Management Research Themes and Teaching in the

International Journal of Educational Management Management Research Themes and Teaching in the Arab World Abbas J. Ali

Article information: To cite this document: Abbas J. Ali, (1992),"Management Research Themes and Teaching in the Arab World", International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 6 Iss 4 pp. Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513549210014682

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MANAGEMENT RESEARCH THEMES AND TEACHING IN THE ARAB WORLD 11


T

o compete in world markets, Arab business people must have an understanding of their world competitors.

Management Research Themes and Teaching in the Arab World Abbas J. Ali

International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 6 No. 4, 1992, pp. 11-17. © MCB University Press, 0951-354X

Despite advances in the behavioural and social sciences during the last five decades, research on business management in the Arab world is still in its infancy. Management scholars in the Arab world, due to political, economic, and social reasons, have not made remarkable progress in research or in management theory building. Likewise, innovative and creative approaches to teaching business subjects are often absent. Bureaucratic teaching style and lack of expertise have obscured novelty in teaching. Nevertheless, management scholars and writers can be classified in three groups: palace servants, imitators, and alienated scholars. The palace servants spend their time writing about imaginary attributes and achievements of viscous political leaders. They falsify information and provide details of

"unfounded" economic and organizational progress that has been achieved during the tenure of a particular king or president. The imitators are almost the largest group among business writers and scholars. Many of them probably spent a few years studying abroad. Their writing is not original as it is a mere translation of Western or European theories. They shy away from engaging in critical thinking or in evaluating the cultural relativity of Western theories. This group has flourished in the Arab world for at least four reasons: the sudden expansion of colleges of business and the high demand for business courses in the late 1960s; the absence of professional evaluation of scholarly contributions (quality, originality, etc.); the absence of copyright laws that regulate and protect authors' rights; and the absence of an adequate reward system for scholarly contributions. The third group, the alienated, are those scholars who devote their time and activities to further business education. They have, however, found it difficult to achieve acceptable living standards, or to grow professionally due to the absence of reward, lack of respected collections in libraries, limited access to foreign contributions, and political pressure. Some of these scholars leave the Arab world and take residency in Europe or North America where freedom and objective evaluation of achievement are considerably more available. This article seeks to provide an analysis and suggestions of research topics in the areas of business and management applicable to development in the Arab world. Two objectives are sought: (1) to sensitize Arab scholars to the serious challenge they face in business subjects; and (2) to identify issues and business subjects that are critical to the Arab business environment. In addition, suggestions for teaching business management subjects are provided. Research in management, in general, has progressed in the West from single country to multicountry studies, from individuals to groups orfirms,and from observations and speculation to more empirical, theoretical, and conceptual knowledge. Theory building has, on a world-wide basis, progressed in such a manner that allows various publishing outlets and journals to establish a niche in business research (e.g. Academy of Management Journal (empirical), Academy of Management Review (conceptual)). Furthermore, various journals related to each area of business (e.g. management science, management information systems, general management, material management, etc.) have grown. These developments have led to a rigorous process of review and a low rate of acceptance in quality journals. Business journals in the Arab world are few. The quality of most of the articles is not particularly high and journal circulation is still low. In addition, journals published in Saudi Arabia or Iraq may not be found in other states (e.g.


