MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING REGIONAL INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL HEALTH OIRSA FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE ORGANIZATION OF CENTRAL AMERICAN ISTHMUS (OSPESCA) AS PART OF THE SYSTEM OF CENTRAL AMERICAN INTEGRATION (SICA) Authors: Jorge Cuéllar-Anjel Cornelio Lara Vielka Morales Abelardo De Gracia Oscar García Suárez
Panama, July, 2010
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
PRESENTATION Aquaculture is undoubtedly one of the great Central America isthmus potentials to produce high quality food, the same as to generate human wealth through employment and revenues. This has been evidenced by the Regional Inventory of Continental Water Bodies lifted by the Fisheries and Aquaculture Organization of Central American Isthmus (OSPESCA) and the Regional International Organization for Agricultural Health (OIRSA). In particular, marine shrimp farming is an aquaculture activity that generates significant social and economic benefits for the region, for extra-regional exports and for intraregional market during last years. However, marine shrimp farming is also exposed to health risks due to the presence of harmful pathogens that have forced the region to take steps to protect production and investments. As a response to this need, OIRSA and OSPESCA under a partnership with the health authorities of the member countries, OIE, FAO and private sector, have established a group of experts known as the "Ad-hoc Group for Aquatic Animal Health". This group has been gradually giving valuable inputs for a healthy and sustainable production, one of which is the present "Best Management Practices Manual for white shrimp Penaeus vannamei farming". This Manual will be a support tool for shrimp producers and technical staff for aquaculture crops that ensure quality production and profitability with sustainability and attachment principles. The preparation and publication of this Manual has also been supported by the Republic of China (Taiwan) through the Support Project for Central America Fisheries and Aquaculture Integration Process (PRIPESCA) that OSPESCA runs with the administrative participation of OIRSA. The goal of this Manual is to become a continuous query tool for the aquaculture producers and technical staffs obtain a high quality shrimp production, based on a farming competitive model which meets sanitary requirements demanded by regional and international markets.
Guillermo E. Alvarado Downing
Mario González Recinos
Executive Director - OIRSA
Regional Director - SICA / OSPESCA
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for their special collaboration with the technical structure and review of this Manual to the following people from Panama: Itzela Davis, Roberto Chamorro, Mariola Lemieszek de Camargo, Rigoberto Camargo, Hugo Pérez, Orlando Vernaza, María del Pilar Moyano, Eva Correa, Ricardo Villarreal, Susset Dager and Eva Bravo; from Nicaragua: Agnes Saborio; from Honduras: Carlos Girón; from Guatemala: Alexander De Beausset, and from Mexico: María Cristina Chávez Sánchez. Author also thank the support from the following companies and organizations that allowed the participation of their technicians and the use of their facilities in the development and review of this Manual: Camaronera de Coclé, S.A. [Shrimp Company from the Panamanian Cocle province] (CAMACO) and Industrias de Natá S.A. [Feed Plant from the Panamanian Cocle province] (INASA), both companies from CALESA Panamanian Agroindustrial Group; Aquatic Animal Health Program from the Animal Health Directorate of the Ministry of Agricultural Development of Panama (MIDA); the Research and Development Directorate from the Aquatic Resources Authority of Panama (ARAP); the Fisheries and Aquaculture Organization of Central American Isthmus (OSPESCA) and the Regional International Organization for Agricultural Health (OIRSA).
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
CONTENTS 1.
Introduction
13
2.
Existing Regulation Compliance
15
2.1
Social aspects
15
2.1.1
Relationship with neighboring communities
15
2.1.2
Labor and occupational health relationships
15
2.1.3
Existing labor regulations compliance
17
2.1.4
Social responsibility
18
2.2
Environmental aspects
19
2.2.1
Site selection for farm location
21
2.2.1.1
Topography
21
2.2.1.2
Hydrology and hydrography
22
2.2.1.3
Soil characteristics
22
2.2.2 3.
Farm design and building
25
Farm operation
32
3.1
Pond preparation
32
3.1.1
Complete pond drainage
32
3.1.2
Pond drying
33
3.1.3
Trash removing from pond bottom
34
3.1.4
Evaluation of the pond bottom conditions
35
3.1.5
Sediment management
36
3.1.6
Liming (lime application on pond bottom)
38
3.1.7
Pond bottom ploughing
39
3.1.8
Pond filling
39
3.2
Pond stocking
40
3.2.1
Postlarvae sources
41
3.2.2
Postlarvae quality verification
42
3.2.2.1
Postlarvae acclimation
43
3.2.2.2
Postlarvae stocking
43
3.3
Feed management
44
3.4
Water quality management
49
3.4.1
Water quality monitoring
50
3.4.2
Aeration
52
3.4.3
Pond water exchange
53
3.4.4
Fertilization and natural productivity management
54
3.4.5
Predators and competitors management / exclusion
57
3.4.6
Shrimp escape prevention
58
3.4.7
Effluent management
59
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
3.5
6
Shrimp disease management
61
3.5.1
Response / action plan for shrimp disease outbreaks
63
3.5.2
Shrimp disease diagnostic research and confirmation
64
3.5.3
Shrimp mobilizations restriction
65
3.6
Use of veterinary drugs and chemical/biological products
66
3.7
Handling of household waste
68
3.8
Management procedures during harvest
70
3.9
Biosecurity
74
3.9.1
Control of people and vehicle farm incoming
75
3.9.2
Cleaning and disinfection of farming facilities
76
3.9.2.1
Coordination of the facilities total disinfection plan
76
3.9.2.2
Harvest schedule optimizing
77
3.9.2.3
Appropriate management of discarded shrimp
77
3.9.2.4
Facilities and equipment disinfection
77
3.9.2.4.1
Earthen ponds disinfection
78
3.9.2.4.2
Tank disinfection
79
3.9.2.4.3
Equipment disinfection
80
3.9.2.4.4
Office disinfection
80
3.9.2.4.5
Other buildings disinfecting
80
3.9.3
Control systems for pests eradication
81
3.9.4
Data recording and verification
82
4.
Waste disposal based on classification and recyclability
83
5.
Energy use
86
6.
Contingency plans
87
7.
Data recording in a shrimp farm
88
8.
Traceability
89
Bibliography
91
Annexes
93
Abbreviations
121
Glossary
122
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
LIST OF ANNEXES Annex 1.
Postlarvae quality evaluation and stress tests
93
Annex 2.
Postlarvae acclimation: technical details to proceed
95
Annex 3..
Feeding management based on molting cycle
97
Annex 4.
Population sampling in a shrimp farm
99
Annex 5.
Parameters monitoring in shrimp ponds
100
Annex 6.
Samples fixation for laboratory analysis
102
Annex 7.
OIE model for preparing an Emergency Plan
104
Annex 8.
International regulations for veterinary drugs
106
Annex 9.
Regulation EU No 37/2010 - Toxic substances limits
112
Annex 10.
Traceability
117
Annex 11.
International metrology
119
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.
Kindergarten "Froylán Turcios" rebuilt by the shrimp company LARVIPAC, Seajoy Group, Honduras.
15
Figure 2.
School supplies donation by Seajoy Shrimp Group, Honduras.
15
Figure 3.
Free access to other users (fishermen) to the water source near the shrimp farm. Coquira (left) and Aguadulce (right), Panama.
16
Figure 4.
Training for a shrimp farm staff on topics related to public health and disease prevention.
16
Figure 5a.
Health care for the staff as part of occupational health farm plan.
16
Figure 5b.
Personal security measures signaling placed in work areas of a shrimp farm, in order to prevent staff accidents at work and whose compliance must be mandatory.
17
Figure 5c.
Evacuation route signaling in a work area of a shrimp farm, and fire extinguishing equipment for fire emergencies.
17
Figure 6a.
Technical and administrative offices of a shrimp farm, equipped with air conditioning and tinted windows for a more comfortable and healthy work environment.
17
Figura 6b.
Bathroom facilities in a shrimp farm including showers (left) and urinals (right) for the farm workers. The showers help for washing salt water and irritating substances such as lime or some fertilizers.
18
Figure 6c.
Complete bathroom elements including sink and toilet for employees of a shrimp farm, equipped also with cleaning and disinfection supplies (left). Portable latrine located near the resting areas for the field staff in a shrimp farm (right).
18
Figure 6d.
Source of drinking water for a shrimp farm workers (left); conventional telephone system and radio (right) used for communications in a shrimp farm.
18
Figure 6e.
Boarding a bus by staff of a shrimp farm at the end of a working day, as part of the free service offered by the company. Note the guard near the door checking bags and backpacks of workers before boarding.
18
Figure 7.
Integration activity of a shrimp farm with the near communities during a religious celebration held in a reservoir channel (“Virgen del Carmen”), Anton, Panama.
19
Figure 8.
Protected wildlife area adjacent to a shrimp farm (nesting area for local and migratory birds), Honduras.
20
Figure 9.
Palo Blanco" sea arm (Aguadulce, Panama) with well-preserved mangrove forest, used as a water source for several shrimp farms.
20
Figure 10.
Map showing the location of shrimp farms built in albino (salt land) areas and areas of possible ponds expansion (right of the ponds).
21
Figure 11a.
Virgin albino (salt land) area, characterized by humid zones due to tidal influence, flat terrain, little vegetation and surrounded by mangrove forest.
21
Figura 11b.
Assessment of a virgin albino area for the location of a shrimp farm.
21
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
8
Figure 12.
Shrimp farm flooding caused by a river overflow as consequence of a strong storm and simulta neous high tides.
22
Figure 13a.
Pond building in a shrimp farm located in an albino area with high in clay and silt (adequate texture) allowing good dikes compaction.
23
Figure 13b.
Ponds covered with liners in an intensive system for shrimp production, to avoid leakage due to sandy soil composition.
23
Figura 14.
Design plan of a shrimp farm.
25
Figura 15a.
Design plan of a shrimp farm (left) and cross sections of the dikes (right).
26
Figure 15b.
Strategic section in a dike of a pond during building of a shrimp farm, which is being built a water income structure.
26
Figure 16.
Pumping station of a shrimp farm with axial pumps.
26
Figure 17.
Fuel tank properly labeled with a security pit to contain spills.
27
Figure 18a.
Natural regeneration of mangrove trees in a drainage channels of a shrimp farm.
27
Figure 18b.
Buffer zone adjacent to a shrimp farm, with natural proliferation of different types of mangroves that serve as shelter for wildlife.
27
Figure 19.
Service road bridge on a canal in a shrimp farm, to allow the natural drainage water flow as tidal dynamics.
27
Figure 20.
Administrative, technical and logistical-support facilities for production activities of a shrimp farm, with adequate service roads for vehicles and heavy equipment traffic.
28
Figure 21.
Main feed warehouse of a shrimp farm receiving shrimp feed transported in a covered truck (see right on the picture).
28
Figure 22.
Concrete stalls used as small warehouse for feed storage; they are strategically located in the pond production area of a shrimp farm and facilitate the distribution of daily rations. They should be designed to preserve feed quality and to avoid either rodents and other pests contamination or theft.
28
Figure 23a.
Raised drinking water system supply (left) and comfortable housing for a shrimp farm workers who live in it (right).
29
Figure 23b.
Dining for a shrimp farm staff.
29
Figure 24.
Security shelter and electric gate to control personnel and vehicles entry and exit in a shrimp farm.
30
Figure 25.
Recently harvested pond under total draining process for a posterior sunshine and wind exposure to soil dry.
33
Figure 26.
Pond bottom drying and disinfecting through the sunlight and wind effect; note the deep soil cracks.
33
Figure 27.
Physical pond soil examination (left) and soil sampling for laboratory analysis (right) in a shrimp farm.
34
Figure 28.
Two adult organisms of “ghost shrimp” - "Callianassa" (Lepidophthalmus bocourti) (left) whose size is comparable to a coin equivalent to U.S. $0.10. On the right the picture shows the bottom of a shrimp pond with holes built by these organisms
35
Figure 29.
Two adult organisms of Tanaidacea (left) whose size is comparable to a coin equivalent to U.S. $0.25. To the right is presented a lump removed from the bottom of a shrimp pond with holes built by these organisms.
36
Figure 30a.
Sediment removal and harvest channel restoration on a shrimp pond bottom (left) and dikes restructuring (right).
37
Figure 30b.
Manual sediment removal from the bottom of a shrimp pond after a harvest, when it coincides with the rainy season and it becomes difficult tractors entering to the ponds.
37
Figure 31a.
Manual liming of a shrimp pond as part of its stocking preparation. Note the consistency with which lime is being spread on the bottom.
38
Figure 31b.
Reservoir channel manually limed as a best management practice in a small shrimp farm.
38
Figure 31c.
Mechanical liming of a shrimp pond during preparation for stocking. Using specialized equipment allows evenly lime application on the soil, in less time and safer for workers.
38
Figure 32.
Reservoir channel manually limed as a best management practice in a small shrimp farm.
39
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Figure 33.
Early shrimp pond filling process using wooden fine mesh filter bags in order to retain undesirable biological material.
39
Figure 34.
Late shrimp pond filling process in a shrimp farm still remaining wooden filters and fine mesh filter bags to prevent entry of debris and undesirable biological material.
40
Figure 35.
Shrimp postlarvae production tanks in larval production center.
41
Figure 36.
Plastic trays distribution in a shrimp enclosure system in a pond, which will be used for shrimp feeding with 100% of the daily ration.
42
Figure 37a.
Macroscopic postlarvae checkup performed by shrimp farm staff to determine its quality and health conditions before purchasing the batch.
42
Figure 37b.
Postlarvae transport in oxygenated bins and acclimation after arrival at the shrimp farm (left), and physicochemical parameters monitoring during acclimation (right).
43
Figure 38a.
Shrimp feed unloading and stowage for temporary storage in a shrimp farm warehouse.
45
Figure 38b.
Shrimp feed temporarily stored on pallets in a warehouse of a shrimp farm. Note the warehouse ventilation, lighting and cleaning conditions, the same as the use of wooden pallets and order and space in the stowage system.
45
Figure 39.
Hydrostability test performed with a feed sample lot on arrival at the shrimp farm, in order to assess its physical quality. Pellets were immersed in sea water in a volumetric flask (beaker), without agitation. Note the pellets consistency and hydration after 2 hours of testing.
45
Figure 40.
Plastic trays distribution in a shrimp enclosure system in a pond, which will be used for shrimp feeding with 100% of the daily ration.
47
Figure 41.
Feed tray review by shrimp farm workers at a pond (left); circular mesh-made feed tray showing feed and shrimp eating during a routine checkup on a shrimp farm.
47
Figure 42.
Shrimp feed distributed from a rowboat; this is a good feeding practice management to the environmental in a shrimp farm, as long as staff effort be considered.
48
Figure 43.
Routine analysis of pond water in a shrimp farm, where pH (left) and salinity (right) is monitored.
50
Figure 44.
Routine operation of a laboratory in a shrimp farm, which includes algae counting (left), water chemical analysis (right) and data recording (center).
51
Figure 45a.
Secchi disk design (left) and how to use it for turbidity measurement in a shrimp pond (right).
51
Figure 45b.
Basic equipment for field and laboratory analysis which must be in a shrimp farm. From left to right: regular gram scale, oxymeter (behind), pH meter, salinity meter and stirrer with hot plate.
51
Figure 46.
Paddlewheel aerators in a shrimp farm ponds with an intensive shrimp farming system. Location must be strategic looking to form a continuous water flow to prevent stratification.
52
Figure 47.
Shrimp farm pumping station that supplies water to the ponds through the reservoir channel; it can be observed behind pumps a well-preserved mangrove with abundant vegetation, which follows the path of the estuary.
54
Figure 48.
Microalgae belonging to diatoms: Navicula (left) and Chaetoceros (right). This group is the main feed source of zooplankton consumed by shrimp in farming ponds.
55
Figure 49.
Metabolites-producing microorganisms which affect shrimp health or quality: on the left dinoflagellates (Peridinium) and on the right cyanophytes (Oscillatoria).
55
Figure 50.
Agricultural inputs application (fertilizers) in a shrimp pond. Worker is protected with gloves and masks to avoid contact with the product.
57
Figure 51.
Structure for sedimentation control and filtration in a reservoir channel of a shrimp farm, which are using bag filters.
58
Figure 52a.
Water input gate (left) and water output gate (right) in a shrimp pond of a shrimp farm which have mesh filters, bag and wooden seal to prevent the either foreign organisms entry or shrimp escape during farming cycle.
59
Figure 52b.
