com/ Greer, A. (1997). The people of New France . Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
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Maliseet Nation 25 Perley, B. C. (2011). Defying Maliseet language death: Emergent vitalities of language, culture, and identity in Eastern Canada . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Plank, G. G. (2001). An unsettled conquest: The British campaign against the peoples of Acadia . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Prins, H. E. (1989). Tribulations of a border tribe: A discourse on the political ecology of the Aroostook Band of Micmacs (16th20th centuries) . Prins, H. E. (1996). The Mi'kmaq: Resistance, accommodation, and cultural survival . Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Pub. Silman, J. (1987). Enough is enough: Aboriginal women speak out . Toronto, Ont.: Women's Press. Snow, D. R., & Lanphear, K. M. (1988). European Contact and Indian Depopulation in the Northeast: The Timing of the First Epidemics. Ethnohistory, 35 (1), 15. Street, G. E., & Eliot, S. A. (1905). Mount Desert; a history . Boston: Houghton, Mifflin. Titley, E. B. (1986). A narrow vision: Duncan Campbell Scott and the administration of Indian affairs in Canada . Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Wood, L. (2006). Assimilation versus autonomy: Acadian and British contentions, 17131755 (Unpublished master's thesis). Texas Tech University. Wunder, J. R. (1996). Native American Sovereignty . New York: Garland Pub. Wunder, J. R. (1996). Recent legal issues for American Indians, 1968 to the present . New York: Garland Pub.
Maliseet Nation 26 Appendix A