12

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT 6,4

Algeria, Somalia, Yemen). Researchers in the Arab world should concentrate on two types of business research. The first is the one that sensitizes Arab managers and students of management to the practise of effective management and to the constraints that prevent organizations and managers from growth and success. Special attention should be placed on cultural and historical constraints. It is true that the Arabs have had rich civilizations, but modern business organizations have few similarities with past organizations. Business conduct, technology, size, interactions, and goals are different. They are the product of the industrial and information age. The Arabs, during the golden era (medieval), relied on honesty, hard work, solidarity, and trust. However, these qualities are often missing in today's business conduct. Relating past achievements without hard work, persistent and organized efforts have led to failures and disasters. What is needed is not only research that explains the continuing business failures but that also leads to change. Historically, the Arabs competed successfully with various competitors in the regions and surrounding areas (e.g. Roman, Persian, and Turkish people). The Arabs were successful in competing with them when problems were approached with open-minded tolerance andflexibility.When the Arabs lost these qualities, their civilizations collapsed and defeat was comprehensive on all fronts: military, cultural, and in business, political knowledge. Today's competitor originated in the West and is using the most advanced techniques, skills, knowledge and a highly effective network to keep the Arabs living in the dark age, divided, and paralyzed. To compete successfully, the Arabs have to use skills, knowledge, and the weapons of the twentyfirst century to reclaim their role in today's world. They have to lay the foundation for organized work and master the art of modern communication. It is a crucial challenge but the alternative is a nation without a soul. The second type of business research endeavour is the one that concentrates on what is considered a vital subject in an international context. Contemporary researchers from all over the world present, discuss, and comment on results of effective trade relations, advances in high value added industries, and the applications of new innovations. It is worthless, therefore, for Arab business scholars to spend time and effort debating absolute issues (e.g. the length of women's dresses in the workplace). It is time to distinguish between primary issues (productivity, effectiveness, equality, and genuine participation in the decision-making process) and secondary issues (e.g. acceptable behaviour, tribal or sectarian affiliation). In a highly interdependent world there is an ever-increasing need to cultivate not only the qualities of a well-rounded individual but also to cultivate knowledge about international business environments and relations. This knowledge not only facilitates interactions and effective dealings with foreign people but also raises the sensitivity of the indigenous people to their strengths and weaknesses. In addition, pursuing research with

international applications may enhance personal growth. A researcher should engage in undertaking a research project not because he/she was told to but because the subject matter is of interest and because it is a worthwhile endeavour.

Research Themes There is an urgent need to set a tradition of management professionalism in Arab states and to build basic institutions necessary for sound management and practice. Some Arab social scientists (e.g. Syed Yesin, Ismael S. Abdullah, Egypt; Aziz S. Jasim, Iraq; Mohumad A. Al-Jabari, Morocco) have developed theories and conceptual models that deal with the Arab social and economic complexity. Management researchers should benefit from these advancements and suggest theories and models in business management that are relevant to Arab culture. Copying Western models may frustrate the progress of Arab management thinking and may create confusion. Western models and theories are helpful in dealing with technology and organization structure but may be harmful if they are treated with complete validity in organizational behaviour and culture. Perhaps the best avenue for scholars in the field is to contast Western theories or models with those of Arabs or Asians. Suggestions for research themes in this paper will centre around the following areas: the multinational enterprise, international management, strategic management, comparative and cross-cultural management, and international finance. Multinational Enterprise Perhaps one of the most important points in studying multinational corporations (MNCs) is the fact that MNCs have become a part of life for people across nations. That is, it is futile to debate their merit; whether good or bad. Rather, the concern should be with the mechanism to enhance the MNCs' contributions to Arab individuals and society. In this context emphasis should be placed on the management process in MNCs, the role of indigenous people, expatriates' functions and contributions, conflict in decision orientations, recruiting, staffing and training, opportunities for indigenous employees, export capabilities, management of subsidiaries, technological transfer, resources and world enterprises, and work ethics within MNCs. In addition, the issues of joint ventures (JVs) should be studied in-depth: reasons, objectives, benefit, feasibility, and management contract. Theories of JVs and critical evaluation of Western approaches to JVs are of vital interest to Arab business executives. International Management This subject is not widely covered in Arab management. Two dimensions should be covered: the traditional one,