Wooden frames with black mesh filter installed in a water output gate of a pond in a shrimp farm. The purpose is to prevent shrimp escape during pond water exchange.
59
Figure 53.
Meeting between shrimp farms managers and technical staff with representatives of the Competent Authority to discuss a shrimp health crisis and to establish an emergency plan.
61
Figure 54a.
Diseased shrimp (left) and healthy shrimp (right) captured during a routinely health monitoring in a shrimp pond.
62
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
10
Figure 54b.
Linical examination carried out during a routine health shrimp sampling in a shrimp farm.
62
Figure 55.
TCBS petri agar dishes (left) and TSA agar (right) showing colonies growth from sick shrimp hemolymph.
63
Figure 56a.
Temperature-controlled incubator (left) and laminar flow chamber Class II used for studies of bacteriology in the laboratory of a shrimp farm.
64
Figure 56b.
Tissue processing equipment used in the preparation of histological slides to study shrimp organs and tissues suspected to have a disease.
64
Figure 56c.
PCR machine (thermocycler), used for the genomic amplification (DNA or RNA) of shrimp pathogens from tissue samples.
64
Figure 57a.
Competent Authority personnel from the Aquaculture Health Authority of a country, performing shrimp sampling for PCR analysis as part of the routine health surveillance in a shrimp farm.
65
Figure 57b.
Shrimp farms personnel in aquatic health making microscopy observations and recording findings, from sick shrimp samples.
65
Figure 58a.
Identified containers with colors and signs, which can be used in shrimp farms for garbage collection according to their recycling classification, or for a proper disposal of certain kind of materials that require special handling such as used batteries.
69
Figure 58b.
Domestic waste collection by a specialized vehicle contracted for this particular service in a shrimp farm.
69
Figure 59.
Shrimp sampling to determine its quality before deciding pond harvesting.
71
Figure 60.
Using of a harvest machine in a pond of a shrimp farm which provides a better product quality.
71
Figure 61.
Quick icing process during a harvest in a shrimp farm, causing shrimp death by heat shock and thus initiating the cold chain.
72
Figure 62.
Technical training courses for the shrimp farm staff about diagnostic methods for recognizing shrimp diseases.
74
Figure 63a.
Sign on the wall of a shrimp farm explaining biosecurity levels as well as recommendations and restrictions to be applied in each one.
75
Figure 63b.
Workspaces which indicate the biosecurity level to be applied when entering. Note the presence of devices for hands and feet disinfection.
75
Figure 64a.
Tire disinfection of a vehicle with a backpack system at a checkpoint, when entering a shrimp farm.
76
Figure 64b.
Footbath with a quaternary ammonium solution used in the analytical laboratory entrance of a shrimp farm as a biosecurity measure.
76
Figure 65a.
Disposed shrimp burial in a cave made out of any area that be susceptible to contaminated in a shrimp farm.
77
Figure 65b.
Lime application and soil covering of disposed shrimp in a shrimp farm.
77
Figure 66.
Cleaning and disinfection in acclimation facilities of a shrimp farm; note that the worker is wearing boots, gloves, gas mask and cap for protection.
78
Figure 67.
Device for pests control in a shrimp farm, installed and supervised by a certified company that has been hired by the shrimp company.
81
Figure 68.
Portable latrine located in an area of shrimp ponds (left). Sink and a paper towel dispenser (right).
84
Figure 69.
Solar panels used in a shrimp farm as an alternative to reduce electricity consumption costs.
86
Figure 70a.
Manual recording forms for different tasks in a shrimp farm (left) and vertical filing system to organize and preserve the historical evolution of the data (right).
87
Figure 70b.
Manual recording in the laboratory of a shrimp farm (left) and in the field (right), as part of the production data collection.
87
Figure 70c.
Computerized data recording in the warehouse of a shrimp farm which allows to have control on entry and exit of operating materials and supplies.
88
Figure 71a.
Computer screen showing an electronic form of an official software designed for data recording in a shrimp farm as a plan for traceability.
89
Figure 71b.
Data typing in an electronic form of an official software, performed by personnel of a shrimp farm for traceability purposes.
89
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
FOREWORD
The "Manual of Best management practices for white shrimp Penaeus vannamei farming", aims to make available voluntary tools to prevent, mitigate or compensate environmental negative impacts of the activities of shrimp farms, so that farming operations be responsibly developed with the environment and with the society. Similarly, this Manual is intended as a guide for voluntary programs designed to prevent, reduce and/or manage risks related to food safety, life, animal health and human health. It involves environmental, social and food security elements and proposes principles for the responsible and sustainable shrimp farming in Central America. This Manual pretends also to support the formulation of national and regional rules in shrimp industry, addressed to seek sustainability of this activity and pretending to supply base ideas for standards and certification systems development . The principles and associated guidelines on the implementation of the suggested rules of this Manual can be used by public and private sectors for: a) management protocols development for each shrimp farm in member countries of OIRSA/OSPESCA, b) improving management practices and c) suggest additional administrative proposals for shrimp farming.
11
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
12
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
1. Introduction
help the achievement of these goals, members of FAO in 1995 adopted the Conduct Code for Responsible Fishing,
Worldwide, aquaculture has grown dramatically over the
providing a framework for the responsible development for
last 60 years, from less than one million tonnes in the
aquaculture and fisheries.
1950s, to 51.7 million tons in 2006 with a value of 78.800 million USD. Despite that fisheries catch production
Globally, however, the production of the major species
stopped growing in the 1980s, the global aquaculture
groups continues to be dominated by a small group of
sector has maintained an annual average growth rate of
countries. China produces 77% of all carp (Cyprinidae) and
8.7% (excluding China, with 6.5%) since 1970 (FAO,
82% of world supply oysters (Ostreids). Asia-Pacific region
2009).
produces 98% of the carp (Cyprinus carpius) and 95% of total oysters; 88% of shrimps and prawns (Penaeid) also
According to FAO (2009), aquaculture represents 76% of
come from this region and the five largest producers
world freshwater finfish production and 65% of the
(China, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia and India) supply
production
Its
81%. Norway and Chile are the two world's largest
contribution to the world's crustaceans supply has grown
producers of farmed salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch and
rapidly in the last decade and has reached 42% of world
Salmo salar - salmonids) and share 33% and 31%,
production in 2006 and, in that year, provided 70% of the
respectively, of the world production. Other European
shrimp and prawns (penaeid) produced worldwide.
producers supply additional 19% (FAO, 2009).
Regarding Latin America and the Caribbean, FAO reported
Shrimp farming is one of the fastest growing aquaculture
that it has the highest average annual growth rate (22%),
sectors in Asia and Latin America and recently in Africa.
followed by the Near East (20%) and the African region
The sustainability of shrimp aquaculture should be reached
(12.7%). Production growth in Europe and North America,
with the short and long term recognition and mitigation of
has slowed substantially 1% per year since 2000. France
the effects on the environment and on the community. In
and Japan that used to be leaders in aquaculture
order to get it, it`s necessary to maintain an economic and
development have reduced production in the past decade.
biological viability along the time, and protect the coastal
Although aquaculture production will continue increasing,
resources of which it depends.
of
molluscs
and
diadromous
fish.
the growth rate could be moderate in the near future. In the Central America region, marine shrimp aquaculture Due to demand increase, production and marketing
corresponds to 12.8% and Tilapia to 5.7%, being the
increasing, there is a requirement increase for improving
higher development of the aquaculture sector. Other
sustainability, social acceptance and security for human
resources represent 22.6% of the production. In spite that
health. This not only affects international trade and pushes
mariculture and Cobia farming (Rachycentron canadum)
producers to focus on production methods that lead them
are not recorded in the statistics of the region until 2007,
to do that, but also challenges to producing countries to
they have taken an interesting boom since 2008 in Belize
develop and implement appropriate policies and develop
and Panama, with high prospects industrial development
standards that allow responsible production and trade. To
(PAPCA-OSPESCA/AECID).
13
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Instead shrimp catch that until early 2000s was strategic for
Health Program of OIRSA`s Regional Coordination of
Central America, decreases every year due to fishing
Animal Health. Objectives and activities of the Ad hoc
overexploitation and despite implemented regulations.
Group, are involved in policy strategies of Fisheries and
Thus, production fell from 15.017 TM in 2000 (3.8% of
Aquaculture Integration of the Central American Isthmus.
regional production) to 8.775 tonnes in 2007 (2% of the
Regarding participation, countries that integrate OIRSA are:
regional total), while this same resource increased from
Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,
25.435 TM (6.5% of production) to 71.134 MT (16.4% of
Nicaragua, Panama, Mexico and Republic Dominican.
the
OSPESCA member countries are the same but excepting
cumulative
regional)
during
the
same
period
(OSPESCA, 2009).
Mexico.
Many of the problems associated with aquaculture, result
Both
from poor project planning and construction. In this regard,
international efforts tending to improve and optimize of
FAO indicates that shrimp farms should be located
shrimp sector activities in countries of the region. In order
according to the planning and the legal framework in
to get it, they have developed a significant technical and
environmentally suitable locations, making efficient use of
logistical deployment for the development of this "Best
water and soil resources; all of it additional to conservation
management practices manual for white shrimp Penaeus
of
and
vannamei farming", document that has been addressed to
ecosystem functions. This, recognizing other land uses,
producers, technicians, students, academics, professionals
and other people and species that depend of these
from related areas, private and official entities from member
ecosystems.
countries of these organizations.
As an answer to the current demands of the Central
There are different versions designed and implemented to
America region in aquatic health, it was created the Ad hoc
improve
group
of
worldwide, but basically they all share the same principles
OIRSA/OSPESCA-PRIPESCA, which main objective is to
and approaches, with differences due to the particular
have permanent availability of a specialized technical team
characteristics of the countries or regions where they have
in the area of Aquatic Animal Health, led by Aquaculture
been published.
biodiversity,
of
ecologically
Aquatic
sensitive
Health
habitats
Program
organizations
(OIRSA/OSPESCA)
management
practices
in
have
shrimp
joined
farming
Table 1. Production of farmed shrimp (TM) in Central American Countries - 2000-2007. Year
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Panama
Totals
2000
3,637.3
1,300
196
1,492
12,041
5,422
1,347
24,148.3
2001
4,460.1
1,800
363
2,500
16,718
5,697.9
3,039
30,321
2002
4,354.1
4,097
372
5,400
18,149
6,102.2
4,778
37,906.3
2003
11,157.2
5,051
473
3,768
25,427
7,019.4
6,105
59,000.6
2004
11,064.9
5,076
435
3,900
27,748
7,849.5
6,535
58,747.4
2005
10,254.1
5,714
240
7,000
28,385
9,633.3
7,122
61,355.4
2006
7,234.7
5,726
336
13,428
35,811
10,860.5
8,314
81,710.2
2007
2,472.4
5,274
160.4
13,500
30,367
11,097.5
8,263
57,769.3
Fuente:OSPESCA 2009.
14
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
All shrimp farms must comply with national, regional and international regulations, that are all applicable to the shrimp industry, as it relates to the environmental, health, food
safety,
social,
labor
and
land
tenure.
Best
Management Practices (BMP) are not quantitative or static procedures, they can`t be encoded as a permanent control. They are intended to guide the shrimp industry to efficiency maximizing, sustainability insurance and environmental and social impact minimization, always considering product safety.
2. Existing regulation compliance 2.1
Social aspects
The social approach of shrimp companies should be directed to developing and operating shrimp farms in a
Figure 2. School supplies donation by Seajoy Shrimp Group, Honduras. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón
2.1.1
Relationship with neighboring communities
responsible way, that benefits the same company, local communities and the country, effectively contributing with
Shrimp farms are located near coastal communities that
rural development (Figure 1) and particularly, to the
traditionally have had access to coastal resources, like
poverty alleviation in coastal areas, without compromising
fishing, mollusks gathering and wood extraction. Due to
environment.
that, shrimp farms should not deny access rural communities to these resources, that have used them routinely for many years. Shrimp farms should not prohibit coastal communities to access public places as mangrove forests, fishing areas and public resources, as long as these communities do not endanger those resources. Farms should cooperate with Competent Authorities, which are responsible for regulating the use of coastal and aquatic resources of these areas (Figure 3). 2.1.2 Labor and occupational health
Figure 1. Kindergarten "Froylán Turcios" rebuilt by the shrimp company LARVIPAC, Seajoy Group, Honduras. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.
relationships
It is very important to avoid or minimize conflicts with local
All worker performing honest work, should be rewarded at
communities that may result from the development or
least with the minimum legal salary. Furthermore, he/she
operation of a shrimp farm. By the way, it must be ensured
should be covered by social security and medical insur-
and promoted that aquaculture development be of mutual
ance mandated by health legislation.
benefit to the parties (Figure 2).
15
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Figure 3. Free access to other users (fishermen) to the water source near the shrimp farm. Coquira (left) and Aguadulce (right), Panama. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Mr. M. De León.
Personnel farm training should be a standing item, in order
adequate signaling on the implements and rules to be
to improve their technical level looking for a better efficiency
followed by workers in places where a risk is considered
in their daily performance and for a responsible behavior
(Figure 5b). Likewise, there must be signaling for rapid
within their community (Figure 4).
evacuation routes finding if emergencies occur, and must have available fire extinguishers located in susceptible
The company must ensure the physical and mental health
areas (Figure 5c).
of all their employees, by implementing an occupational health care program, including visits from doctors, dentists
This practice that will allow good health for employees, will
and social workers, giving all the staff the opportunity to be
provide also labor benefits for a better performance on
treated at least once a year (Figure 5a).
production. When applying, employees must obtain and carry health cards issued by the Competent Authority.
As a measure to prevent accidents, the farm must have
Figure 4. Training for a shrimp farm staff on topics related to public health and disease prevention. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
16
Figure 5a. Health care for the staff as part of occupational health farm plan. Photo courtesy of Mr. D. López.
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
meet the requirements of personnel retirement programs according to the laws of each country. All shrimp farms either offering or not accommodation to workers, must have basic and dignified infrastructure, well ventilated and having good showers and toilets. (Figures 6b and 6c). Personnel meals must be balanced and nutritious. There must be drinking water sources for all the personnel. The farm must also have communication systems to the Figure 5b. Personal security measures signaling placed in work areas of a shrimp farm, in order to prevent staff accidents at work and whose compliance must be mandatory. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
outside,
either
radiotelephones;
through in
this
conventional way,
not
telephone only
or
internal
communication between the farm technicians is optimized, but also will have a communication line to neighboring communities in case of an emergency (Figure 6d). Both, storage and meals cooking must be adequate and food waste must be handled the right way and environmentally friendly. Regarding mobilization, the company should provide all the workers a free and safe transport system, from their homes to the farm facilities and back at the end of the labor day. This farm support reduces the possibility of accidents risks for workers and they would be covered by an insurance policy to be mobilized in a bus, according to the basic rules
Figure 5c. Evacuation route signaling in a work area of a shrimp farm, and fire extinguishing equipment for fire emergencies. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
of road and social safety (Figure 6e).
2.1.3 Existing labor regulations compliance It is the responsibility of each company, the compliance of national and international legislation. It should not existing discriminatory, policies or exclusion practices for personnel recruitment, and minors should not be hired. Occupational safety must be implemented in order to prevent accidents at work and have a healthy working environment. Aquaculture workers must be trained about their rights and duties, as well as aspects regarding occupational safety and first aid. Shrimp companies must
Figure 6a. Technical and administrative offices of a shrimp farm, equipped with air conditioning and tinted windows for a more comfortable and healthy work environment. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
17
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Figure 6b. Bathroom facilities in a shrimp farm including showers (left) and urinals (right) for the farm workers. The showers help for washing salt water and irritating substances such as lime or some fertilizers. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
Figure 6e. Boarding a bus by staff of a shrimp farm at the end of a working day, as part of the free service offered by the company. Note the guard near the door checking bags and backpacks of workers before boarding. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
2.1.4 Social responsibility A farm BMP is the projection or reflection of their activities directed towards the community, involving workers in identifying such social, environmental, health, education and communication problems among others, and make them authors for solutions searching. Likewise, the company should be involved in social activities that develop communities and that contribute to the sociological welfare of its employees, promoting an integration between the two parties, regarding sociocultural aspects associated with day by day of the workers (Figure 7). Figure 6c. Complete bathroom elements including sink and toilet for employees of a shrimp farm, equipped also with cleaning and disinfection supplies (left). Portable latrine located near the resting areas for the field staff in a shrimp farm (right). Photos courtesy of Mr. M. De León and Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
Social responsibility includes company commitments with the employees, which are not usually regulated or don´t obey laws compliance. Shrimp farming industry must be developed and operated under a socially responsible manner that benefits both companies and workers, local communities and the country. Best Management Practices (BMP) for social aspects
Figure 6d. Source of drinking water for a shrimp farm workers (left); conventional telephone system and radio (right) used for communications in a shrimp farm. Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
18
Avoid conflicts with local communities that may result from the development of the shrimp farm and operation and ensure that the development of the shrimp aquaculture be beneficial for the producer and the community. In order to get it, it´s recommended ensure jobs, perform social activities that benefit the community (schools, aqueducts, roads, playgrounds, recreation, health centers, improvements in public services, etc.).
