Mapping research systems in developing countries

Mapping research systems in developing countries Country report: The Science and Technology system of Bolivia

Project Leaders: CREST: Centre for Research on Science and Technology, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa IRD: Institute for Research on Development, France

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Table of Contents Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.

Brief History..................................................................................................................... 1

2.

The structure of science regulation in Bolivia ................................................................... 3

3.

S&T Policies ..................................................................................................................... 7

4.

R&D Figures ................................................................................................................... 12

5.

Human resources in science and technology .................................................................. 14

6.

Scientific production ...................................................................................................... 17

7.

Considerations on the profession of a researcher .......................................................... 18

8.

Informal structure of science and technology ................................................................ 19

9.

Scientific cooperation and agreements .......................................................................... 20

10.

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 20

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THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA Daniel Villavicencio & Marín Zamalvide Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, Mexico

Introduction In order to analyze Bolivia’s science and technology system, we need to take into account the country’s situation regarding human and economic development. Basic statistics such as Gross Domestic Product per capita reveal that, in terms of the population’s access to health and education, this is one of the countries with the lowest levels of economic and human development on the continent. Similarly, the country’s involvement in the world economy is based primarily on exports of primary goods with little added value. While these structural conditions have led to low levels of development in terms of Science and Technology and Innovation, a small science and technology community has performed in an acceptable manner given the conditions under which it works.

1.

Brief History

Some of the factors behind the weak development of Science and Technology in Bolivia relate, first of all, to a model based on exports of raw materials with little added value, dating back to the colonial era. It should also be pointed out that, throughout the last century, science and technology was not given much importance in government policy.

Spending on science and technology amounts to a 0.3 % of Gross Domestic Product (23 million dollars) in 2002, which is lower than most other countries in the region1. Most of this spending is accounted for by researcher compensations, while a minimal amount is set aside for investment and consolidation of infrastructure. Because of this, it is difficult for many research centres to implement a sustained research agenda that, in turn, helps the country’s development.

It should be pointed out that a large proportion of R&D work is able to go ahead thanks to contributions from international sources, which often make up for the lack of state support. Such 1

Science and Technology Indicator Network.

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sources work together to create and consolidate research centres in the field of science and technology and scientific output in general.

If we analyze experiences of development in science and technology, we can see that the last thirty years of the previous century witnessed attempts to strengthen the sector through the creation of an Institutional System to drive development, including the approval of the Science and Technology Development Law. Nonetheless, failure to establish a way to regulate and define the relationship between scientific research and the productive sector meant that such attempts never came to fruition. Similarly, these efforts tend to focus on the actions of formal research centre policies, setting aside local processes for generating knowledge, and thereby preventing knowledge from being used to solve local and regional issues. Efforts are currently being made to change this state of affairs by including a Science and Technology and Innovation chapter in the National Plan for Research and Development, with the aim of overcoming this restrictive legacy in the sector. To this end, we may be witnessing a period of change regarding the importance afforded to science and technology and innovation among the nation’s priorities.

Table 1:

Historical Review of the main governance S&T institutions

Year

Action

1977

Creation of the National Council of Scientific and Technological Development

1977

Creation of the Direction of Science and Technology, within the Ministry of Planning and Coordination

1991

Creation of the National Council of Science and Technology

1998

Reform of the National Council of Science and Technology

2001

Creation of the Inter ministerial Commission of Science Technology and Innovation

2001

Creation of the National Secretary of Science and Technology and Innovation

2001

Reform of the National Council for the Science and the Technology

2001

Creation of the Departmental Council of Science Technology

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Table 2:

Historical review of main S&T policies

Year

Programs

Institution

1983

Science and Technology Plan (Revised 2006)

National Council of Scientific and Technological Development

1991

Bolivian National Science and Technology System

National Council of Science and Technology

2001

Bolivian System of Innovation


2001

Technological Bank


2001

Bolivian System of Information in Science and Technology


2001

Strengthening and restructuring of the technical services for the production program


2001

Systematizing and revaluation of the local knowledge program


2.

The structure of science regulation in Bolivia

In order to analyze the structure of regulation in the field of science and technology and innovation in the country, it is necessary to take a brief look at all the different legal frameworks that have been applied over the last fifty years. In this regard, we can highlight the large gap between the creation of a given institutional structure regulated by different decrees and regulations, and the consolidation and functioning of the institutional system proposed.2

The first attempt at consolidating an Institutional System for managing Science and Technology was made in the late 1970s, with Supreme Decree 15111, which sets forth the National Science and Technology Development System.