MANAGEMENT RESEARCH THEMES AND TEACHING IN THE ARAB WORLD


managing MNCs, with its emphasis on planning, organizing, leading and controlling, and the behavioural dimension, the behaviour of managers and employees within MNCs. In the first dimension, researchers may engage in writing about the role of the MNCs' headquarters, the interaction between the headquarters and subsidiaries, or the degree of autonomy and control. In the second dimension, scholars may examine the influence of MNCs on indigenous employees, and on the interaction between MNCs culture and Arab society. Additional topics — decision support systems in MNCs, business ethics, managing a socially responsible corporation, managing conflicts — are necessary for facilitating the international management process. Strategic Management

Strategic management deals with the whole organization, with the patterns of decision making that determine the goals and objectives, the plan and policies, and addresses the issue of what the organization does and intends to do in the future. Top management orientations are necessary for understanding strategic management. Opportunities exist in the Arab world in particular to study the in-depth strategic process and hopefully to lay a foundation for an effective management process. This is not an illusion, rather, it is a reality. In the private sector, top managers are accessible. These managers do not prefer to answer questionnaires, but in face-to-face interviews they are open and answer most of the researcher's questions. Thus, the interview is the best way to gather information on strategic management. This can be coupled with observation and case studies. Several topics are important for future research: database management systems, export systems, information systems, project management, corporate strategy and the scope of the firm, issues and models in strategic planning, system integration, entrepreneurship and venture creations, chief executive succession, chief executive value systems and decision making style, loyalty, organization structure, innovation, and expansion.

Comparative and Cross-cultural Management

Selecting the right words is essential for effective communication and for successful business interaction. The selection, however, can be made easier if cultural background and value systems of the counterparts are known and if cultural sensitivity and identification are enhanced. In today's world, physical national borders have lost much of their importance. Fax messages, telecommunication, and other advanced communication systems have made it easy to gather information and to speed up decision-making regardless of location. The Arab managers, especially, after the oil boom in 1973 have found themselves interacting with managers from Asia, Africa, North America, and Europe. Most of these foreign managers may have some access to literature about the Arabs and their culture. In addition, they know the

13

products the Arabs want and are aware of their firms. The Arab managers, on many occasions, do not have information available to them regarding their counterparts' culture, firms, quality of their products, etc. So their decision is often based on trial and error and may not be effective. For this compelling reason, the subject of comparative and cross-culture management should take priority. Differences in work orientations and approaches between the Arab managers and foreign managers should be addressed. Table I contrasts Arab managers with North American and Indian managers respectively on several organizational variables. Normative studies as well as empirical research are needed to build a sound management theory in the Arab culture. Issues related to politics and political change for global managers, the world business environment, comparative studies for more than two countries, business studies abroad, cross-cultural promotion, beliefs, values, and ethics across culture, and issues of cross-cultural communication problems, and organizational effectiveness have taken an added value in the West and must get special attention by Arab researchers. It is significant to note that unlike the socialist or North American models of organizations, the Arab organizations, generally, exist to further the interests of a collective group (individual, family, and layers of tribal network). The sophistication and complexity of this phenomenon have not been matched with a comparable management theory. A few models, however, attempt to tackle this phenomenon. These models such as "sheikocracy" and the prophetic-Caliphal models can be refined[1,2,3]. Both models have the potential to enhance and enrich the conceptual development of organization and management. In addition, they provide a focal point for contasting with Western leadership and organizational design models. International Finance

Since the late 1960s in the Arab world, political events and world geopolitics have artificially integrated the Arab economy into the Western market. Independent economic and political actions, and lack of knowledge of international trade and financial techniques have also contributed to the failure of Arab financial planning. The results were more than $450 billion of Arab oil revenues invested in the West, bad investment decisions (investment in non-productive sectors), lack of investment diversity or bad portfolio management, and lack of financial co-ordination among the Arab states. While stocks issues, market security analysis and planning, and portfolio management are familiar subjects for ordinary Western and Asian business people, the Arab business people, in general, have not yet developed an adequate knowledge to deal with financial issues on world markets. They rely on Western experts and advisors, who are interested in collecting their fees, rather than in the host country's interest in finding optimal

14

Table


I.