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
personnel retirement programs Provide good field conditions to the workers, such as adequate transportation, dining areas and rest areas, the same as access to sanitation facilities (fixed or portable toilets) 2.2 Environmental aspects Sustainable shrimp farming should be focused on development of farming systems in an integrated, orderly and inclusive, articulating the economic, social and Figure 7. Integration activity of a shrimp farm with the near communities during a religious celebration held in a reservoir channel (“Virgen del Carmen”), Anton, Panama. Photo courtesy of Engs. M. Lemieszek.
environmental capabilities with technology, knowledge, institutional efforts and the legal framework policy. Under this guidance, shrimp farms have a responsibility in environmental management implementation defined in the
Shrimp farms should not deny access the community to natural resources, which for many years have been used
Environmental Impact Study, from the construction stage and during its establishment and operation.
routinely Regarding coastal and aquatic resources, farms should
Each one of the infrastructure that make up the farm
be cooperating agencies with Competent Authorities that
(ponds, offices, warehouses, pump stations, bridges,
are responsible for their use regulation
sewers, drains, reservoir channels, roads, etc.), must
Ensure the welfare and improving working conditions of those who work on shrimp farms
include in its design aspects to minimize or prevent impacts on the environment during construction and operation.
Training of farm workers must be standing item, in order to improve their professional level, in order to improve
Similarly, it should be prevised its permanent maintenance for avoiding damage and accidents.
performance efficiency of their daily work and for a responsible conduct within their community. This includes
2.2.1 Site selection for farm location
topics as duties and rights, within the labor relationship and in the community, responsible practices for shrimp farming
One of the most critical points in any shrimp aquaculture
and job security (e.g. first aid)
operation is site selection, because doing it correctly, large
Minimize the risk of human error during shrimp farming process,
through
training.
Appropriate
extension
amount of possible effects on the environment and neighboring communities can be minimized. By the way, it
techniques and through excellence programs, bonuses and
can
be
identified
awards
sustainability.
limitations
that
affect
operation
Shrimp companies must provide their workers with clothing and safety items appropriate for each of the tasks they perform Companies must also comply the requirements of
19
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
The site selected for the location of the farm, should be in
original, such as topography, hydrography, hydrology and
an area where the operation thereof don´t induce
other soil characteristics.
environmental or social conflicts, according to planning and legal framework and making efficient use of water and soil
Regarding food safety, the most important features are
resources. It should conserved biodiversity, ecologically
again water and soil quality. This is the first prevention step
sensitive habitats and ecosystem functions, and recognizes
for reducing danger of human food consumption risks. In
other possible uses of ground and that other people and
fact, constructed farm on contaminated soil or using
species depend on these same ecosystems (Figure 8).
polluted water, will not obtain a safe product. It must be known the history of use of the selected land and by
Factors that must be considered when selecting a suitable
laboratory analysis, must be confirmed the absence of
land for shrimp farming, include:
hazardous products for shrimp and/or damaging the quality of the final product (harvested shrimp), due to their potential risk to human health. Water quality is essential to meet physico-chemical and biological requirements for farmed species. Likewise, the use of high quality water for shrimp production, will have a “plus” for producing a quality and safety shrimp for the final consumer. Therefore, it must be ensured that the water is not contaminated or that there is not possibility for water contamination with industrial, mining, agricultural or domestic waste (Figure 9).
Figure 8. Protected wildlife area adjacent to a shrimp farm (nesting area for local and migratory birds), Honduras. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.
•
Cost-effective and environmental health
•
Value of the site where it will be operated a shrimp farm, related to the intrinsic value (cost-opportunity)
•
Impact on the local and regional economy
•
Changes in the value of other sites within the same ecosystem as a result of the farm operation
Each site has its own characteristics that determine the biological,
social,
land
tenure
and
local
context,
environmental, operational and financial feasibility, the same as the consequences of being used for shrimp production. It is important to ponder the factors involved in transforming an area that will have a different role from the
20
Figure 9. "Palo Blanco" sea arm (Aguadulce, Panama) with well-preserved mangrove forest, used as a water source for several shrimp farms. Photo courtesy of Mr. M. De León.
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Site selection should include area development plans
Many ponds are built in flood-prone lowlands, so
regarding agricultural, industrial and tourism growth, and
knowledge about flood patterns becomes critical. Flooding,
others. This will ensure a project long life and will anticipate
embankments erosion and sediment deposits (erosion from
adverse conditions that could affect investment in short to
around areas of the shrimp farm), can damage pond walls
medium term.
and edges, destroying roads and channels damage and sedimentation.
Prevention
is
the
best
way
to
avoid
microbial
contaminations. Contaminated water with Wastewater and
Shrimp farm design should incorporate elements that
human waste, is the most common and important source of
protect farm structures from strong floods, and that also
human pathogenic microorganisms. The farther away be
avoid natural watercourses obstruction that maintain
the farms from human communities, the easier will be
surrounding habitats. It´s recommended the building of
pathogen contamination control that may affect final
ponds in areas with very low vegetation such as the albino
product safety.
areas, because construction costs will be reduced and the risk that the farm location be a sensitive zone, will be lower
2.2.1.1 Topography
(Figures 11a and 11b).
Shrimp industry, thanks to the advancement of technology, has extended possibilities of using not only albino areas, but also sandy and inland areas for the location of shrimp farms. These options for lands using, should consider environmental impact as a result of farms construction and operation (Figure 10).
Figure 11a. Virgin albino (salt land) area, characterized by humid zones due to tidal influence, flat terrain, little vegetation and surrounded by mangrove forest. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
Figure 10. Map showing the location of shrimp farms built in albino (salt land) areas and areas of possible ponds expansion (right of the ponds). Photo courtesy of Mr. M. De León.
Figure 11b. Assessment of a virgin albino area for the location of a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Mr. M. De León.
21
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
influence must be isolated and controlled in drainage
2.2.1.2 Hydrology and hydrography
channels. The hydrographic and hydrological study on the site should reveal annual flows and tides variations during rainy and
2.2.1.3 Soil characteristics
dry seasons. Considering production and safety environmental aspects Structures and water channels design regardless climate
when shrimp farm site selection, soil characteristics are
seasonal variations and area hydrology, can result in costly
relevant to the production sustainable success. Potentially
mistakes and severe environmental impacts. It´s critical to
acid and sulfated soils must be excluded when site
determine the hydrology characteristics of the area, to
selection for the location of a shrimp farm. However,
ensure operation needs and interferes as little as possible
moderately acidic soils can be treated to improve its pH,
with natural water flows.
through the process of liming with calcium carbonate.
Seasonal variations should be carefully studied and
Another important feature for site selection is the soil
according to the results of this study,
organic matter contents. When this is organic, should not
internal and external farm hydraulic structures must be
be used for shrimp pond construction, due to problems
carefully
with earthmoving, soil compaction and consequent
dimensioned.
Annual
shrimp
farm
water
requirement, must be determined in the planning process
problems during production process due to acid pH.
and must include both, production process requirements, and the losses that may occur in the system.
Soil texture must be of suitable composition and must be found at a depth of at least 50 cm below the bottom of the
When farms are built in flood areas affected by temporary
pond. Soil must have a high silt and clay content, to reduce
high tides, special engineering precautions must be
water loss by infiltration and facilitate wall compaction for
considered, to avoid the effects of high tides and storms
erosion reduction (Figure 13a).
(Figure 12). It is also advisable that when possible, tide
Figure 12. Shrimp farm flooding caused by a river overflow as consequence of a strong storm and simultaneous high tides. Photos courtesy of Mr. C. Garrido.
22
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Sandy soils can be selected if technology is used to prevent
influence of agricultural drainage. Otherwise, such soils
water infiltration ("Liners") (Figure 13b). If design and
could have chemicals and environmental pollutants
construction don´t consider appropriate technical aspects,
accumulation, such as heavy metals and other harmful
it might be a mistake to place a shrimp farm on sandy soils
materials.
or infiltrating soil areas, the same as on seawater discharge areas (tide effect).
Shrimp farms should not be built within mangrove forests, wetlands or any other fragile ecosystem.
Within soil characteristics, it must be considered that it does not contain contaminants that may affect production
BMP for site selection for farm location
and final product safety. Shrimp farms must be built in areas that have not ever been exposed to agribusiness
The following are some general considerations for
activities or urban developments, or being affected by
implementing
best
practices
in
a
shrimp
farm
establishment: For site determination and project development, it must be considered the technical and environmental viability obtained in the economic, technical and environment impact study. These are key requirements in the process for project legalization Obey national regulations for land using, planning laws and coastal management plans Determining water or soil contamination level at different seasons of the year, based in national regulations Select a site at which water and soil have not previously Figure 13a. Pond building in a shrimp farm located in an albino area with high in clay and silt (adequate texture) allowing good dikes compaction. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel
been contaminated by previous use Ensure that selected site be free of potential water and soil contamination risks. Soil should not contain contaminants,
areas
exposed
to
other
previous
agribusiness activities, urban development or subject to agricultural drainage influence, because these soils may have Agrochemicals accumulation and environmental pollutants such as heavy metals or other harmful materials Water physicochemical properties assessment, avoiding the use of water sources with risk of contamination due to anthropogenic activities Don´t locate shrimp farms in areas that have already have Figure 13b. Ponds covered with liners in an intensive system for shrimp production, to avoid leakage due to sandy soil composition. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
reached its carrying capacity for aquaculture
23
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Inland areas should be used for shrimp farm locations if
Promotion
they have limited potential for agricultural use and having
development, by obtaining environmental licenses
also a little vegetation, avoid soil and freshwater
Watch population access to aquatic area resources
surrounding sources salinization
Promote aquaculture infrastructure modernization by
All sites for aquaculture, should be designed for a
supporting activities for environmental impact mitigation
consistent environment manner functioning
and rehabilitating estuarine systems (reforestation)
Shrimp farm location must involve not affecting water
Conduct hydrographic surveys of the site, to know annual
sources
variations during rainy, dry and transition seasons
of
other
users
by
overloading,
effluent
sustainable
aquaculture
enterprises
contamination, etc.
To consider climate seasonal variations and hydrology for
Buffer zones maintenance and corridors between farms
the design of structures and water channels, to avoid
and other users and habitats
costly mistakes and affect the environment
Regarding coastal areas, mangrove destruction must be
The annual water requirements for the farm, must be
avoided and it must be buffer areas
determined in the planning process
Well water intake and drainage planning, looking for least
Potentially acidic and sulfated soils are be avoided for
environment impact way and avoiding the re-use of
shrimp farm constructions. However, moderately acidic
already drained wastewater (effluents)
soils can be mitigated with lime
Flooding risks must be considered when shrimp farm site
Soil texture must have clay and silt suitable composition
selection
for a better soil compaction, being present at least 50 cm
Farm design should incorporate elements for structure
below the pond bottom
protection from hard flooding and also avoiding natural
Organic soils must not be considered for pond construction
water flow obstructing that maintain surrounding habitats
Farm construction must not impact site flora and fauna
Pond construction must be done in little vegetal layer
Wetlands must not be affected due to they are areas rich
areas for cost reduction and reducing the risk for the site
in wildlife
to be a sensitive area
If necessary, fresh water can be used if mixed with
Farms built in temporary flood areas due to high tides,
seawater to adjust salinity when it be too high, but it must
must consider special engineering precautions to avoid
be considered protection regulations for the used fresh
high tide effects
water source
Knowing
flooding
embankment
erosion
patterns,
the
and
sediment
waterlogging,
Aquaculture management plans must be respected in
deposition
order to balance the use of the environmental capacity in
(Erosion from around of the shrimp farm), because they
accordance with other surrounding industries
may cause losses on pond walls and edges, roads
Promoting of low trophic level species farming and/or
destruction and channel damage and sedimentation
biotechnologies that use feed from vegetal origin as
Assessment of the soil physicochemical properties,
replacement of animal origin feed
considering compactness, material texture (silty, sandy or clay) and composition (there are mineral materials that in high concentrations affect production negatively as iron and copper)
24
of
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Shrimp farms should not be within mangrove forest,
construction characteristics may reduce costs and improve
wetland or other fragile ecosystem
efficiency at all operation stages.
Shrimp farms must not be located on sandy soils or unloading
or
infiltration
seawater
areas,
unless
During the planning, design and construction phase of the
appropriate technology be used
farm, measurements must be considered to mitigate
Do not build shrimp farms in traditional areas of birds
environmental problems; that is why environmental
migration, as there will be problems related to their
evaluation is important (Figures 14, 15a and 15b).
invasion
and
disadvantages
with
environmental
protection authorities 2.2.2 Farm design and building According to shrimp farming growth during recent years, appropriate techniques for design and construction are being used when new shrimp farms are going to be placed. Improving shrimp farming techniques has advantages as not only considering shrimp farm management, but also farm is integrated in the local environment, causing the least possible disruption to the surrounded ecosystem. A good knowledge of the design principles, construction
Figure 14.Design plan of a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
and farming technologies, can help with three objectives: natural resource protection, operation efficiency and
Shrimp farm pumping structures must be compact, have a
construction costs reduction. Code of Practices of the
safe design to support and operate pumping equipment,
Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA), states that "the facilities
and
used in aquaculture should be designed and operated to
maintenance conditions; they should also be designed
maintain water and protect underground fresh water
under an environmentally friendly focus, avoiding oil and
sources, to minimize the effluent effects on surface and
other contaminant materials leaking to estuarine waters.
groundwater sources quality and maintaining ecological
Farm design must minimize risks of accident or injury to
diversity”. BMP play a key role in the reduction or
operators (Figure 16). Fuel tanks storage should be
mitigation of potential impacts during and after shrimp
designed and located according to established security
farm construction. In addition, attending thoroughly the
standards in each country (Figure 17).
they
must
provide
operational
and
logistics
25
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Figure 15a. Design plan of a shrimp farm (left) and cross sections of the dikes (right). Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
Pumping equipment selection must consider aspects related to efficiency, cost, durability (lifetime) and environmental risks associated with its use. Oil lubricated pumps are a potential risk for estuarine water contamination, so it is preferable to use water lubricated pumps. Pump motor selection should considered aspects as efficiency and type of required energy. At present there are many options for economic and environmentally friendly motor energy sources, which must be considered for shrimp farming.
Figure 15b. Strategic section in a dike of a pond during building of a shrimp farm, which is being built a water income structure. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
26
Every coastal aquaculture operation performed near mangrove forests, wetlands and mudflats, must watch their conservation to maintain industry sustainability itself (Figures 18a and 18b). For a proper shrimp farm design, standards and proceedings must be considered that involve soil properties, slope, water flow and the best hydraulic section, among others.
Figure 16. Pumping station of a shrimp farm with axial pumps. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
In the shrimp farm planning, water canals should not create barriers to natural water flows, because altering natural water courses can impact sensitive areas. Flooding or erosion resulting from this process, will damage the canals, farm infrastructure, nearby activities and the company production system itself. That is why area topographic studies
and
studying
its
hydrological
before
the
construction, will let detect where natural water courses in risk are located. In order to prevent natural water flows disturbance, it´s Figure 17. Pumping station of a shrimp farm with axial pumps. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
recommended to adjust the farm layout, providing adequately big culverts under roads or limiting deviation of
Figure 18a. Natural regeneration of mangrove trees in a drainage channels of a shrimp farm. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
Figure 18b. Buffer zone adjacent to a shrimp farm, with natural proliferation of different types of mangroves that serve as shelter for wildlife. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.
Figure 19. Buffer zone adjacent to a shrimp farm, with natural proliferation of different types of mangroves that serve as shelter for wildlife. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Girón.