The National Science and Technology Development Board and the Science and Technology Department of the Ministry of Planning and Coordination run this system. This institutional system set forth the first policies aimed at the sector through the creation of the Science and Technology 2

Source: Deputy Ministry of Science and Technology

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Plan at the beginning of the 1980s. However, political and economic instability made it impossible to put into practice.

A major development in the creation of an institutional system took place in 1991 with the approval of Supreme Decree 22908, which transformed support for this policy. In addition, the National Science and Technology Board (CONACYT) were set up. The purpose of the Board is to put forward policies and strategies to promote science and technology and their application in the innovation processes. The Board comprised academic representatives from, the public and private sectors, as well as different business sectors.

Its place within the government was linked to the Bolivian Deputy President’s office and an executive Ministry performed a number of different projects. Some of the Board’s work involved improving the structure and institutional environment for science, technology and innovation. Later on, in 1998, Supreme Decree 24967 reformed the structure of the CONACYT, which now came under the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports. In addition, responsibility for the Executive Ministry was passed to the Deputy Minister for Higher Education, Science and Technology.

Science, Technology and Innovation Development Law number 2209 of 2001, which takes the institutional reorganization undertaken in the late 1990s to greater heights, determines the regulatory framework in force. The law created the Inter-Ministerial Commission for Science, Technology, Innovation as the agency in charge of policies, as well as the National Ministry of Science and Technology, and Innovation as the agency running, coordinating and managing policies in the field. Both agencies are attached to the Bolivian Presidency.

Two advisory agencies were also created in parallel: the National Board for Science and Technology and different Science and Technology Departmental Boards. To this day, however, these new institutions are still subject to debate as to how they should be regulated, the aim being to obtain a broad consensus among all the players involved in the system.

The objective of institutional organization in 1998 was to set up the Bolivian National Science and Technology System, consisting of a set for organizations, institutions, natural persons and companies that would manage and execute scientific and technological activities and, above all, train human resources, perform R&D activities and put know-how to good use. The three key institutions in the system are the National Board for Science and Technology, the Executive Ministry of the CONACYT (which is part of the CONACYT) and the Science and Technology Departmental Boards. The Department of Science and Technology (DGCYT) was created to perform operational activities and execute policies.

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The National Board for Science and Technology is in charge of the system. It is chaired by the Bolivian Deputy President, and includes: 

the Minister of Education, Culture and Sport,



the Minister of Sustainable Development and Planning,



the Minister of Economic Development,



the Minister of Health and Social Development,



the Executive Secretary of the Executive Committee of the Bolivian University,



the President of the National Academy of Sciences,



the President of the Bolivian Confederation of Private Businessmen,



the President of the Association of Private Universities, and



A delegate representing the Science and Technology departmental boards.

The Executive Ministry of the National Board for Science and Technology is a decentralized public agency that comes under the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. It has legal standing and its own assets, and it is run autonomously. The role of the national executive of the National Board for Science and Technology corresponds to the Deputy Minister of Higher Education, Science and Technology, who runs the Executive National Ministry of the National Board for Science and Technology.

The Science and Technology Departmental Boards are an autonomous part of the Bolivian National Innovation System. Their role is to guide, promote and manage different policies in the field of science, technology and innovation. It was initially necessary to create a Departmental Board for each Department (provinces into which the country is divided) but no information on the structure, activities and results is available.

The Department of Science and Technology (DGCYT) depends directly on the Deputy Minister of Higher Education, Science and Technology. Its purpose is to implement the decisions of the CONACYT, and to promote scientific and technological activities and channel information, finance and agreements. It plays an important role as a facilitator and link between different organizations working in the field of science, technology and innovation. It executes the decisions taken by the CONACYT and the Executive Ministry. The Department is currently in charge of tasks defined by way of international agreements in the field of science and technology, and plays a significant role in reporting scientific work in the country’s academic centres in the electronic media and acting as an intermediary in Science and Technology networks and organizations.

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Diagram 1:

S&T system of Bolivia

Source: Viceministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (2009) SISTEMA BOLIVIANO DE INNOVACIÓN. http://www.conacyt.gov.bo/programas/DocSBI%2001-06-2009.pdf

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3.