Similarities/Differences between Arab, Indian and American Managers

1. Leadership style


2. Decision style 3. Negotiation style

4. Work orientation

5. Attitudes towards organizational authority 6. Business conduct

Arab stereotype

American stereotype

Indian stereotype

Egalitarian, emphasis on peer approval and gaining personal acceptance Consultative Ritualistic and displaying a high desire for long-term relations, affective, e.g. appeals to emotions and feelings, concession seeking Hard work is a virtue in light of the needs of man and the necessity to establish equilibrium in one's individual and social life. Family and work are the centre of life Necessary to avoid chaos and to build a family-type environment

Materialistic, likes "wheeling and dealing", emphasis on opportunities to get ahead Participative Direct, seeking short-term relations, emphasis on facts and logical analysis; concessions are made on occasion Hard work is a virtue by itself, work is the centre of life

Task-oriented and tough minded with a personalized approach Authoritarian-benevolent Manipulative and seeking short-term relationships; concessions are occasionally made

Important to the extent that it facilitates work, less emphasis on hierarchical relations and rules Impersonal, emphasis on results, thriving on competition, gamesmanship, calculated risks, and manoeuvring, documentation is highly valued All directions written, routine, formal, engages in manipulation of facts, which is justified through the manipulative "flexible ethics"

Important to know who is in charge and to respect the hierarchical order

Highly personalized, emphasis on honesty, moral aspects, and verbal commitment, documentation is not highly regarded

7. Communication Face-to-face, informal, urgent, emphasis on human interest, system and stress actual case studies or examples of how programmes have benefited the people

8. Reward system Accept longevity and seniorityoriented pay increases, emphasis on recognition by the superior for a good job by the group and personal growth as a part of humanity Motivation comes from social 9. Motivational relations, interpersonal system transactions, egalitarian value, and opportunity to get paid for helping others Informal with an absence of 10. Performance evaluation and systematic controls and established criteria control 11. Planning Underdeveloped and not highly regarded 12. Organizational design

Flat, vague, and centralized authority

Seniority increases in pay are not as effective as merit, incentive awards, opportunity for advancement, and money is extremely important because it's the "name of the game" Motivation comes from high achievement, hierarchical advancement and material gains

Work is a centre of life. Being involved in work is a favour to the employer

Personal emphasis on achievement. Gamesmanship and manipulation are the norms

Personal, face-to-face, often informal and generally appeal to emotion, but not urgent. Formality is adopted to make points. (Owing to diversity in ethnic and geographic backgrounds some deviations exist) Accept longevity and seniorityoriented pay increases. Emphasis on economic reward

Motivation comes from material rewards, hierarchical advancement, and verbal praise

Formalized and often objective in nature

Relatively objective although not well formalized

Short- and long-term planning and relatively highly developed and widely used Mostly tall, centralized and decentralized. Variations are common

Relatively developed and often used Tall, businesslike, and highly centralized management



investments. It is depressing to read in The Wall Street Journal, The Economist, Financial Times of London and other specialized Western newspapers about repeated Arabs' financial blunders. Therefore, developing basic knowledge in international finance and investment is a necessary condition to secure a firm's market position and an optimal return on investment. Subjects that should be addressed are: security analysis and portfolio management; investment opportunities in the world markets; and financial institutions and markets of particular countries and nations. Japanese and German financial institutions, along with North American institutions should be studied in depth. The success and failure stories of these institutions must be highlighted. Teaching Business Management Research and teaching are concerned with the development of human potential. Specifically, they are aimed at improving performance of existing personnel, creating an environment conducive for developing future organizational talents, and laying the foundation for sound management theory and practice. While business research and teaching in the West and in some newly developed nations have advanced impressively, their progress in the Arab world is slow. In a recent survey of Arab business faculty members, Altuhaih[4] found that incentives to consult seem more powerful than the incentives to engage in research and teaching activities. In addition to economic pressures, the colonial legacy (Ottoman and Western) has tremendous impact on teaching and on transformation of knowledge. During the Ottoman era (more than 400 years) formal schooling was rarely available in the Arab world. During the Western colonialism, Europeans were more interested in exploiting natural resources than in the formation of indigenous human capital. In the Arab Mashraq (e.g. Iraq, Oman, Syria), the Western colonial powers nurtured small civil servant staffs to assist in controlling Arab resources. In the Arab Maghreb (e.g. Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), the colonial power's (France) goal was to obliterate the Arab identity and to replace it with the French identity. Consequently, French language and culture were forcefully imposed on the indigenous population. After independence, the Arab Maghreb states found themselves facing a formidable challenge in the Arabization of civil and administrative systems[5,6,7]. Arab managers and writers, therefore, have grown alienated from their Arab culture and history. Their vision has been obscured. That is, their ability to think in terms of concepts and culturally relative business models seldom exists. Despite the modest progress that has been made in business tradition since the late 1960s, Arab business faculty members are still in a trial-and-error stage in terms of teaching content and pedagogy. The situation is not hopeless, however. Two conditions are necessary to bring about a genuine change. First, Arab