27
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
waterways around structures, loading then on the original waterway (Figure 19). Roadways must have installed adequate sized structures to prevent fresh water stagnation and brackish water flow alteration. Sometimes it´s necessary to have roads built on high areas where shrimp ponds are built. One path can act as a dam and cause flooding unless that its drainage be ensured by using adequate sized structures. During extreme conditions, roads may be swept away by water flows. Design and construction of supplier water canals, play an
Figure 20. Administrative, technical and logistical-support facilities for production activities of a shrimp farm, with adequate service roads for vehicles and heavy equipment traffic. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
important role in the flexibility of pond management, and will have also an effect on some operation potential environmental impact reduction. These should be designed according with the results of the estimation of the farm maximum daily water demand, including losses by evaporation, water infiltration and leakage. Incoming water sediment load estimations, and required dimensions for a sedimentation area or sediment trap, must be calculated and incorporated into the design by an experienced engineer. Testing may be required to determine necessary time for water residence in these
Figure 21. Main feed warehouse of a shrimp farm receiving shrimp feed transported in a covered truck (see right on the picture). Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
sedimentation areas, to remove a significant amount of sediment. It should also be considered the use of two different sedimentation areas within one canal, because one area can be cleaned while the other continues operating. Regarding drainage canals, they must include in its design and construction, a hydraulic section allowing the efficient management of farm effluents and natural water inflows. Considering the possibility of control water gates for drainage and isolation of tide influence, is a biosafety option that may also reduce operating costs (Figure 19).
28
Figure 22. Concrete stalls used as small warehouse for feed storage; they are strategically located in the pond production area of a shrimp farm and facilitate the distribution of daily rations. They should be designed to preserve feed quality and to avoid either rodents and other pests contamination or theft.
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
The shrimp farm must have an adequate infrastructure that
When there is a logistic need for personnel hosted at
promotes an adequate production activities development
production areas, shrimp farm must build adequate
(Figure 20). Warehouses must be built and located accord
infrastructures that provide personnel comfort and healthy
to the stored products. That is why feed require an
conditions. There must be drinking water supply (Figure
adequate management during storage and distribution in
23a), dining areas (Figure 23b) and sanitation systems or
the field, where must be protected from moisture, direct
latrines. The latter must be located strategically in the field
sunlight and pest attack (Figures 21 and 22).
and for its design and construction it must be considered
23a. Raised drinking water system supply (left) and comfortable housing for a shrimp farm workers who live in it (right). Photos courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel and Mr. M. De León.
23b. Dining for a shrimp farm staff. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
29
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
environmental impacts, remaining important the use of
regulations to minimize environmental impacts; it should
ecological latrines (Figures 6b and 6c).
avoid locating them near estuarine sources, lagoons, Mangroves, office areas or workplaces.
It is important that all the actors in the shrimp farms capitalize and implement environmental management and,
In order to reduce the risk of introducing diseases and for
as part of it, there must be a focus on the reduction of waste
traceability ease, there must be an efficient control of
in the construction process and during the shrimp
personnel and equipment entry and exit (Figure 24), the
production phase. The practice of reducing, reusing and
same as considering a disinfection system for them,
recycling, must be a rule in the farm depending on the
designed so that may not be avoided under any
environment and costs.
circumstance.
Waste disposal based on classification and recycling
It should be considered in the shrimp farm design and
options, must be considered during farm construction and
construction, to have the adequate infrastructure and
after during production phase, so in each waste production
signaling required for permanent implementation of
area there were properly located containers. Although there
security, hygiene and biosecurity measures.
is not and international classification color for waste containers according to their characteristics, we propose
BMP for farm design and building
the following: green for glass, yellow for recyclable oils, white for other recyclable material, red for dangerous
During construction phase, fuels, lubricants and all waste
chemical and biological waste, blue for paper and board
must be responsibly managed to prevent environmental
materials, and gray for organic matter (biodegradable).
contamination, building containment dikes around places were fuel be stored, for protecting adjacent areas
Waste disposal sites, must be strategically located within
in the event of a spill
the farm, if the waste cannot be disposed of in municipal
Conserving biodiversity and promote natural habitats
landfills. Its design must include all national established
restoration; maintaining riverside vegetation and a buffer zone. If it´s kept intact as much vegetation as possible between ponds and adjacent water bodies, it´s maintained the ecological water values and there are protected the embankments from erosion caused by wind and tides effect Avoid discharges to stagnant or sensitive environments where damage can occur, will minimize effluent impacts. When many farms discharge within a same water body, coordination between operators can help preventing problems Minimize degraded areas (unused) and implement for them reforestation plans or ecological use
Figure 24. Security shelter and electric gate to control personnel and vehicles entry and exit in a shrimp farm. Photo courtesy of Eng. C. Lara.
30
Have vegetation buffer zones among the mangroves, rivers and estuaries, and enable natural corridors among them
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Shrimp farm design should include supply canals with
Pump station area must have all security structures to
adequate dimensions for farm water needs
avoid accidents such as mesh cover on belts and pulleys,
Farm design (or a new extension of the operation), must
metal mesh fence around of the pumps area, adequate
include an area for a sedimentation pond with an
illumination and others, complying environmental and
adequate size, or another structure as sediment traps,
job security regulations
which minimizes the discharge of suspended solids in
Pump engines must be in good mechanical conditions
effluent water
and also have a tray for lubricants leaking retention
The farm size should be proportional to the water
Fuel and lubricants provision and storage must be
availability and based on the estimated capacity of the
consistent with national regulations (fire department and
receiving water body to dilute, transport and assimilate
environmental authority)
effluent water
Complete waste must be removed from the site and
Shrimp farms built on low coastal areas are susceptible to
responsibly discarded once construction
natural disasters such as floods and hurricanes. Thus,
has completed
they should be designed and efficiently constructed to
Ponds must drain completely by using culverts or other
avoid water excessive requirements, low water quality
drainage systems
and increased suspended solids in effluent
Whenever possible, water input and output from ponds
Farm design and construction must consider control
and canals should be separated so incoming and effluent
water gates that allow drainage and isolating from tide
water never get mixed. Its design should include erosion
effect as a biosafety measure
controls
Farm pumps lubrication must be better by water than by
Dike and internal roads construction should neither alter
oil because the latter have leaking risk that may cause
natural flow of water bodies nor causing salinization of
water and soil contamination
surrounding lands
Pumping stations should be located where water quality
Supply canals and drainage canals must be designed to
is acceptable and avoiding areas where environmental
avoid water high speed and their erosion, as to allow
damage may occur
water flow to the ponds by using gravity
Proper design, location and operation of pump stations,
Prevailing wind direction should be considered to reduce
may reduce operating cost and potential environmental
the presence of waves that may erosion ponds and
damage caused by its operation
canals dikes
Large pumps should be used more than small pumps,
Effluent water discharge points must be located in places
because they are more efficient than smaller ones; but
where transport and effluent dispersion be maximized,
more than one pump must be installed on large farms to
and where tide hydraulic impact on environment and
provide flexibility and water reserve capacity. Small farms
vegetation be minimized
may need a backup pump in the event of mechanical failure of the main pump Pumping structure must have a surface that facilitates cleaning and should not allow fuel drops leaking that contaminate soil or estuarine water
31
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Depending
on
the
effluent
water
quality,
it´s
preparation after harvest (time after harvest in which pond
recommended to design the shrimp farm so as to allow
bottom is sanitized by sunlight effect), pond bottom
water effluent treatment to reduce the physic-chemical
preparation, proper disposal of predators and competitors,
disturbance of estuaries or rivers
reduction
Drainage canals should have control water gates, which
management.
of
stressors
and
natural
productivity
allow pond isolation from tide influence; it will make easier drying process, will help for cost reduction by not
3.1 Pond preparation
using wood and meshes and will reduce harvest time When a supply canal is common for several farms, water
Pond depopulation after harvest implemented in part or the
use must be coordinated in mutual accordance between
whole shrimp farm, will allows to have enough time for good
user companies, and it should not affect area ecology
bottom drying and pond preparation. This contributes to
Access to land or water routes, docks and parking areas,
healthy shrimp growth as it encourages a good chemical,
must be located where it´s possible to mitigate
physical and biological balance in the pond. Drainage,
environmental impacts
drying,
In order to reduce the impact on marine wildlife, it is
condition assessment and liming, are activities that
convenient that water sources don´t be located on
contribute to reduce the risks of diseases in shrimp ponds.
sediment
management,
cleanness,
bottom
estuaries margins; supply canals must be built and also when possible, infrastructure
Pond disinfection includes cleanness, pond structure and
that allow placing meshes or nets in order to reduce
bottom treatment after each harvest, for which it must be
organisms suction by pumps operation
combined solar radiation during drying and lime or other
There must be adequate signaling for potential accident
chemicals application (e.g. chlorine). Chlorine and other
risks and clear indications of procedures if they become
chemicals must be used responsibly, because if they are
necessary
thrown to the environment, they could cause mortality of
During construction, it must consider the strategic
flora and wildlife.
location of fixed or portable sanitary facilities with storage 3.1.1 Complete pond drainage
tanks for later transfer
3. Farm operation
Once harvest is finished, pond must be completely drained (Figure 25). Areas that can´t be completely drained, must
Planning,
adjusted
farm
conditions
protocol
implementation and proper farm management will allow to
be disinfected with sodium or calcium hypochlorite or calcium oxide (burnt lime).
reach expected economic results at the end of production
32
process. It´s important for the farm management, to
Once drainage is finished, pond intake and outtake water
establish and maintain from the beginning
optimal
gates must be sealed to prevent entry of seawater during
environmental conditions in the ponds, so postlarvae and
high tides, allowing the sun and wind to perform complete
juveniles have a normal development. This includes pond
drying process.
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
has as one of its objectives to break reinfection cycle by eliminating disease sources from ponds and supply canals (reservoirs). Depopulation performed during dry season, allow also to make improvements and important repairs in farm infrastructure, the same as to restore pond bottoms in order to get a healthy environment for shrimp stocked during next production cycle. In order to promote a health status improvement of marine shrimp production systems, Competent Authority responsible for aquatic animal health in each country, must encourage producers to run depopulations as a routine strategy for disease control, Figure 25. Recently harvested pond under total draining process for a posterior sunshine and wind exposure to soil dry. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
pondering to producers its beneficial effects relative to the cost. Within the depopulation whose use is suggested as a BMP
Drainage canals that have control structures (gates), must
measurement, production units (ponds) and water supply
be hermetically sealed after ponds harvest to prevent entry
sources/structures, must be submitted to an adequate
of seawater during high tides and to allow a better pond
drying period by sun and wind effect during dry season,
drying.
until pond bottom develops “cracks”. This will allow reduction of oxidized substances (inorganic sulfides
BMP for complete pond drainage
present
in
pond
soil),
accelerates
organic
matter
decomposition and disinfection of pond bottom (Figure 26). Incorporate in the farm protocol, properly defined tasks for complete pond drainage activity Hermetically sealing of pond intake and outtake water gates just after harvest be completed When drainage canals have control structures (gates), they must be hermetically sealed after ponds harvest to avoid seawater entry and to facilitate pond drying 3.1.2 Pond drying It´s necessary let environment to rest and restore in shrimp farms, by temporary production stopping; during dry season (summer) it´s possible to obtain a complete pond drying and during wet season a partial drying, due to proper weather conditions. This strategy called “depopulation”,
Figure 26. Pond bottom drying and disinfecting through the sunlight and wind effect; note the deep soil cracks. Photo courtesy of Dr. J. Cuéllar-Anjel.
33
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
BMP for pond drying
etc.), can affect the proper development of production activities, the same as physical integrity of workers. As an
Incorporate depopulation within the farm protocol as
example, during biometric samplings, it can be affected net
priority activity
casts effectiveness, it can also
Routine sun and wind drying of pond bottoms and water
cause accidents to workers, or can be used by other pond
supply canal structures during adequate time, in order to
organisms as shelters which may affect shrimp production
develop deep cracks of 5 to 10 cm deep
results. Then it must be cleaned and disinfected water
In order to make easer soil preparation (plowing or
intake and outtake gates, pipes, clapboards and racks.
flipping), it must be defined how dry we want to have the bottom; very dry soils become too compacted and don´t
Garbage and all remaining plastic, wood, metal or glass that
allow a good plowing
were used during production cycle, must be collected and
Pond bottom drying can be done after each harvest or at
adequately disposed on previously established sites, or
longer intervals if desired, but long and frequent dryings
classified for recycling, as appropriate.
are not always necessary. Bottom drying increases soil aeration, which stimulates organic matter decomposition
It must be considered during waste management, that there are materials which due to its nature or physicochem-
3.1.3 Trash removing from pond bottom
ical composition, are easily degraded by the environment and therefore they only need a proper disposal place. Incin-
Pond cleaning must become a routine practice before
eration should be avoided due to pollutant release that
starting a new production cycle and during it. Foreign
affect the environment.
matter (trash) into the ponds (wires, logs, rocks, sticks,
Figure 27. Physical pond soil examination (left) and soil sampling for laboratory analysis (right) in a shrimp farm. Photos courtesy of Eng. C. Lara and Dr. D. Díaz.
34
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
BMP for trash removing from pond bottom
sulfates, iron, potassium.
calcium
carbonate,
magnesium
and
Establishment of actions to proceed for a good pond or farm cleaning and including it in the Sanitation Operational Procedures Manual (SOPM) Perform cleaning of water intake and outtake gates, pipes, clapboards and racks, and remove any foreign material from the pond bottom Avoid as much as possible, the use of chemical substances for pond disinfection To implement and appropriate management for waste and garbage collected from ponds and around them To implement security measurements when chemicals be used for pond preparation 3.1.4 Evaluation of the pond bottom conditions Routine programs must be performed for soil sampling and laboratory analysis and based on results, it must be applied corrective products amount as needed (lime or fertilizers) for each pond (Figure 27). Soil analysis should include basic information about organic material composition (%), pH, nitrogen, phosphorus,
Main parameters that determine pond bottom conditions, are organic matter (%) and bottom pH. If pond soil has acidic conditions (pH 5 ha), initial sampling is done in
in ponds, suggest that management should be as
all of them to determine shrimp molt stages. If most of the
follows:
ponds have shrimp with similar percentages for the
•
Conduct shrimp surveys twice a week. When
different molt stages, then there will be selected just 5
feeding be carried out by using feeding trays, shrimp
ponds to adjust feeding rate.
should never be collected from these trays because
•
•
•
•
their physiological status does not necessarily
It has been said that feed has an important role in shrimp
correspond to the pond population
farming, especially ration, frequency and feeding schedule.
Determine the molting stage in not less than 100
There have been evaluated several frequencies and feeding
shrimp per pond, based on identifying inter-molt,
schedules on shrimp growing. The results of these studies
pre-molt and post-molt patterns in uropods of
indicate a considerable variation in this regard and suggest
sampled shrimp
the importance of considering biotic factors (enzymatic
Calculate the percentage of animals that are not
activity) and abiotic (photoperiod) as effectors in shrimp
eating (physiological fasting)
feeding behavior.