S&T Policies

Public policies to promote Science and Technology are set forth in the CONACYT3 operational document and, more recently, in the Science and Technology and Innovation chapter that forms part of the National Development Plan. Policies towards the end of the 1990s sought to create and fortify the capabilities obtained in the past, but reorienting strategies and instruments through structural changes in the National Science and Technology System. This means strengthening the different components: the private productive sector, scientific and technological infrastructure and the training of skilled human resources, as well as improving interactions between said components. This gave the CONACYT a central role in policies and strengthened it as an institution.

The specific objectives consisted of driving the development of scientific and technological research, promoting increased human resources, supporting the development of new technologies, creating scientific and technological services, improving conditions for transferring technology through links between universities and business, promoting regional and international cooperation and integration in science and technology, and developing financial mechanisms for science and technology and innovation. The strategies were:

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

To strengthen the institutional, operative and financial framework by adopting and regulating the abovementioned institutional changes, such as the creation of a national innovation system.



To establish further financial mechanisms in addition to the ones set forth by law.



To implement a system of incentives aimed at boosting investment in innovation and private sector development, including support in the form of loans or tax incentives, subsidies and reduced duties.



To drive the implementation of a strategy to provide better access to the funds of international agencies such as the BID and international cooperation organizations like the UN, ONUDI, UNESCO, OAS, CAF, etc. for the development of science and technology.



To promote the creation of an institutional structure and mechanism for defining policies and strategies for scientific and technological cooperation and integration, between the CONACYT, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Finance.



To perform constant evaluation for the purposes of creating a quality research centre register and establish a network of units of excellence, the ultimate objective of this strategy being to overcome difficulties relating to critical mass in the context of a young population.



To create a National Research System and a National Postgraduate System that help promote research and postgraduate work.

Policy, Strategy and Medium Term Plan for the Development of Science, Technology and Innovation in Bolivia 1997 - 2002

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

To propose an information system to increase know-how for selecting and assimilating technology, as well as monitoring technological change in order to develop a prospective and accurate overview of such changes.



To promote the publication and reporting of the findings of local research work; bolstering links between research and production by constant training in the business sector and to strengthen ties with the academic sector, creating dynamic centres, ensuring reporting in the field of technology and supporting subcontracting mechanisms.



To drive the establishment of hi-tech companies using a scheme to stimulate exportation and the creation of a structure of scientific parks or technological centres that operate as breeding ground for companies.



To promote the creation of foundations within different universities that can cut through red tape and operate with greater fluidity.



To stimulate coordination mechanisms in order to use resources more efficiently because of regional and international technological cooperation and attempt to identify internal market failings and obstacles to the Bolivian economy’s participation in the international market.

According to the information we obtained, most of the plans contemplated for the period 1997-2002 were not implemented due to the lack of regulation and feasibility in programs embodying the different strategies put forward. A fresh attempt at formulating policies is currently being made as part of the Science and Technology and Innovation Chapter of the National Development Plan 2006-2010, which seeks to afford expertise a key role in a new strategy to make the country a player in the world economy. The Plan sets forth three general policies that are rendered operational through specific programs.

One initial framework policy seeks to use science, technology, and Innovation in a process of national integration for productive development with sovereignty and social inclusion, taking the form of different programs: 

The aim of the Program for the Creation and Operation of the Bolivian Innovation System – Technological Bank project is to identify the knowledge and technology required by the productive sector in order to ensure better market participation, through an analysis of the economic system. It sets forth the participation of a great many players, including the state, science and technology centres, universities, the productive agencies and interface structures.



A Bolivian Innovation System Technical Unit (UTSBI) will be established under the Deputy Ministry of Science and Technology. Its purpose will be to create, manage and assess ways of bringing together the sectors that demand and supply technology, expertise and innovation, and it will be represented in the Competition and Innovation Departmental Boards (CDCI).

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

The purpose of the Program for the Institutional Strengthening of services for production is to lay down the foundations for using science and technology to solve national issues by creating and launching sector and trans-sector programs in the field of scientific and technological research.



The Alternative Productive Programs for Food Sovereignty program seeks to promote research into new types of food and into making better use of highly nutritional foods that already exist as a strategy for cutting current levels of malnutrition among the population.



The Program for the Development of Bolivia’s Hydrological Potential is based on the premise that water is one of the key resources of this century, because of which it is necessary to draw up an inventory of the country’s hydrological potential. The aim is to identify zones that do not have this type of information and consolidate information on a nationwide level in order to quantify and conserve water, as well as to provide more information to help prevent natural disasters.



The Eco-friendly Fuel Production Program goal is to seek alternative sources of energy, particularly in regions with no access to the fuel distribution network. Furthermore, the production of eco-friendly diesel is an attempt to end the country’s reliance on external sources of diesel through the production of this substitute.