15

business faculty members should take the teaching profession seriously and not view it as a secondary job. Second, faculty members should be sensitive to societal qualities and forces in the Arab world. These faculties have overlooked the fact that a rich civilization, like the Arab, offers untapped resources that can be easily utilized in research and teaching. Students of Arab culture and management have identified certain qualities that, once business professors recognize and act upon, can increase the prospect for thriving business education programmes. These qualities range from infatuation with ideal forms and quests for knowledge to politeness. Some of these qualities are specified in Table II. These qualities have applications in the classroom. Business faculty members should use various techniques, that utilize these qualities, to promote the leading-edge strategic thinking. Table III provides implications of these qualities under the three most common teaching methods: lectures, case studies, and games. Further research, however is needed to examine the consequences of these qualities, to develop and test hypotheses, and suggest their implications in advancing business research and theories:

TableII.Qualities of Arab Individuals Quality

Source

Polite but enthusiastic Hopeful about the future Egalitarian Aggressive and creative in democratic environment but apathetic and conservative in authoritarian environment Sensitive to rituals and to other people's beliefs, concerned about community welfare Sensitivity to strangers in trouble and to the suffering of others Lack of racism and prejudice

[8] [9] [10,11]

Engage in normative debate and are infatuated with ideal forms More interest in practical implications than with theory Feel they are culturally and intellectually superior Avoid open criticism and conflicts Resent rigid rules and strict orders Are subject to intense social censorship Victims of loyalty to particular groups — Isibya (e.g. communal, sectarian, tribal) Not easily induced to participate in aggressive competition

[2] [12,13] [14,15,16] [16,17,18] [8,12,19,20,21]

[8] [22] [12,23] [24] [25,26] [22,27]

[8]

16


Table

III.

Societal Qualities and Their Implications under Various Methods for Teaching Business Management Lecture

Teaching methods Case

1. Polite but enthusiastic

Avoid expert trap and encourage students to participate in discussing controversial topics

Encourage students to understand the process of business strategy and effective conduct

2. Hopefulness

Identify subjects that benefit self and society and reinforce optimistic attitudes Introduce the benefits of participative management, and a flat organizational structure Appreciate differences in beliefs and commitment to the welfare of disadvantaged groups

Cover issues that reinforce longrange planning tendencies

Qualities


3. Egalitarian 4. Sensitivity to other beliefs and sympathy with oppressed groups 5. Non-racist

6. Love of normative and philosophical arguments 7. Intellectual superiority (low curiosity)

8. Avoidance of public conflict and criticism

9. Contempt for rigid rules and strict orders

Discuss theories of business management and concepts and their applicability in different cultures Discuss philosophical dimensions of foreign theories and their cultural and historical roots. Cultural applications should be identified Emphasize that Arabs have experienced more than 500 years of foreign occupation and have been prevented from intellectually participating in the world civilization. Reflections on past achievement should be an inducement to seek new knowledge Identify siutations when conflict is healthy and when it is dysfunctional. Theories that are culturally relevant should be discussed in their practical terms Relate freedom and autonomy at work to work satisfaction and creativity