Adjust feed ration based on the percentage of biomass that it is conditions to be fed
Recent studies show that feeding schedules can be
Feeding under shrimp feeding schedule based on
adjusted considering the shrimp circadian activity. It was
circadian peaks of digestive enzymatic activity (10
already mentioned the cyclical effect of photoperiod on
a.m. - 12 p.m. and 6 p.m. - 8 p.m.)
feed intake. In particular, the variation of digestive enzymes has been recognized as important part of shrimp physiology
In order to implement these ration adjustment strategies,
and feeding behavior. For this reason, the determination of
it´s required trained personnel. Variations in pond
circadian variation of digestive enzymes and induction time
dimensions and total area of the farm require particular
of enzymatic activity is important in setting frequencies and
sampling strategies.
feeding times. The application of the technology of setting feeding times in white shrimp farming, has demonstrated a
It must also be considered human resources spending
positive effect on increasing growth rate up to 35%. This
estimating the cost-benefit of this strategy particularly on
section allows knowing techniques to establish the
farms with large farming areas. Given the shrimp
circadian variation of the digestive proteases and
physiological synchronization in farming ponds, sampling
determining
can be reduced by grouping ponds depending on stocking
semi-intensive farming systems.
date, sampling one pond per group rotating each pond per
98
schedules
for
shrimp
nutrition
in
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
ANNEX 4 POPULATION SAMPLING IN A SHRIMP FARM: USE OF FEEDING CHARTS AND TRAYS (Adapted from Nicovita Bulletin - Camarón de Mar [Marine shrimp], Vol 3-issue 04, April, 1998) Feed trays are one of the main tools for feeding management in shrimp farms, among other reasons due to its usefulness for the evaluation of shrimp biomass present into the ponds. To determine shrimp population into the pond requires knowing the average weight, amount of feed supplied with feed trays during highest shrimp activity (not under molting and after rotation) and percentage of bodyweight represented by feed. For this it´s required to have a guide chart. Weekly shrimp growth can be known from caught animals from feed trays and/or taking samples through cast nets once a week. In order to estimate shrimp population in the pond, it may be used the following example: in a 4 Ha shrimp pond, the weekly shrimp weight average is 12 g, percentage of biomass in feed corresponding to that weight is approximately 1.8% based on the Table below; maximum total feed supply and consumption per day by controlling feed trays is 120 kg. These data is enough to obtain shrimp biomass from the result of dividing feed consumed by percent of biomass and then the result multiplied by 100%, so: (120 kg ÷ 1.8%) x 100% = 6,666.66 Kg of shrimp biomass Then, to obtain the number of individuals in the pond population, obtained biomass is converted from kg to grams and then is divided by the average weekly weight, as follows: 6,666.66 Kg x 1000 gr.Kg.-1 ÷ 12 gr.shrimp-1 = 555,555 shrimp Shrimp density per hectare is obtained dividing number of shrimp in the pond by the pond area as follows: 555,555 shrimp ÷ 4 has = 138,888 shrimp per hectare
Data must be confirmed with the pond crop results, determining an adjustment factor in %. Using this method, population sampling data must should be analyzed frequently as feed consumption can vary seasonally (higher in summer than in winter), and the contribution of natural productivity of the pond, the feed quality and consumption control in feed trays by responsible personnel. Feeding chart for Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei in percent of biomass, fed daily under semi-intensive conditions. Shrimp weight (g)
% of body weight
1
10.0
2
6.0
3
4.5
4
3.5
5
3.0
6
2.5
7
2.3
8
2.0
9
2.0
10
2.0
11
1.8
12
1.8
13
1.8
14
1.8
15
1.7
16
1.7
17
1.7
18
1.5
19
1.5
20
1.5
21
1.3
22
1.3
99
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
ANNEX 5 Parameters monitoring in shrimp ponds •
Dissolved oxygen
•
pH measurement in ponds
It´s recommended to measure oxygen levels in the pond
Since pH measurements change rapidly, this parameter
water in the morning at sunrise (6 a.m.) and afternoon
must be measured directly in the field. To avoid damage to
between 2 and 4 p.m. It´s important to measure DO in the
the pH meter probe, once measurements be completed
evening, in case
probe must be flushed with distilled water. Inside the probe
that afternoon concentrations are below 6 mg/L; in this way,
protective cover it´s recommended to put a piece of cotton
it can be implemented corrective actions to avoid episodes
or sponge impregnated with calibration solution pH 4. This
of hypoxia, such as deep water exchange and application of
solution prevents the growth of bacteria on the surface of
oxygenating inputs (ammonium or calcium nitrate and
the probe and will keep it wet while not in use.
potassium
permanganate).
In
order
to
maintain
consistency in oxygen monitoring, it´s recommended to
•
Temperature
measure in each pond always in the same order and at the same time and deep (1 foot from the bottom) every day.
Water temperature is measured directly in the pond water using a common thermometer or through probes
Each time the OD is determined in a water body,
incorporated in oxygen meters, pH and other similar
measurement equipment must be calibrated according to
equipment.
manufacturer's instructions. The oxymeter must be calibrated before and after performing a series of
The thermometer is placed in the pond such the end be
measurements.
submerged few inches into the water or, it must be take a water sample in a container and measure the temperature
OD Concentration
Efect
therein. It must wait for a moment the thermometer to
Mortal if exposure occurs within hours
stabilize before recording the measurement.
2 - 4 mg/L
Slow growth if low dissolved oxygen continues
In addition to the obtained value, it must be recorded also
4 - 12 mg/L
Best condition for optimal growth
in order to get consistent measurements.
Supersaturation: risk of " gas-bubble disease", may suggest high microalgae concentration
•
Less than 1 - 2 mg/L
> 12 mg/L
measurement time. Be sure to use the same thermometer
Secchi disk
Secchi disk measurement consists in the depth in centimeters at which the disc is no longer visible when submerged in the pond water.
100
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Usually there is an inverse relationship between disk
disk and the sunshine don´t affect the observer visibility.
visibility and phytoplankton abundance. As the plankton
Additional weight must be added to the disk in order to a
increases, visibility decreases. Management decisions
quickly immersion during measurement.
based on Secchi disk data, require to be sure that turbidity
Secchi disk readings are subjective as they vary based on
is actually produced by phytoplankton rather than
the observer visual acuity and weather conditions. For this
suspended materials in the water column such as clay,
reason, these measurements must be performed by the
sludge or organic debris.
same person every day.
Strong waves, strong winds or sunlight can affect Secchi disk measurements. It´s advisable to take measurements
Depth (cm)
on calmed days, and on sunny to partially-cloudy days. If Secchi disk measurements are going to be taken from a boat, it must be anchored to a solid structure to prevent the
< 25 cm (Pond too shady)
wind moves the boat when making the measurement. Farm personnel must evaluate if the site has the right conditions
Phytoplankton concentration If turbidity is by phytoplankton, there will be low dissolved oxygen concentration problems in the evening or before sunrise. When turbidity is by suspended particles, productivity will be low
25-30 cm
Turbidity is high and it´s advisable to low Phytoplankton concentration
30-45 cm
If turbidity is by phytoplankton, the pond is in good condition
between 9 and 11 a.m.
45-60 cm
Phytoplankton is scarce
Secchi disk must be immersed in the shadowed side of the
> 60 cm
> 60 cm The water is too clear. Productivity is inadequate and can grow aquatic plants on the pond bottom
for this measurement. Usually the most suitable time for this measurement is
boat, so the person who will perform the measurement be partially back to the sun, the boat shadow doesn´t cover the
101
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
ANNEX 6 Samples fixation for laboratory analysis Adequate shrimp samples fixation for histopathology,
obtained by mixing the following reagents to make 1 liter of
allows technicians from pathology laboratories to identify
solution: absolute ethanol (99%): 330 mL, formaldehyde
the kind of injury in shrimp tissues and the causative
(37%): 220 mL, glacial acetic acid: 115 mL and distilled
pathogens, and early diagnosis as well. Early disease
water (or clean tap water): 335 mL.
causes confirmation will help to take immediate corrective actions to avoid diseases to disperse to other ponds and to
After injecting the fixative solution, shrimp must be
other farms. Some of these procedures are summarized as
immersed in fixative solution in plastic clean containers
follows:
with anti-leak cap and properly labeled.
Selection and collection of samples for tissue analysis
After 24 to 72 hours depending on the shrimp size (12 - 24
(histopathology)
h for larvae, postlarvae and juveniles, 48 h for pre-adults and 72 h for adults/broodstock), shrimp must be changed
Shrimp caught must be careful in order not to expose them
to a 70% ethanol solution which can stay for 15 days before
to excessive handling. Ideal sample preparation should be
histological processing. At this time and if they have not
done on caught site to avoid transport stress. If this is not
been processed yet, 70% ethanol solution must be
possible, shrimp must be shipped alive in a portable
changed with a new so shrimp could remain for a
container provided with aeration until the site where they
prolonged time until histological processing.
will be prepared. These should not be transported dry to the fixation site.
Container labeling must be done with a regular graphite pencil and a piece of paper, mentioning date of samples
Dead specimens must not be collected or fixed for
collection, a brief
histopathology. It must be selected only moribund shrimp,
condition or abnormal sign indicative of disease, species,
with discoloration and abnormal behavior, or displaying any
age, weight, source (hatchery or wild), pond or tank
external sign different than a normal condition.
number or identification and any other useful information
description of the external shrimp
for laboratory. Shrimp fixation for histopathology If samples are going to be sent to a laboratory in other
102
Specimens should be fixed alive and immediately they have
country, it must be obtained a sanitary permission
been taken out of the water; if possible, at the same site of
authorizing shrimp samples output. This permission is
capture. Adequate fixation is achieved by using 10 times
usually issued by a government agency in charge of
the volume of fixative solution for 1 animal fixed volume
regulating animal and biological samples mobilization. At
(ratio 10:1) during 24 to 72 hours. For shrimp fixation it´s
the same time, laboratory must be contacted for
preferred Davidson-AFA solution (classic) which is
instructions on how to send samples safely, so they don´t be
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
the same time, laboratory must be contacted for
Samples preparation for microbiological (bacterial)
instructions on how to send samples safely, so they don´t be
analysis
confiscated and disposed of by the customs authorities of the destiny country
Collect a sample of 10 to 15 live animals displaying a sick condition and then place them in a aerated container or in
Samples fixation for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
plastic bags with oxygen. Samples must be taken to the
test
laboratory immediately after shrimp have been collected, trying to keep them alive until the time of their analysis.
Several kinds of shrimp samples have been successfully used for PCR tests. These include hemolymph, fresh
If samples are transported in bags, it´s undesirable to place
homogenized tissue, frozen or fixed in 95% ethanol. When
ice around bags. If this is done, place only a little ice. No
ethanol is used, the ratio postlarvae:ethanol must be 1:9,
dead animals must be collected for microbiological
volume to volume. Hemolymph samples must be fixed in
analysis. Samples must have attached a label with the
95% ethanol in a ratio of 1:1 hemolymph:ethanol.
following
information:
identification/number,
species,
particular
pond/tank
observations
(e.g.
It´s important to be careful wearing rubber gloves and
bioluminescence), duration of pathological event and use
disinfecting hands with alcohol each time
of antibiotics or other products as treatment (yes or no,
that a new
sample is going to be fixed, especially with large animals, to
which of them, way and how long).
avoid accidental cross-contamination between samples.
103
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
ANNEX 7 OIE model for preparing an Emergency Plan (Aquatic Code)
A number of diseases are regarded as posing a potential
given disease situation under control by contacting the
threat to aquaculture as well as to wild stocks of aquatic
personnel, organizations, aquaculture establishments, etc.,
animals world-wide. The introduction of such diseases into
that are involved directly or indirectly in managing an
countries recognized to be free from these diseases or into
outbreak of a disease.
countries with an established control system and eradication programme for such diseases, may result in significant
•
Personnel
losses. In order to diminish such losses, the Competent Authority responsible for aquatic animal health may need to
The contingency plan(s) should provide information on the
act quickly and should develop contingency plan(s) before
staff required to undertake the control measures, their
such events occur.
responsibilities, and instructions on the chain of command.
•
•
Legal powers
Instructions
Countries must establish the necessary legal provisions that
Countries establishing contingency plan(s) should provide a
are needed for the implementation of contingency plan(s).
detailed set of instructions on actions to be taken when a
Such legal powers must include provisions for establishing
specified aquatic animal disease is suspected or confirmed.
a list of diseases for which action is needed, definitions of
These could include:
how such diseases should be managed if detected, provi-
1. diagnostic
sions for access to infected/suspected sites, and other legal provisions, as needed.
procedures
in
national
reference
laboratories; 2. confirmation of diagnosis, if necessary, at an OIE Reference Laboratory;
•
Crises centre(s)
3. standing
instructions
to
aquatic
animal
health
personnel in the field; Countries must establish specified crises centre(s) (disease control centre[s]) that shall have the responsibility for the
animals at an aquaculture establishment;
co-ordination of all control measures to be carried out. Such
5. instructions for sanitary slaughtering;
centres could either be located centrally or locally, depend-
6. instructions for disease control at the local level;
ing on the infrastructure in a given country. A list of the
7. instructions for the establishment of quarantine areas
crises centre(s) that has(have) the necessary facilities to carry out disease control measures should be made widely available. The contingency plan(s) should also state that the crises centre(s) has(have) the authority to act rapidly to bring a
104
4. instructions for handling/disposal of dead aquatic
and observation (surveillance) zones; 8. provisions for controlling movements of aquatic animals in established zones; 9. disinfection procedures;
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
10. fallowing procedures;
can be carried out rapidly. The national laboratory(ies) must
11. surveillance methods for establishing successful
also have established a set of instructions as regards rapid
eradication; 12. re-stocking procedures;
transportation of samples, and established protocols for quality assurance and diagnostic procedures to be used.
13. compensation issues; 14. reporting procedures;
•
Training programmes
15. provisions for raising public awareness of aquatic animal disease.
Countries establishing contingency plan(s) must establish necessary training programmes to ensure that skills in field,
•
Diagnostic Laboratories
administrative and diagnostic procedures are maintained. Announced
and
unannounced
field
exercises
for
Countries establishing contingency plan(s) should establish
administrators and aquatic animal personnel should be
national reference laboratories having the necessary
carried out to maintain the state of readiness.
facilities for diagnostic work on aquatic animal diseases that
105
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
ANNEX 8 International regulations for veterinary drugs FDA (Food and Drug Administration) and EMEA (European
Table 1 shows that the amount of approved drugs for use in
Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products) list of
aquaculture is limited, this is because the financial
approved drugs for use in aquaculture within U.S. and
investment and the time required to complete the
Europe, provide a guide to producing countries that depend
requirements and get NADA is very high for the drug
on these markets to sell their products.
trading companies. It has tried to be overcome by the FDA calling to drugs used in aquatic species, as "minor use
While the legal prohibition that may exist for some antibiotic
drugs". Under these regulations, the information (and not
in U.S. or Europe doesn´t extend to the industry of another
application) of an approved drug in "main use" industries as
country
cattle or poultry, can extend to aquaculture, thus reducing
legislation,
this
significantly
influences
the
management that the drug must have by producers and
the need to develop new data for corresponding approval.
exporters. As an example, those antibiotics prohibited by FDA and EMEA for use in any manufacturing industry of
FDA also recognizes that there are conditions for which there
food animals such as chloramphenicol, nitrofurans and
are no approved treatments. For these cases, legislation was
quinolones, should not be used by aquaculture companies
stipulated (Compliance Policy Guide, 7125.06), which allows
aware of the dire consequences that it could be the finding
the application of an authorized drug under a different way
of residues of these drugs in shrimp, fish or shellfish for our
than indicated in their respective NADA. This exception may
aquaculture industry.
be used only by a registered veterinarian and when animals have a high probability of dying.
FDA regulations Until January 2000, FDA had approved 46 different FDA sets illegal to use an unauthorized drug, unless it be
compounds whose active ingredient was oxytetracycline
defined as "investigational new animal drug" (INAD). This
(FDA, 2001), of which only one, Terramycin® - for fish
exception applies only during the time spent to generate the
(NADA # 038-439, Pfizer, Inc.), was incorporated for use in
necessary information and get the drug approval under the
the several aquatic species farming (Table 1). At present
supervision of the FDA. Once requirements are completed,
there is not any antibiotic approved for use in hatcheries or
the drug gets the level of "new animal drug application"
shrimp farms in the U.S.
(NADA). However, cases are found wherein the oxytetracycline has
106
Currently six drugs are approved NADA for use in
received federal approval, surely protected by one of the
aquaculture and five of them are commercially available.
exceptions to empower the application of a drug in
Four of the approved products are antibiotics: florfenicol,
aquaculture (Compliance Policy Guide, 7125.06). As an
oxytetracycline-HCL, sulfamerazine (not available) and a
example, Frelier et al. (1992 and 1994) point out that the
combination sulfadimethoxine and ormetoprim. Not all are
only effective antibiotic treatment against intracellular
approved for all purposes and/or species. Table 1 shows
bacteria causing necrotizing hepatopancreatitis (NHP), is
the approval specifications for mentioned drugs.
the application of oxytetracycline (OTC).
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
According to the author, supply for 10 days of a medicated
Community as permissible in food), as is under Regulation
feed with 1.5 g OTC/kg and withdrawal at least 15 days
EEC 2377/90 of June 26, 1990.
before harvest, is the FDA approved protocol to prevent high mortality originated by rickettsia in P. vannamei.