In view of the growing demand for natural products, the Textile Technology Program based on Natural Resources program seeks to combine scientific knowledge with local expertise to create efficient methods for machining fibres, as well as for making natural dyes that make it possible to produce high quality yarns.



The Program to Improve Leather Production seeks to improve leather production, making the process cleaner and enhancing the quality of finished and semi-finished products, in order to boost exports.



Given the high cost of materials for building housing for large sectors of the population, the aim of the Building Materials Program is to lower the costs of production of housing for the poorer segments of the population through research into traditional materials that are accessible to the majority of the population.



In view of the fact that Bolivia has a very important biodiversity, the Bolivian Institute of Research into Biodiversity for Development Project Program (IBIBDD) seeks to make the most of these resources by harnessing their nutritional, pharmacological and industrial potential and using them in the productive processes through environment-friendly technologies that increase both productivity and the quality of life of the population. In order to accomplish this task, the Bolivian Biodiversity Institute will be set up and its functions will include the formulation and execution of different projects whose ultimate aim is the installation of productive complexes with the involvement of the communities and the productive sector. At the same time, efforts will be made to obtain the participation of and coordination with all Research Centres performing biodiversity-related work to create a network that can make the 9

most of the resources of all of these organizations. The IBIBDD will seek to implement a research, transformation, development and marketing strategy for new products derived from the environment. As an institution, it will be part of the Bolivian Innovation System under the Deputy Ministry of Science and Technology, as well as the Biodiversity Institute of the Andes, which is run by the Andes parliament. 

The aim of the Social and Economic Studies Program is to systemize studies into social movements and economic situations in the region, in order to have tools for solving conflicts in each sector. It will play a key role in drawing up different development plans and programs based on the needs of each one.



In view of the pollution produced by industrial and agricultural activities, an Environmental and Clean Technology Program has been put forward to develop clean production technologies. The formulation of sector and trans-sector research programs to address different national and regional issues, as well as provide a means of controlling and regulating pollution, will lead to the development of research into the use of clean technologies that, in turn, will give rise to pilot plants in select companies.

A second framework policy is based on inclusive Scientific Culture for Creating a Society of Knowledge with its own features, through a number of programs: 

The aim of the Comprehensive Information and Communication Technology Implementation Program for the development of a society of knowledge program is to implement the guidelines set forth in the Bolivian Strategy in Information and Communication Technologies, and in particular to support the development of a culture of science and technology.



The Science and Technology Popularization Program seek to publicize a culture of science and technology and innovation by approaching a broad sector of the population with scant involvement in science and technology. The aim is to generate new local demand in connection with these subjects. The aim is for 35% of the urban and rural population to take part in the debate on science and technology with government and administration sectors and for information on these subjects to reach 80% of the population.



In view of the small number of scientific researchers in the country, the aim of the Human resources mobilization and training program in research and innovation is to train and mobilize researchers and innovators in both the academic and productive fields. The purpose of the program is to increase the number of researchers and innovators in the different productive sectors by 20% through the creation of specialties in the country.



In parallel with the educational sector, the Technological Training Centre Program seeks to set up technological innovation centres in order to reform the technological education system based on Bolivian productive sector requirements. Training will be based on the demands of the productive sector, as well as the structure of the human resources supporting this.

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A third framework policy focuses on recuperating, protecting and using local know-how as well as technological and ancestral knowledge through the Intellectual property and recuperation and systemization of ancestral knowledge program, for social and productive development. The aim of the program is to stop local knowledge and expertise from being lost by registering and systemizing them. Another intention is to set forth regulations to safeguard the intellectual property of people and communities in order to allow them to enjoy such assets within a new and fairer productive framework.

Table 3:

Main S&T performers

Institute

Mission and Objectives

Legal status

Major University of San Andrés (Universidad Mayor San Andrés (UMSA)) www.umsa.bo

Human resources formation, research

Public University

Certification; technical support for the industry, human resources formation.

Public person, not state


Public University


Public University


Public University

Generation, incorporation and adaptation of knowledge and technologies.