10. Creative and aggressive in democratic environment

Relate democratic practice to creativity and involvement in organizational work

11. Self and social censorship

Emphasize the need to establish objective criteria for performance and that open evaluation of oneself and others may benefit self and the organization

12. Isabya or loyalty to a particular group

Discuss in detail the advantage of loyalty to the organization and its goals, and that commitment to goal implementation benefits everyone

13. Do not engage in Discuss theories of competitive effort and their cultural and fierce individual implications competition

Game Utilize problems to identify weaknesses in the management structure and how to overcome them Emphasize roles related to the planning process and goal setting

Emphasize cases that require the involvement of various individuals to solve organizational issues Cover cases related to diversity in thinking and their implications

Avoid status differentiation

Reflect on problems that foreign executives and companies face in the Arab world

Play role of foreign nationals in the Arab world, and encourage students to play role of foreign executives in their home culture Use exercises that demonstrate that ideal and practical forms should be emphasized and reflect on the usefulness of both forms, and their benefits to self and community Use games and simulations that show how people with hunger for knowledge have made progress and identify the role of Arabs in the medieval period in transforming science and literature

Cover cases that clarify normative judgement as a guide for managerial action, and cases that show that reality of organizational life and politics may not mirror the ideal form Utilize cases that demonstrate how Japanese curiosity helps to narrow the economic and technological gap between Japanese and American firms

Provide opportunity for students to place themselves in the positions of others

Cases that require team work and intensive discussion to solve problems should be covered; practical advantages of open agreement/disagreement should be highlighted Induce students to select team members and assignment of responsibilities in solving cases

Utilize exercises in which individuals can play both the role of the critic and the subject of criticism

Use cases that address approaches to job enrichment and autonomous work groups and variations in their applications across nations Use cases that address issues related to constructive evaluation of performance; highlight the importance of involvement in organizational life by identifying weaknesses, and recognizing outstanding performance Cover cases that address means to foster social relationships and achieve group interest and introduce cases identifying options for rewarding productive team effort Provide cases that deal with methods to improve the spirit of constructive competition that benefit society and community

Utilize nominal group techniques and brainstorming as ways to stimulate creativity

Promote free selection of responsibilities and encourage collective decisions

Encourage students to play role of objective and courageous leader and contrast to the role of a leader that shies away from confronting issues/mistakes Exercises should be directed to expose students to a range of activities with peers from various social or regional backgrounds Simulations that allow students to be involved in competition that does not lead to material reward should be encouraged



Conclusion It is fair to suggest that Arab management thinking has not advanced to the point that it is possible to accurately analyse Arab management practice and to develop models for explaining the organizational environment. This, however, should be an incentive to business people and scholars to co-operate to advance research and to concentrate on vital interests. To compete in world markets, Arab business people must have an understanding of their world competitors along with knowledge of their firm and their business environment. As for scholars, writing objectively and energetically about critical business issues furthers their professional career and gets them the respect of people from home and abroad. Practitioners and scholars should view themselves as agents of change. Once they realize their natural role, serious issues could be tackled and fear of reprisal by political leaders can be overcome. The Arab world is facing crises in ideology, and in political, social, and economic systems. These crises have negative consequences on Arab identity, dignity, and individual integrity and have threatened the national security of the Arab people. Management scholars can provide a remedy and prevent the further downward course of their community by engaging in thought provoking and genuine research.