This Regulation determines the inclusion of Veterinary
Subsequently, the same author points that therapeutic
Drugs in four annexes:
doses of 3 g OTC/kg of shrimp feed for 14 days, seems to be effective against NHP in shrimp pools stocked with 12-50 animals/m2, although the FDA suggested a longer treatment withdrawal, 3 weeks. EMEA Regulations Criteria, on which veterinary drugs are evaluated in the European Economic Community (EEC), are quality, efficacy and safety. This author qualifies European and U.S. regulation as very similar, noting that probably the only difference is in rigidity in establishing the maximum residue levels (MRLs) by the EEC, contrasting approach to tolerable
Annex I:
List of pharmacologically active substances for which maximum residue levels have been fixed
Annex II:
List of substances not subject to maximum residue levels
Annex III:
List of pharmacologically active substances used in veterinary medicinal products for which maximum residue levels have been fixed
Annex IV:
Lists of pharmacologically active substances for which no maximum levels can be fixed (provisional MRL)
With effect from 1 January 1997, the administration to food-producing animals of veterinary medicinal products containing pharmacologically active substances which are
levels that are given in U.S.
not mentioned in Annexes I, II or III, shall be prohibited for
The EMEA states that it may not be authorized to place in
apply to aquaculture products.
use in food-producing species. These same regulations
market a veterinary drug, except the immune ones, to be administered to animals whose meat or products are intended for human consumption if not has the corresponding MRL (MRL: maximum residue contents resulting from the use of a veterinary drug authorized in the
Thus, the situation of the active principles for which has established an MRL in salmonids and other fish remains as shown in the following tables (Source: EMEA web site, www.emea.eu.int/ December 2002; last web review: April 2003).
Annex I. Pharmacological substances for which there is an established MRL Pharmacologically active Substance
Animal Species
Maximum residue limits (MRL)
Amoxicillin
All food producing species
50 µg/kg: muscle, liver, kidney, fat 4 mg/kg fat
Amoxicillin
All food producing species
50 µg/kg: muscle, liver, kidney, fat 4 mg/kg fat
Clortetraciclina
All food producing species
600 g/kg kidney 300 µg/kg liver 100 µg/kg muscle, milk 200 mg/kg eggs
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Pharmacologically active Substance
108
Animal Species
Maximum residue limits (MRL)
100 µg/kg muscle 50 g/kg fat 200 mg/kg liver, kidney
Danofloxacin
All food producing species
Difloxacin
All food producing species
Enrofloxacin
All food producing species
100 µg/kg muscle, fat 200 mg/kg liver, kidney
Erythromycin
All food producing species
200 µg/kg muscle, fat, liver, kidney 40 µg/kg milk 150 mg/kg eggs
Florfenicol
All food producing species
100 µg/kg muscle 200 g/kg fat 2000 mcg/kg liver
300 µg/kg muscle 100 mg/kg fat 800 µg/kg liver 600 g/kg kidney
Fish
300 µg/kg kidney 1000 mcg/kg muscle + skin
Flumequine
Salmonids
150 mg/kg muscle + skin
Oxytetracycline
All food producing species
600 g/kg kidney 300 µg/kg liver 100 µg/kg muscle, milk 200 mg/kg eggs
Sarafloxacin
Salmonids
30 µg/kg muscle + skin
Sulfonamides
All food producing species
Thiamphenicol
Fish
50 µg/kg muscle + skin
Trimethoprim
All food producing species
50 µg/kg muscle, fat, liver, kidney, milk
100 µg/kg muscle, liver, kidney, fat The combined total residues of all substances within the sulfonamide group should not exceed 110 mg/kg
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Annex II. Substances for which there is no need to establish an MRL. Some of the substances listed in this Annex are of interest in aquaculture: Pharmacologically active Substance
Animal Species
Maximum residue limits (MRL) No MRL required
Formaldehyde
All food producing species
Glutaraldehyde
All food producing species
“
Hydrogen peroxide
All food producing species
“
Iodine and iodine compounds
All food producing species
“
Magnesium sulphate
All food producing species
“
Sodium chloride
All food producing species
“
Benzalkonium chloride
All food producing species
For use as an excipient, to a concentration of 0.05%
Annex III. Pharmacological active substances with provisional MRL Pharmacologically active Substance
Animal Species
Maximum residue limits (MRL)
Levamisole
All food producing species
Provisional: 10 ug/kg muscle, liver, kidney, fat, milk
Tetracyclines
All food producing species
Provisional: 600 ug/kg kidney, 300 liver, 200 eggs, 100 muscle, 100 milk (whole original drug and its epimer 4).
Oxolinic acid
Under study
Annex IV. Prohibited substances Pharmacologically active Substance
Maximum residue limits (MRL)
Aristolochia spp. and preparations thereof
MRL cannot be established
Chloramphenicol
MRL cannot be established
Chloroform
MRL cannot be established
Chlorpromazine
MRL cannot be established
Colchicine
MRL cannot be established
Dapsone
MRL cannot be established
Dimetridazole
MRL cannot be established
Metronidazole
MRL cannot be established
Nitrofurans (including furazolidone)
MRL cannot be established
Ronidazole
MRL cannot be established
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Table 1. USFDA approved drugs for use in aquaculture (Source: FDA web site, www.fda.gov/cvm, January, 2001; last web review on April, 2003). Species
Indication
Dosing (& withdrawal time)
Salmonids
Control of Ulcer disease (Hemophilus piscium), furunculosis (Aeromonas salmonicida), bacterial hemorrhagic septicemia (A. liquefaciens) and pseudomonas disease (Pseudomonas spp.)
2.5 – 3.7 g per 100 lbs fish per day for 10 days (21 days)
Catfish
Control of bacterial hemorrhagic septicemia (A. liquefaciens) and pseudomonas disease (Pseudomonas spp.)
2.5 – 3.7 g per 100 lbs fish per day for 10 days (21 days)
Lobster
Control of gaffkemia (Aerococcus viridans)
1 g per lb medicated feed for 5 days (30 days)
Trout
Control of furunculosis due to Aeromonas salmonicida
10 g per 100 lb fish per day for 10 days (21 days)
Salmonids
Control of furunculosis due to Aeromonas salmonicida
50 mg per kg fish per day for 5 days (42 days)
Catfish
Control of enteric septicemia due to Edwardsiella ictaluri
50 mg per kg fish per day for 5 days (42 days)
Salmon and trout eggs
Control external protozoa
1-2 mL/L
Catfish, largemouth bass and bluegill
Control external protozoa
0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on temperature, species y pond/tank type
Salmonids
Control external protozoa
0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on temperature, species y pond/tank type)
Salmon and trout eggs
Control fungi of the family Saprolegniaceae
1-2 mL/L
Catfish, largemouth bass and bluegill
Control external protozoa
0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on temperature, species y pond/tank type)
Salmonids
Control external protozoa
0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on temperature, species y pond/tank type)
Salmon and trout eggs
Control external protozoa
1-2 mL/L
Other fish species
Control external protozoa
0.015-0.250 mL/L (based on temperature, species y pond/tank type)
Shrimp
Control protozoan parasites (Bodo, Epistylis and Zoothamnium)
0.025-0.100 mL/L
Finquel
Fish, aquatic amphibians and other aquatic poikilotherms
Temporary immobilization
0.015-0.330 g/L (21 days)
Tricaine-S
Fish, aquatic amphibians and other aquatic poikilotherms
Temporary immobilization
0.015-0.330 g/L (21 days)
Product name
Terramycin® 10
Sulfamerazine in Fish Grade
Romet® -30
Formalin-F
Paraside-F
Parasite-S®
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Table 2. FDA Prohibited Drugs from Extra-label Use in Any Food-Producing Species o Chloramphenicol o Clenbuterol o Crystal (gentian) violet o Diethylstilbesterol or DES o Dipyrone o Nitroimidazoles – all agents, including Dimetridazole, Ipronidazole, Metronidazole and others
•
FDA Regulations
The FDA makes it illegal to use an unauthorized drug in veterinary
medicine,
unless
it
be
qualified
as
a
"investigational new animal drug" (INAD). This exception applies only during the time taken to generate the needed information and getting the drug approval under FDA supervision. Upon completion of the requirements, it´s
o Nitrofurans – all agents, including Furazolidine, Nitrofurazone and others
obtained the "new animal drug application” (NADA).
o Sulfonamides (except sulfadimethoxine)
and that are commercially available, have been certified
o Fluoroquinolones (Enrofloxacin, Sarafloxacin)
NADA. Four of the approved products are antibiotics:
o Glycopeptides - all agents, including Vancomycin
Oxytetracycline-HCL,
Currently only nine veterinary drugs for use in aquaculture
Florfenicol,
Sulfamerazine
(not
available) and a combination of Sulfadimethoxine and •
Artificial feed
Ormetoprim. It should be noted that these drugs are not approved for all purposes and/or for all aquatic species.
This regulation is effective from January 12, 2010 and
Currently there are not approved antibiotics for use in
introduces information about the substances therapeutic
hatcheries and shrimp farms at the U.S. Table 16 shows
classification and possible conditions or restrictions on its
the approval specifications for mentioned drugs.
use. Pharmacologically active substances are alphabetical ordered based on allowed and prohibited for use in food-producing animals (Veterinary drugs). This same legislation applies to drugs for use in aquaculture. Table 3. List of pharmacologically active ingredients with no maximum levels established to be safe for the consumer, so their use in food-producing animals is prohibited. o Aristolochia spp. and preparations thereof o Chloramphenicol o Chloroform o Chlorpromazine o Colchicine o Dapsone o Dimetridazole o Metronidazole o Nitrofurans (including Furazolidone) o Ronidazole
111
112
Cloxacillin
Colistin
Chlortetracycline
Cloxacillin
Colistin
Benzylpenicillin
Ampicillin
Amoxicillin
Marker residue
Sum of parent drug and its 4epimer
Benzylpenicillin
Ampicillin
Amoxicillin
Pharmacologically active Substance
All food producing species
All food producing species
All food producing species
All food producing species
All food producing species
All food producing species
Animal Species Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Muscle Liver Kidney Milk Eggs Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Eggs
50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 4 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 4 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 600 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 30 µg/kg
150 µg/kg 150 µg/kg 150 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 300 µg/kg
Target Tissues
50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 4 µg/kg
LMR
Cuadro 1. Allowed substances
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish For porcine and poultry species the fat MRL relates to‘skin and fat in natural proportions’.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
Other provisions (according to Article 14(7) of Regulation (EC) No 470/2009)
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Therapeutic Classification
Sustancias farmacológicamente activas y su clasificación por lo que se refiere a los límites máximos de residuos (LMR)
foodstuffs of animal origin
Some pharmacologically active substances and their classification regarding maximum residue limits in
COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 37/2010 of 22 December 2009
ANNEX 9
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Cypermethrin
All food producing species
Dicloxacillin
Difloxacin
Diflubenzuron
Emamectin B1a
Dicloxacillin
Difloxacin
Diflubenzuron
Emamectin Fin fish
Salmonidae
All food producing species other than bovine, ovine, caprine, porcine and poultry
Fin fish
Deltamethrin
Deltamethrin
Danofloxacin
Salmonidae
Cypermethrin (sum of isomers)
Danofloxacin
Animal Species
Marker residue
Pharmacologically active Substance
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk
10 µg/kg
150 µg/kg 150 µg/kg 150 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 50 µg/kg
100 µg/kg
1000 µg/kg
Muscle and skin in natural proportions
Muscle and skin in natural proportions
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney
Muscle and skin in natural proportions.
100 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 200 µg/kg
300 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 800 µg/kg 600 µg/kg
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney
50 µg/kg
Target Tissues
Muscle and skin in natural proportions.
LMR
NO ENTRY
NO ENTRY
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish. Not for use in animals from which milk is produced for human consumption. Not for use in animals from which eggs are produced for human con sumption.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish For porcine and poultry species the fat MRL relates to‘skin and fat in natural proportions’.
NO ENTRY
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish. For porcine species the fat MRL relates to ‘skin and fat in natural proportions’.
Other provisions (according to Article 14(7) of Regulation (EC) No 470/2009)
Antiparasitic agents /Agents against ectoparasites Antiparasitic agents/ Agents acting against endo-and ectoparasites
Anti-infectious agents / Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Antiparasitic agents/Agents against ectoparasites
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Antiparasitic agents/ Agents against ectoparasites
Therapeutic Classification
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
113
114
Lincomycin
Neomycin B
Neomycin (including framycetin)
Flumequine
Sum of flor fenicol and its metabolites measured as florfenicol-amine
Erythromycin A
Sum of enro floxacin and ciprofloxacin
Marker residue
Lincomycin
Flumequine
Florfenicol
Erythromycin
Enrofloxacin
Pharmacologically active Substance
All food producing species
All foodproducing species
Fin Fish
Fin fish
All food producing species
All food producing Species other than bovine, ovine, caprine, porcine, rabbit and poultry
Animal Species
Muscle and skin in natural proportion. Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Egg Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Eggs
100 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 1 500 µg/kg 150 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 5 000 µg/kg 1 500 µg/kg 500 µg/kg
Muscle and skin in natural proportions
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Eggs
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney
Target Tissues
600 µg/kg
1000 µg/kg
200 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 40 µg/kg 150 µg/kg
100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 200 µg/kg 200 µg/kg
LMR
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural propor¬tions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
Other provisions (according to Article 14(7) of Regulation (EC) No 470/2009)
Anti-infectious agents /Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Therapeutic Classification
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Spectinomycin
Spectinomycin
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk
Sarafloxacin 300 µg/kg 500 µg/kg 1000 µg/kg 5000 µg/kg 200 µg/kg
Sarafloxacin
Paromomycin
All food producing species other than ovine
Paromomycin
Oxytetracycline
Muscle and skin in natural proportions
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
500 µg/kg Muscle 1500 µg/kg Liver 1500 µg/kg Kidney
All food producing species
Sum of parent drug and its 4 epimer
30 µg/kg
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
Muscle Liver Kidney Milk Eggs
100 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 600 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 200 µg/kg
All food producing species
Oxolinic acid
Oxolinic acid
Salmonidae
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skinin natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney
100 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 150 µg/kg 150 µg/kg
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents/Antibiotics
All food producing species
Oxacillin
Oxacillin
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
All food producing species
Therapeutic Classification
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk
Other provisions (according to Article 14(7) of Regulation (EC) No 470/2009)
300 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 30 µg/kg
Target Tissues
LMR
Animal Species
Marker residue
Pharmacologically active Substance
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
115
116 Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk Eggs
100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 200 µg/kg
All food producing Species other than equidae
Tilmicosin
Tilmicosin
Tylosin
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk
50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg
All food producing species other than poultry
Thiamphenicol
Thiamphenicol
Tylosin
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk
50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 1000 µg/kg 1000 µg/kg 50 µg/kg
All food producing species
Tetracycline
Trimethoprim
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk
50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg 50 µg/kg
All food producing species
Sum of parent drug and its 4 epimer
Trimethoprim
Muscle Liver Kidney Milk Eggs
100 µg/kg 300 µg/kg 600 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 200 µg/kg
Salmonidae
All food producing species
Muscle Fat Liver Kidney Milk
Muscle and skin 500 µg/kg in natural proportions
100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg 100 µg/kg
Teflubenzuron
All food producing species Bovine, ovine, caprine
Teflubenzuron
Target Tissues
Parent drug
LMR
Sulfonamides (all substances belonging to the sulfonamide group)
Animal Species
Marker residue
Pharmacologically active Substance
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural propor¬tions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural propor tions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
NO ENTRY
The combined total residues of all substances within the sulfonamide group should not exceed 100 µg/kg. For fin fish the muscle MRL relates to ‘muscle and skin in natural proportions’. MRLs for fat, liver and kidney do not apply to fin fish.
Other provisions (according to Article 14(7) of Regulation (EC) No 470/2009)
Anti-infectious agents / Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents / Chemotheurapeutics
Anti-infectious agents / Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents / Antibiotics
Anti-infectious agents / Antibiotics
Antiparasitic agents / Agents against ectoparasites
Anti infectious agents / Chemo therapeutics
Therapeutic Classification
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
ANNEX 10 Traceability
Back traceability or "tracing": ability to know, from a product,
Traceability in the culture: on farming centers they should be
the various ingredients and other elements that have
able to identify from the “seed” origin where appropriate, to
influenced its development and suppliers thereof. Also, this
organisms transportation (fish, crustaceans or mollusks) to
type of traceability let identify the origin of a particular product
process plant and they must provide at least the following
unit located in the supply chain by reference to the updated
information:
records. Products are traced usually for investigation purposes, customer complaints and for withdrawal from the
•
market.
Farmed species, places and farming units within them with correspondent dates and logs (time the group of fish/shrimp/mollusks remains in each farming unit:
Internal traceability or process: information that allows to
entry and outcome date)
relate products that have been received in the enterprise (raw materials, additives, packaging, etc.), operations or processes
•
Medications for farming organisms (group): accurate
that products have had in the company, the leaving finished
information of the responsible specialist that prescribed
products including the results of the internal own-checks.
and from staff that performed the treatments each time (registered name and date)
Forward traceability or "tracking": means to know the
•
Feedings per group including personnel responsible for
destination of a product (what and to whom is given) and all
feed supply. Register for each supplied feed (feed mill,
information relating to its marketing. It´s also defined as the
deliver date, feed changes according to the nutritional
ability to follow the path of a product through the supply chain. Products are generally tracked for reasons of obsolescence,
requirements, etc.) •
inventory management and logistical purposes.