Decentralized Public institution

XIX Century Bolivian Institute of Metrology (Instituto Boliviano de Metrología (IBM)) www.ibmetro.org 1978 Autonomous University Gabriel Rene Moreno Romero (Universidad Autónoma Gabriel Rene Romero (UAGR)) www.uagrm.edu.bo XIX Century Major University of San Simón (Universidad Mayor de San Simón (UMSS)) www.umss.edu.bo XIX Century Universidad Mayor Pontificia San Franscisco Xavier (UMPSFX) www.usfx.edu.bo XVII Century Centre of Tropical Agricultural Research (Centro de investigación Agrícola tropical. (CIAT)) www.ciatbo.org 1976

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Table 3 Continued

Institute

Mission and Objectives

Legal status

Autonomous university Juan Misael Saracho (Universidad Autónoma Juan Misael Caracho UAJMS)) www.uajms.edu.bo

Generation, incorporation and adaptation of knowledge and technologies.

Public University

Human resources formation, research, social diffusion of knowledge in Social Science

Private university

XIX Century Strategic Research Program (Programa de Investigación Estratégica (PIEB)) www.pieb.org

Source: Compiled by author

4.

R&D Figures

An examination of the different statistics in the fields of science and technology and innovation reveals that the situation of Bolivia is similar to that of the region, given that the majority of these activities take place in the universities, most of which are public in Bolivia. This means that universities account for 80% of the country’s R&D activities. It should also be pointed out that the units performing R&D activities are the different institutes and departments within the universities.

The Bolivian University system comprises ten public universities, to which we can add the Bolivian Catholic University and the Military School of Engineering. These institutions have 142 R&D centres. The country’s entire university system has just under 270,000 students, which is a low figure if we bear in mind the size and structure of the population under the age of 25.

Twenty-five R&D centres in the government sector was identified. The private sector, on the other hand, has 17 centres. Nonetheless, a significant share of total spending is accounted for by NGOs, amounting to 13% of total spending on science and technology and innovation in the last decade.

Most researchers work in institutions of higher education; more than two out of every three (70%) researchers perform activities within the university system. Companies account for 5%

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of researchers; while the government has 15% and non-profit NGOs have 10%. The insubstantial role of companies in science and technology and innovation is worthy of note4.

Table 4:

Total expenditure in science and technology per capita, percentage of GDPI and research

1999 Expenditure on S&T

Expenditure on S&T per capita

Expenditure on S&T as a percentage of GDPI

Expenditure on R&D per researcher

2000

2001

2002

2003

STA

101.27 108.61

112.94

119.44 124.88

R&D

55.03

56.88

57.47

62.31

STA

5.76

5.76

5.55

5.28

R&D

3.02

2.93

2.9

2.7

STA

0.55% 0.54%

0.52%

0.51%

R&D

0.29% 0.28%

0.27%

0.26%

STA

52.67

53.21

49.85

R&D

94.8

95.78

59.34

63.82

61.37

Source: RICYT (2003) STA: Science & technology activities

4

Science and Technology Indicator Network

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Table 5:

Expenditure on R&D by Financing Sector

Financing Sector

Percentage

Government

21.0%

Enterprises

25.0%

Higher Education

41.0%

Non-profit organizations

13.0%

Source: RICYT (2003)

Table 6:

GERD

GERD as % of GDP

0.28%

GERD by source of funds % Business Enterprise

Government

Higher Education

Private Nonprofit

Abroad

16.0%

20.0%

31.0%

19.0%

14.0%

Not distributed

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2002k, k= Country covered by RICYT

5.

Human resources in science and technology

In order to analyze the quantity and quality of human resources working in science and technology, it is necessary to look at the level of spending in this category in Bolivia. As we have already seen, this comes to 0.26% of Gross Domestic Product. In addition, total spending in R&D activities and technology has grown over the last decade.

The low level of spending corresponds to a small community of researchers, in terms of both the number of staff members involved in science and technology and innovation activities and the number of researchers working exclusively in this field. The university system therefore has 12,000 academic staff, of which around 800 works exclusively in this field, accounting for around 6.7% of total academic staff. In this regard, if we look at government research centres, we find that the 25 research centres identified account for 150 14

researchers, which means an average of six researchers per centre, a figure that is particularly low.

The statistics available reveal that the community of researchers in the country working in universities and in public and private centres is rather small, standing at no more than 2,800 people. Of these, most of them are professors-researchers, and doctorate interns and support staff account for the rest.