References 1. Abd-Al-Khaliq, N., "Al-Abaad Al-Biyha Le-albureaucrata Al. Kuwaita" (Environmental Dimensions of Bureaucracy in Kuwait), Studies in the Gulf and Arab Island, Vol. 10 No. 38, 1984, pp. 13-65. 2. Ali, A., "Management Theory in Transitional Society: The Arab's Experience", International Studies of Management and Organization, Vol. 20 No. 3, 1990, pp. 7-35. 3. Khadra, B., "The Prophetic — Caliphal Model of Leadership", International Studies of Management and Organization, Vol. 20 No. 3, 1990, pp. 37-51. 4. Altuhaih, S., "Perceptions of Arab Business Faculty on Consulting, Teaching and Research Performance", Journal of Teaching in International Business, Vol. 2 Nos. 3/4, 1991, pp. 71-82. 5. Achour, Y., "The Justice Administered by the 'Madhalim' and Modern Administrative Justice", International Review of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 2, 1985, pp. iii-v. 6. Baccouche, N., "Administrative Reform in Tunis", InternationalReview of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 2, 1985, pp. ii-iii. 7. Hamida, A.B., ''The Arabization of Administration in the Maghreb Countries", International Review of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 2, 1985, pp. i-ii.

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8. Martin, S., "Management Training in the Arabian Gulf Area", Group and Organization Studies, Vol. 7 No. 4, 1982, pp. 389-401. 9. Ali, A. and Al-Shakhis, M., "Managerial Beliefs About Work in Two Arab States", Organization Studies, Vol. 10 No. 2, 1989, pp. 177-94. 10. Baali, F. and Wardi, A., Ibn Klialdun and Islamic Thought Style, G.K. Haland Co., Boston, MA, 1981. 11. Hitti, P., History of the Arabs, Macmillan, London, 1964. 12. Ali, A., "A Cross-national Perspective of Managerial Work Value Systems", in Farmer, R. and McGoun, E. (Eds), Advances in International Comparative Management, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1988, pp. 151-69. 13. Muna, F., The Arab Executive, St. Martin's Press, New York, NY, 1980. 14. Hourani, A., A History of the Arab Peoples, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1991. 15. Jasim, A.S., Mohammed: The Greatest Truth, Dar alAndalus, Beirut, 1987. 16. Landau, R., Search for Tomorrow, Nicholson and Watson, London, 1938. 17. Akins, J., "The New Arabia", Foreign Affairs, 1991, pp. 35-49. 18. Mansfield, P., The Arabs, Penguin Books, New York, NY, 1985. 19. Ali, A., "A Comparative Study of Managerial Beliefs About Work in the Arab States", in Prasad, B. (Ed.), Advances in International Comparative Management, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, Vol. 4., 1989, pp. 95-112. 20. Berger, M., The Arab World Today, Anchor Books, Garden City, NY, 1964. 21. Berque, J., Cultural Expression in Arab Society Today, The University of Texas Press, Austin, TX, 1978. 22. Ali, A., "The Arab Executives: A Study in Values and Work Orientations", American Arab Affairs, Vol. 19, Winter 1986/87, pp. 94-100. 23. Almaney, A., "Cultural Traits of the Arabs, Management International Review, Vol. 21 No. 3, 1981, pp. 10-18. 24. Ali, A., "Scaling an Islamic Work Ethic", Journal of Psychology, Vol. 128 No. 5, 1988, pp. 575-83. 25. Ali, A., "The Politics of Scholarship and the Gulf War: Opening Plenary Session", International Association of Middle Eastern Studies, Tunis, Sept 1991, pp. 20-4. 26. Ismeal, T., "The Politics of Scholarship and the Gulf War: Opening Plenary Session", International Association of Middle Eastern Studies, Tunis, Sept 1991. pp. 20-4. 27. Barakat, H., "Socio-economic Cultural and Personality Forces Determining Development in Arab Society", Social Praxis, Vol. 2, 1976, pp. 179-204. Further Reading Ali, A., Al-Shakhis, M. and Nataraj, S., "Work Centrality and Individualism: A Cross-national Perspective?", International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 12 No. 1, 1991, pp. 177-94.

Abbas J. Ali is Professor of International Management and Business Policy, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA.

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