When farming center need to apply breakdown, mixtures, selection, etc., this should be stated in the traceability system
As attributes of traceability systems for aquaculture, it can be included improvement in quality control, improvement in
•
Biomass at each production center or farming phase
•
Transport recording between production centers or
product quality, minimizing loss of product, transparency,
from them to hatcheries or process plants, identifying
storage information and business efficiency.
transportation used, dates, groups, breakdown, etc.
Traceability implementation in aquaculture: the following parameters must be set in aquaculture: aquaculture production source with different factors that are part of its
•
Short stay in floating hatcheries when appropriate
Traceability in the processing plant: traceability applies both in
production
process plants and in process storage sites, which must
procedures, and distribution and product placement. Within
develop a traceability system which consider at least the
the chain of production, traceability occurs in the farming area
following items:
development,
the
history
of
aquaculture
(farm), in the processing and during marketing.
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
•
Procedure: each farm shall define a coding system for
•
produced lots (involving information from raw material
as batch or code number, expiration date and
to the final product), which must be clear and properly
minimum product identification (commercial name,
recorded and incorporated in the label of the final product, in order to make a correct identification after •
scientific name, presentation, etc.). •
For the storage of the final product, it must be recorded
processing
the
Responsible personnel for traceability (full name,
product amount and product movement (inputs and
email, phone) •
About production, factory date must be clear the same
Scope: complexity and coding system for establishment
warehouse
or
storage
room
identification,
outputs) •
On the output product recording form, it must be noted
of an adequate traceability, depends on species
customer
information
(name,
address,
associated hazards and type of process which were
departure date and transportation
country),
submitted, and must consider the following basic •
•
information:
Distribution traceability: it considers from the output of the
Raw materials reception: name, phone and address of
final product from storage place either for marketing,
the supplier
further processing or storage, and must contain at least the
About raw materials: business name, scientific name, catch or extraction zone, obtaining method, delivered quantity, delivery date, transportation used and transport time and tax documentation
•
When storing raw materials, there must be clearly recorded their movements (income and outputs)
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following
information:
producer
information
(name,
address, contact person and telephone, street, email, etc.) and product information (labeled with complete data according to applying regulations).
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
ANNEX 11 International Metrology
Basic units Magnitude
Name
Length
Symbol
meter
m
Mass
kilogram
kg
Time
Second
s
Electric current
ampere
A
kelvin
K
mole
mol
candela
cd
Thermodynamic temperature Amount of substance Luminous intensity candela
Unit of length:
The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
Unit of mass
The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram.
Unit of time
Unit of electric current
Unit of thermodynamic
The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom. The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per meter of length.
Unit of amount of substance
The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12; its symbol is "mol." When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.
Unit of luminous intensity
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
Special names and symbols of decimal multiples and submultiples units of the authorized International Metrology System (SI) Derived quantity
Name
Symbol
Relationship
Volume
liter
loL
1 dm3=10-3 m3
Mass
ton
t
103 kg
SI defined units but not being decimal multiples or submultiples of them Derived quantity Time
Name
Symbol
Relationship
minute
min
60 s
hour
h
3,600 s
day
d
86,400 s
The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
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Decimal multiples and submultiples
The product of symbols two or more units is indicated
Factor
Name
Symbol
Factor
Name
Symbol
preferably by a period as a multiplication symbol. For
1024
yotta
Y
10-1
deci
d
example, newton-meters can be written as N · m or Nm,
1021
zeta
Z
10-2
centi
c
never mN, which means millinewton.
1018
exa
E
10-3
mili
m
10
15
peta
P
-6
10
micro
µ
When a derived unit be the quotient of other two, it can be
1012
tera
T
10-9
nano
n
used the slash (/), the horizontal or negative powers to avoid
109
giga
G
10-12
pico
p
the denominator.
106
mega
M
10-15
femto
f
10
kilo
k
10
atto
a
102
hecto
h
10-21
zepto
z
10
deca
da
10
yocto
y
3
1
-18
-24
m/s
m s
m·s-1
Do not enter on a line more than one slash unless parentheses be added in order to avoid ambiguity. In complex cases it can be used parentheses or negative
Writing symbols
powers.
The SI unit symbols, with rare exceptions as the case of the ohm (Ω), are expressed in Roman, generally with lower
m/s2 or m · s-2 but neither m/s/s. (Pa · s)/(kg/m3) nor Pa
case, but if such symbols correspond to names derived
· s/kg/m2
units, their initial letter is capitalized. Unit names due to names of eminent scientists should be Example, A ampere, J joule.
written with the same spelling of their names, but with initial lowercase. However, their names will be equally acceptable
The symbols are not followed by point, or to take the s when
hispanicized commonly used, if are recognized by the
plural. For example, 5 kg, no 5 kgs.
Spanish Language Royal Academy. Example: ampere, volt, farad, coulomb, july, ohm, watt, weberio.
When the symbol of a unit multiple or submultiple has an exponent, it affects not only the part of the symbol that
Unit names take an s in plural (Example: 10 newtons)
designates the unit, but also to all symbol. For example,
except those that end in s, x or z.
2
2
km means (km) , area of a square that has one km per side, or 106 square meters and never k (m2), corresponding
When writing numbers, the comma is used to separate only
to 1000 square meters.
the integer part of the decimal. For ease of reading, the numbers can be divided into groups of three digits (from
The symbol of the unit follows the prefix symbol without
the coma, if any); these groups are not separated by
space. For example, cm, mm, etc.
periods or commas. The separation into groups is not used for four-digit numbers that designate a year.
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
ABBREVIATIONS
DNA:
Deoxyribonucleic acid
N:
Nitrogen
HACCP:
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
NADA:
New Animal Drug Application
RNA:
Ribonucleic Acid
NHP:
Necrotizing hepatopancreatitis
BP:
Baculovirus penaei
DO:
Dissolved oxygen
BPM:
Manual of Best Management Practices
OIE:
World Organisation for Animal Health
cc:
Cubic centimeter
CE:
European Community
OIRSA:
International Regional Organization for Agricultural Health
CPLs:
Larval production centers (hatcheries)
OSPESCA:
EMEA:
European Medicines Agency
Organization of the Fisheries and Aquaculture Isthmus
FAO:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
P:
Phosphorus
PCBs:
Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCR:
Polymerase Chain Reaction
PL:
Postlarvae
ppm:
parts per million (uL/L, mg/kg or g/Ton)
FCR:
Feed conversion ratio
FDA:
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
GAA:
Global Aquaculture Alliance
IHHNV:
Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus
PvNV:
Penaeus vannamei nodavirus
IMNV:
Infectious myonecrosis virus
SANCO (DG SANCO):
Directorate General for Health & Consumers European Commission
INAD:
Investigational New Animal Drug
POES:
Sanitary standardized operating procedures
ISO:
International Organization for Standardization
TSV:
Taura Syndrome Virus
LC50:
Median lethal dose or lethal concentration 50
FCU:
Forming colony units
MRL:
Maximum Residue Limits
WSSV:
White Spot Syndrome Virus
OM:
Organic matter
YHV:
Yellow Head Virus
mL:
Milliliter
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GLOSSARY
Active ingredient: is the ingredient from which a product
Breeding also involves ownership of fish stocks that are
with therapeutic, pharmacolXor chemical action is made;
being farming.
it´s also known as "generic" of any product and can be extracted from living organisms or artificially synthesized.
Benthic: oganisms’ communities living on the bottom of aquatic ecosystems, and differ from plankton and nekton
Albina: naturally devoid area or little trees and vegetation,
which are communities formed by organisms living in the
near brackish water sources which
water column.
Algae
Best
crash: also known as algae breakdown of
aquaculture
practices: routine procedures of
phytoplankton breakdown and consists in massive and
voluntary implementation, applied on shrimp farms and
sudden microalgae death in a waterbody (e.g. pond). As a
whose objective is to reach acceptable production in terms
consequence, the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
of safety, price and quality, without compromising
increases by the action of dead-algae bacteria degrading, and
negatively environment.
decreases oxygen production in this waterbody by lack of microalgae (photosynthetic). This could produce a dangerous
Biodegradable: product or substance that can be
breakdown of a farming population, due to the rapid fall in the
decomposed into natural chemicals by the action of
dissolved oxygen concentration and sudden pH changes.
biological agents such as sun, water, bacteria, plants or animals. Accordingly, all the substances are biodegradable
Anthropogenic: effects, processes or materials as result of
and its difference is in the time that biological agents take in
human activities unlike of those natural causes without
decomposing in chemical elements.
human influence. Usually used to describe environmental pollution by chemical or biological waste as a result of
Biofilter: also called biological filters, are devices that
economic activities, such as the carbon dioxide production
eliminate a wide range of contaminant compounds from a
due to the use of fossil fuels.
fluid stream (air or water) through a biological process.
Antimicrobial: chemical or natural compounds (antibiotics)
Biofloc: involves 70-80% of organic matter including
obtained from microorganisms, plants or via synthetic, used
heterotrophic bacteria, algae (dinoflagellates and diatoms),
to kill (bactericidal) or inhibit growth (bacteriostatic) of
fungi, ciliates, flagellates, rotifers, nematodes, metazoans
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Its
and organic detritus. Its composition changes rapidly and
use in aquaculture should be subject to the treated agent's
very often during production cycle. "Floc" particles are
susceptibility and to approval for use in curative therapies.
agglutinated by bacterial material rich in enzymes and polysaccharides; their average diameter is 0.2 mm and
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Aquaculture: farming of aquatic organisms including fish,
increases to 2 mm towards the end of the shrimp farming
mollusks, crustaceans and plants. The breeding involves
cycle. Flocs are usually made of 25% to 56% protein, 25%
human intervention to increase production; e.g. to stock
to 29% organic carbon and they have also high levels of
fish populations, feeding or protecting them from predators.
amino acids.
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Biomass: total material of living organisms in a determined
Cannibalism: conduct based on the practice of feeding
place, expressed in weight per unit area or volume.
members of their own species.
Biosecurity plan: means a plan that identifies the most
Carrying capacity: is the population level that a given
likely ways of introduction and spread of diseases in a zone
environment can support without suffering a negative
or compartment and also describes the measures currently
significant impact (maximum number of individuals that
applied or that will be applied to reduce the risks of their
can keep a land surface). It´s established when farming
introducing and propagation.
organisms growth stops due to an increase in the density of individuals per area, and feed is available only to maintain
Biosecurity: according to FAO and OIE, it’s the optimum
a limited population.
state in which there are established measures to prevent the introduction and the spread of disease, or the approach
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries: set of
or the principles used to achieve this circumstance.
principles and international standards for fisheries and
Biosecurity measures must be implemented to minimize
aquaculture. The purpose of this voluntary code is to
the risk of disease entry to individual production units (bioexclusion), and to prevent transmission risks out (biocontainment) and forwards through the chain market. Biota: all species of plants, animals and other organisms that occupy a given area; it can be designated the repertoire of species in an ecosystem compartment, as soil, rhizosphere or background in an aquatic ecosystem. Bleach (lye): sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, great disinfectant and bleaching power. It consists of an aqueous solution of alkali metals hypochlorite (lithium, sodium, potassium, etc.); early twentieth century was used commonly with the name of Dakin liquor or Labarraque water; its use in diluted solutions is recommended for drinking water and to prevent infections. Brownian motion: rapid, random and oscillating motion of very small particles suspended in a liquid, without changing their respective position. Molecular motion. It was named in honor of Robert Brown who described it in 1827. Calcium carbonate: product obtained by fine grinding or micronization of calcareous rocks extremely pure, typically with more than 98.5% of CaCO3 contents.
ensure the effective conservation, management and living aquatic resource development. The Code was developed by FAO in collaboration with over 170 of the governments of their member countries, intergovernmental organizations, fisheries
representatives
and
non-government
organizations. The Code implementation involves the country governments, in cooperation with their fisheries industry and fishing communities; the role of FAO is to provide support for these activities. Cold chain: the continuity of the resources used successively to maintain the low storage temperature of shrimp from harvest to the consumer. Competent authority: regarding shrimp farming, it´s the government entity (official) of any country responsible for the regulation, management and control of all activities related to the whole aspects that involve the shrimp industry. For example, health in aquaculture, activity legalization, quarantine, food safety, imports, exports and related environmental aspects. According to OIE, the Competent Authority designates Veterinary Services or other Authority of a Country Member, that have the responsibility of applying or supervising the implementation of zoosanitary measures and other standards recommended in the OIE Aquatic Code and the competence to do so.
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Compost or "composting": is the aerobic biological process
Potamodromous are freshwater migratory fish (e.g. Trout)
(high oxygen) for the organic matter decomposition by
and oceanodromous are sea migratory fishes (e.g. Tuna).
microorganisms which act quickly degrading crop residues,
Dike slope: corresponds to the slope of the dike cross
dung of animals and rural or urban waste, allowing to get
section. It´s generally recommended a ratio from 2.5:1 to
"Compost" is an excellent fertilizer for agriculture.
3.5:1, to prevent the dike be eroded by waves or rainfall runoff.
Contingency plan: advanced planning process during an uncertain situation, in which scenarios and objectives are
Dike top: top surface of the cross section the dike of a
decided, managerial and technical actions are defined and
shrimp farm that enables passing vehicles and, on
potential response systems are structured, in order to
occasion, is coated with selected material (coarse, rough
prevent or better respond to an emergency.
ground) to facilitate permanent transit of light and heavy equipment.
Control structure: structure generally made of concrete (gate or culvert), which allows the control of water entry
Disinfection: reduction by chemical agents and/or physical
through mesh filters, the same as water output through
methods the number of microorganisms in the environment
regulatory planks during pond water exchange or harvest.
at a level that does not compromise the food safety. The goal of the disinfection is to reduce the amount of living
Corn (“choclo”): name that indicates corn (“choclo”) smell
microorganisms. To be effective, disinfection must be
and taste acquired by farmed shrimp when a significant
preceded for a thorough cleaning.
increase of cyanophytes algae, bacteria and fungi populations in farming pond water. This bad taste is
Dry season: summer; period of the year in which occurs
produced by metabolic waste of cyanophytes Anabaena sp.
little or no rainfall, the sky is commonly clear (no clouds),
And Oscillatoria sp. that release organic toxins as geosmin
relative humidity is often low and the weather is under the
(“earth” taste) and methylisoborneol (MIB) (“musty” taste).
influence of trade (“Alisios”) winds (North winds).
It can be used copper sulfate and diuron (derived from urea) to decrease the concentration of these algae.
Emergency plan: means a documented work plan aimed to ensure the implementation of actions, compliance of the
Depopulation (sanitation): shrimp production interruption
requirements and resources availability needed for the
after each farming cycle to let stand the pond environment
eradication or control of certain diseases outbreaks in
and to get a pond soil drying (total or partial), to break
aquatic animals.
disease cycle and have enough time to make improvements or repairs on production shrimp farm infrastructure.
Emerging disease: designates a serious newly identified
Diadromous: migratory fish that move between sea and
disease with specific known or even unknown cause, which can
freshwater waterbodies. They can be of three types:
be spread to and between populations, through trade of aquatic
anadromous (mostly stay at the sea but entering fresh water
animals and/or their products. OIE Aquatic Code, 2009.
for reproduction, e.g. Salmon), catadromous (mostly stay in
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freshwater but go to sea for reproduction; e.g.: Eel) and
Endemic: epidemiologically, endemic (from Greek Evounía
amphidromous (move between the sea and freshwater and
”in a population”) is a pathological process that remains
vice versa, but not for reproductive causes; e.g.: Mullet).
over time in a population or geographical region. It´s
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
related to infectious pathologies. The disease remains over time at a stable level including seasonal variations. Therefore, it´s a disease localized in a particular place and with a high number of affected individuals. Epibiont: non-parasite living organism that lives at least one phase of its life cycle over another bigger organism, to which usually doesn´t cause any problem. Eradicate: zoosanitary measures implementing to eliminate a plague of a production area within a shrimp farm. Estuarine waters: waters from an estuarine system as a product of the mixture of freshwater from the earth with seawater. In estuarine waters are very special conditions: when tide is high, it penetrates salt water and when the tide is low, freshwater goes to the sea. When mixed waters ecological conditions change dramatically. Estuary: this word comes from Latin aestuarium which means an area under tidal influences. It´s defined as a coastal area where freshwater from the land mixes with seawater causing wide salinity variations according to tide changes. The mangrove is the predominant vegetation species, and a variety of marine and terrestrial species perfectly adapted to these changes. Eutrophication: nutrient enrichment of an ecosystem. The most widespread use is specific to more or less massive contribution of inorganic nutrients an aquatic ecosystem. Increased nutrients in freshwater from lakes and reservoirs, which causes an excessive phytoplankton bloom. Extensive shrimp farming system: low density aquaculture practiced in pools or ponds for aquaculture farmers’ subsistence; it´s an artisanal production system characterized by large waterbodies with very limited control by the producer. Infrastructure is deficient to an adequate water supply, water exchange and harvest, and for implementing biosecurity measures or best management practices. It depends largely on nature and in most cases wild organisms are used. Production results are relatively
poor and primary productivity and/or the food chain of the pond are the feed source. Feed trays: accessory where shrimp feed is placed into the pond, to prevent feed contact with bottom sediment and to better estimate feed intake. Fertilizer: chemical that supply nutrients to the plants; may be organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic and is applied to soil, to plants´ foliage or in the water of aquatic animals farming. It´s also called compost. Filtering: using of cloth or mesh bags to retain organisms and particles during the filling phase of a reservoir channel or a shrimp pond. It´s also the use of mesh in output water gates to prevent shrimp escape and entry of foreign organisms during high tides. Fine (feed): pelleted feed micro-particles produced by feed rubbing during packaging, storage and transportation of the feed bags filled with pellets. High quality feed and submitted to good handling must reach the shrimp farm with nothing or very little fines (maximum 5%). Fishing: FAO designates this term to the action of obtaining three types of aquatic species including fishes, crustaceans and mollusks. This can be achieved by catching through traditional or industrial methods. Flocs: in aquaculture systems flocs can be defined as suspended agglomerations of organic particles highly rich in heterotrophic bacteria and incorporated as an important source of natural feed for shrimp. Its shape and floatage is highly related to the permanent-functioning aeration system installed in ponds. Flood-tide: high tide, time when the sea water level reaches its highest point in the tidal cycle. The approximate time between high and low tide is 6 hours and 12 minutes, completing a cycle of 24 hours and 50 minutes.
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Food chain: (Greek throphe: feeding), it´s feeding energy transfer process through several organisms in which each feed from preceding and is eaten by the next one. Food chain is also the flow of energy and nutrients established between the different species of an ecosystem based on its nutrition. Food safety: considerations and production processes seeking to ensure that food consumption don´t harm consumers’ health. Food security: FAO defines food security as the physical and economic access for all members of the public at all times, to sufficient safe and nutritious food to meet their food needs and to have a healthy and active life. Footbath: devise used for feet bath with disinfection purposes. It consists of a tray, bowl or pit filled with a disinfectant solution placed at the entry gate of the shrimp farm, for visitors to disinfect their shoes before entering. Frame: wood or metal structure that supports other elements. Gage: add solvent (e.g. water) to a container with a mark that indicates a known and precisely measured volume to fit in the container until that mark. Hazard: biological, chemical or physical agent that can compromise food safety and/or shrimp health. Hydraulic section: dimensions that should have any reservoir channel, drainage or other structure used for water conveyance in a shrimp farm, based on a calculation of water volume required. Hydraulics is the branch of physics and engineering that study of the mechanical fluid properties. The optimal hydraulic section is that which for a section, roughness coefficient and slope, conveyances a maximum water flow; the optimal section is less wetted perimeter, although hydraulically "optimal" does not mean that it is necessarily the best in economic terms (excavation, drafts, etc.).
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Hydrography: study of all waterbodies on Earth and, strictly speaking, to the extent, collection and representation of the data relating to the ocean bottom, the coast, tides and currents, so that can capture on a hydrographic chart. Hydrology: geographic science dedicated to the study of spatial and temporal distribution and water properties in the atmosphere and on the Earth. This including rainfall, runoff, soil moisture, evapotranspiration and glacier mass balance. Hydrostability: is the physical property that the pellets have to remain intact in the water without losing its shape or structure. It is usually measured in hours and evaluated in vitro using a beaker with seawater and without agitation. It should be at least 2 hours. Hygiene: knowledge and skills set that Individuals must applied to control factors that can have adverse health effects. Personal hygiene is the basic concept of cleaning, grooming and body care. Hypoxia: condition of a living organism or part of this, in which there is not adequate oxygen supply. Infiltration: in hydrology refers to water penetration into the soil, and in shrimp farms it corresponds to the index of dikes compaction and soil porosity. Innocuous: something that does not cause damage or negative activity to human, animal or plant. Intensive shrimp farming system: shrimp farming systems using high shrimp stocking densities (more than 25 shrimp per m2). It requires a special infrastructure design (pond size and permanent aeration, among others), and complete biosecurity measures and highly technical management (bottom management, feeding, microbial flora, water quality and disease control). Shrimp feeding depends largely on artificial diet supplied by producer and supplemented by natural feed (flocs).
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Inundate: to flood with water or with any other liquid one object or place; immerse or cover with water.
Metabolism: all physical and chemical reactions of nutrients/substrates absorbed by organisms, which occur in the cells with the goal of obtaining necessary
Iron pyrite: is the iron sulfide (FeS2) that appear relatively frequently in nature alone or mixed with other minerals.
components for life maintenance. Metabolite: substance produced by a living organism as a
Labeling: any recording, legend or direction printed, attached or recorded to a product or its packaging, wrapping or shipping-box and that identifies the product according to national and international standards.
result of their metabolism. May be harmful to other
Lime: calcareous product for use in aquaculture, such as Calcium hydroxide, Calcium Carbonate and Calcium Oxide. Liming: process by which lime is applied on a pond bottom, but eventually is applied on pond water (previously diluting lime in water). Lime application includes products based on Calcium and according to the purpose, such as carbonate (pH increasing), hydroxide (drop bacteria populations) and oxide (drop bacteria populations and organic matter concentrations). Their common names are agricultural lime, slaked lime and quicklime, respectively).
Microalgae: unicellular aquatic algae as phytoplankton.
Limnology: is the branch of ecology that studies inland aquatic ecosystems (lakes, ponds, rivers, wells, marshes and estuaries), the interactions between aquatic organisms and their environment, which determine their distribution and abundance in these ecosystems. Liner: refers to a plastic membrane of variable thickness, used in aquaculture for matching aquaculture ponds soils and internal dikes sides. The aim of the liners is to prevent water infiltration and/or isolation of farmed organisms from the pond bottom sediment. Low tide: opposite to high tide, time in which the sea reaches its lowest height. Mechanical vector: any movable element as people, animals, vehicles or equipment, where a pathogen can join and be transported from one place to another, contaminating facilities that were free of that infection.
organisms and in shrimp may affect its health or product quality
when
harvest
as
occurs
with
certain
microalgae-produced metabolites (e.g. Anabaena).
Molasses: product derived from sugarcane processing, dark colored, thick and rich in various sugars. It is used in aquaculture as a Carbon source for bacteria and algae from the water column, promoting growth of microorganisms that use sugar as an energy source. Necton: all marine and freshwater organisms that actively swim in aquatic areas under direct sunlight influence. The concept contrasts with other alternatives such as plankton (living organisms in suspension and are passively moved); benthos (organisms that live on the bottom, whether mobile or stationary), or pneuston (organisms that live at the interface water-air). Operational level: proper depth of a pond to ensure proper farming operation. In ponds with plateau, the level of less deep zones should be 1.0 m to 1.2 m. Organic
debris:
dead
plants
and
animals
under
decomposition. Layer which is composed of Organic soils: are those that contain more than 10% of organic matter. Dikes are not stable when made of organic material because the organic materials decompose when exposed to air. Due to bacterial decomposition of organic matter, organic lands also lead to low dissolved oxygen concentrations in the soil-water interface.
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Palatability: feed organoleptic feature set, regardless of its nutritional value, that makes a given organism to be more or less pleasant to eat. Pathogen: microorganism capable of producing disease in humans, animals or plants. Includes mainly viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Pathogenic agent: see "Pathogen" Pellet: is a generic name used to refer to small portions of pelleted or tableted material. The term is used in aquaculture to mean processed feed ready to fed farming aquatic organisms (finished product). Pelletizing: process by which raw materials are finely-divided - sometimes becoming powder, impalpable and unwieldy-, transforming them into larger and more stable particles by the application of heat, moisture and mechanical pressure, resulting in the formation of pellets. Pest: any species, breed, animal biotype or pathogens, which are harmful to humans, farm inputs, drinking or production water and farmed shrimp (e.g. rodents, birds, insects and aquatic species [fishes and crustaceans]). Phytoplankton: in marine biology and limnology, this is the name of autotrophs aquatic organisms from plankton, which are photosynthetic and living dispersed in water. The name comes from the Greek terms φύτον (phyton, "plant") and πλαγκτος ("Planktos" "Vagrant" or "stumbling"). Plowing: action of tilling the soil surface with a depth not exceeding 30 centimeters. This task accomplishes soil oxygenation and allows incorporation of added elements to the soil by human or natural ways. Pond: is one of the units that comprise an aquaculture farm, designed and built under technical specifications which enable the efficient aquatic organisms farming. In shrimp
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farming, ponds are comprised of a dike, a plateau, harvest channels, and input, output and harvesting gates. Prebiotics: unlike probiotics (living organisms), are generally non-digestible carbohydrates, which stimulate the growth and activity of beneficial bacteria. Predator: organism that maintains a consistent interspecific relationship in hunting and death suffered by some species (prey) by generally larger species (predators). In the case of shrimp farms, predators would be the birds, some crustaceans, fish and alligators, among others; shrimp would be its prey. Probiotics: living microorganisms added to animal/human food, which remain active in the gut and produce important physiological host effects. Prophylactic: process or product that helps preventing and protecting an individual or a population from the onslaught of a disease. Quarantine: means maintaining a group of aquatic animals in isolation with no direct or indirect contact with other aquatic animals, in order to undergo observation for a specified length of time and, if appropriate, testing and treatment, including proper treatment of the effluent waters. Aquatic Code, OIE 2009. Rainy season: winter, period of the year in which rainfall is frequent, days are commonly cloudy, humidity is high and there is little wind. Records: documents that present achieved results or evidence of performed activities. Recycle: activity performed by many companies and individuals, based on taking back trash from the garbage and reprocessing it to be used again.
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
Reuse: action of using trash one more time before throwing it away; for example, lining boxes, bottles or cans and use them to hold items. Risk: likelihood of an adverse health effect and of its severity, as a result of a potential danger that can reveal itself. Rotavator: agricultural implement for tilling the soil, which consists of a shaft with a rotary plow blade with variable shapes that when turning up they remove and shred earth lumps. Sea loch: verge of a river mouth forming a submerged coastal valley or estuary that has been flooded by the sea and by its elevated level. Consequently, it will become a sea canal that penetrates on the coast, coinciding with a river mouth, which flow is also affected by high and low tides. This word in Spanish (“ría”) is used in Europe. Secchi disk: is a standard aquaculture instrument used to measure the relative visibility or depth of sunlight penetration into the pond water in centimeters. In a reservoir channel or in a shrimp pond, it allows knowing the water turbidity given by suspended solids concentration, mainly phytoplankton (microalgae). Secchi: see "Secchi disk" Semi-intensive shrimp farming: shrimp aquaculture considered between extensive and intensive systems. It´s characterized by an integrated infrastructure which allows the implementation of specific technological processes that facilitate production operation. This system requires moderate loads of farming organisms into waterbodies that are partially controlled. Feed is partially natural obtained by water fertilization and partly artificially supplemented which is provided by the farmer.
Stratification: separation of the water contained into a pond or reservoir channel, in strata or layers. There are two types of gradients that cause stratification: physical which are caused by temperature, and chemicals produced by different chemical composition of the surface and deep waters. Stress test: physical examination for obtaining a measure of one postlarvae batch quality (tank, shipping) and consists in submitting the animals to drastic changes of temperature and/or salinity, then measuring their survival and physical conditions (swimming, activity, reflexes). Super- intensive shrimp farming: aquatic organisms farming system with extremely high densities and many control measures with entirely artificial feed and often with aerators to maintain better control of the dissolved oxygen concentration; they must be designed to support the system oxygen demand. Unlike intensive systems, production units bottoms are covered by a plastic liner. Sustainability: refers to the use of technologies and adequate services to the environmental conditions and to prevention of negative impacts being social, economic or environmental, looking for efficiency in food production and also natural resources conservation. It may be feasible to obtain high levels of productivity, becoming necessary to develop and incorporate more technology. Sustainable development: according to FAO, it is the management and conservation of the natural resource base and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a way as to ensure the continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Such sustainable development (in agriculture, forestry and fishery sectors), conserves land, water and plant and animal genetic resources, does not degrade the environment and is technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable.
Semolina (bran): name that comes from bran that is thick flour (slightly milled), that is made from wheat and other cereals.
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
TCBS: selective agar primarily (but not exclusively) for
wastewater converge to a sewage collection system, which
bacterial species of the genus Vibrio, constituted by
should finish in a treatment plant.
thiosulfate, citrate, bile (bile salts) and sucrose. Water maturation: period of time used to leave a waterbody Terrine: small container (tub) with lid used to keep food
(reservoir channel or pond) before shrimp stocking
cold.
(postlarvae or juveniles), during which it´s promote growth of phytoplankton and zooplankton by chemical fertilization
Texture: refers to the granulometric soil composition,
environmentally acceptable.
depending on the proportion (%) of sand, silt and clay that soil contains.
Water quality: is the sum of the physical, chemical and biological characteristics, the same as biotic and abiotic
Traceability: is a food safety tool used to trace the origin of
factors influencing the use of a waterbody, based on the
products and their inputs in the food supply chain, helping
performance of the site living species.
to identify and record each product from its origin to the end of the marketing chain.
Waterbody (water body): is a water mass or water extension as a lake, sea or ocean that covers part of the Earth or other
Transboundary diseases: are those of trade and economic
planet. Some waterbodies are artificial such as ponds, but
importance for food security in many countries; they can
most are natural. They may contain salt water, fresh or
easily spread to other countries and reach epidemic
brackish.
proportions and require cooperation among nations for its management and control, including exclusion. They were
Wheel bath: vehicle tires bath used to disinfect exposed
previously called "exotic diseases".
rolling surfaces. It consists of a pit (ford, groove, hits) usually located in incoming gates of a shrimp farm and
Transition period: months of the year in which weather
containing a disinfectant solution for cleaning and
changes from dry to rainy season or vice versa, without
disinfecting the wheels of incoming vehicles.
having defined and stable weather patterns. Withdrawal time: holding days between a medicated Trophic level: in ecology refers to each of the sets of
therapy finishing used in animals for human consumption,
species or organisms in an ecosystem, which coincide in
and their slaughter (harvest). Respect the withdrawal time
position in the energy and nutrient circulation, it means
will allow that slaughtered (harvested) animals don´t carry
those holding an equivalent place in the food chain.
drug residues and that they maintain the standards for food safety.
Wastewater: wastewater or sewage wastes are liquids from
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domestic, commercial and industrial use. They have
Zoosanitary measures: any legislation, regulation or official
dissolved or in suspension several organic and inorganic
procedure having the purpose to prevent the introduction
matters. They come from discharges of drains, sinks,
and/or pests dispersion in a shrimp farm or in a particular
toilets, kitchens, laundry (detergents), industrial waste (oils,
area thereof, or to limit the economic impact of the pests in
greases, tanneries, etc.). Where sewers are available, all of
the production process.
MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
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MANUAL OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WHITE SHRIMP Penaeus vannamei FARMING
AGREEMENT BETWEEN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE ORGANIZATION OF CENTRAL AMERICAN ISTHMUS (OSPESCA) AND REGIONAL INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL HEALTH (OIRSA)
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SICA Office
Oficina en OIRSA
Blvd. Orden de Malta No. 470, Urb. Santa Elena
Calle Ramón Belloso, final pasaje Isolde, Col.
Antiguo Cuscatlán, El Salvador, C.A.
Escalón, San Salvador, El Salvador, C.A.
Phone: (503) 2248-8800
Phone: (503) 2209-9200
Fax: (503) 2248-8899
Fax: (503) 2263-1128
E-mail:
[email protected]
E-mail:
[email protected]
Web site: www.sica.int/ospesca
Web site: www.oirsa.org