Table 7:

Head Count

FTE

S&T personnel (head count – Full Time) by sector

1999

2000

2001

2002

Researchers

1 050

1,050

1,200

n.d

PhD scholars/R&D assistants

30

30

50

n.d

Technicians

180

170

250

n.d

S&T services staff

50

60

150

n.d

Total

1,310

1,310

1,650

n.d

Researchers

570

570

1,000

1 000

PhD scholars/R&D assistants

30

30

50

40

Technicians

200

170

50

50

S&T services staff

30

50

100

100

Total

830

820

1,200

1,190

Source: RICYT (2003); n.d. No Data

We also found that most researchers belong to the field of natural and pure sciences, which accounts for 26%, followed by engineering and technology with 22% and by medical sciences with 23%. One thing that is interesting to note given the country’s productive features, is that only 16% of staff work in the field of agricultural sciences, which could weaken the 15

profile of the science and technology community. The number of researchers in social sciences and humanities is much lower, accounting for 10% and 3% respectively.

Another point to highlight is the training of the researcher community. In this regard, we found that only 20% of researchers have doctorate studies, while 40% have master’s studies and 30% have degrees. The remaining 10% have non-university higher education studies. This could be a critical indicator as, given the small number of researchers; it would entail difficulties in creating a critical mass with an adequate academic level.

Table 8:

Researchers per Thousand of Labour Force

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

0.36

0.37

0.36

0.35

0.38

0.20

0.20

0.19

0.32

Head Count FTE

2002

0.30


Table 9:

Researchers by Knowledge Field

1999

2000

2001

Natural Sciences

27.0%

27.0%

26.0%

Engineering and Tech.

20.0%

20.0%

22.0%

Medical Sciences

24.0%

24.0%

23.0%

Agro Sciences

15.0%

15.0%

16.0%

Social Sciences

10.0%

10.0%

10.0%

Humanities

4.0%

4.0%

3.0%

Source: RICYT (2003) 16

Table 10:

Researchers by level

2000

2001

PhD

20.0%

20.0%

Magister

35.0%

40.0%

Univ. degree or equivalent

40.0%

30.0%

Tertiary, not university

5.0%

10.0%


6.

Scientific production

In this section, we will analyze production in the field of science and technology in Bolivia focusing on two basic categories: the participation of Bolivian scientists in scientific publications, and patent applications. Before examining these points, we need to highlight one specific aspect of the structure of spending in science and technology and society in Bolivia. When we analyzed spending on science and technology in Bolivia, we found that an equal share was allocated to basic research and to applied research, and between them, they account for more than 80% of total spending.

We do not have specific data on a per-institution basis for the purposes of analyzing the publications of the Bolivian scientific community, which means we will study these publications in accordance with the different disciplines or fields of study involved.

As far as publications in SCI SEARCH are concerned, Bolivia held 14th place in terms of output by the scientific community in 20035 on a regional level with 129 publications, while, in terms of publications in PASCAL, it stood in 15th place in the region with 64 publications. With regard to publications in INSPEC, it held 16th place with three publications. In COMPENDEX, it was 18th with two publications, for Chemical Abstract it was 16th with 15 publications; for BIOSIS it was 16th with 41 publications; for MEDLINE it held 18th place with eight publications. In addition, for CAB International it was 14th with 44 publications; for ICYT it was 13th with three publications; for IME it came in at 16th with one publication, while for publications in CLASE it held 16th place with eight publications. Even though not that many publications are being produced in the country, its output is acceptable bearing in mind the level of spending on science and technology and the size of Bolivia’s scientific and technological community. 5

All the data provided are for 2003.

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Another indicator of a country’s scientific output, in terms of practical usage of knowledge for specific purposes, is patents, both applied for and granted. On analyzing the proportion of patents applied for in Bolivia, within the context of Latin America, we found that it was low. This proportion is lower still if we examine the number of patents that are actually granted. However, as is the case of publications, this low level of production is weighted by the small size of the scientific and technological community.

7.

Considerations on the profession of a researcher

It is difficult to go into detail in this category, as the information we have available is incomplete, but there are three aspects worthy of attention: the amount of compensation, the question of gender and the number of Bolivian scientists leaving the country – commonly referred to as brain drain.

As far as compensation is concerned, we do not have specific data, but we believe that the proportion of scientists working a full day compared to the total number of members in the community gives us some idea as to the possible compensation of these researchers. The high proportion of researchers working a full day out of the total number of researchers leads us to the conclusion that one set of members of the community enjoys an income that can be regarded as adequate at least.

The data obtained reveal that there is an imbalance between genders, especially in fields with higher levels of prestige and independence. This factor becomes apparent when we analyze the different categories of researchers in relation to the proportion of women involved. When we look at the overall figures, we find a situation of near parity, with 52% of the total accounted for by men and 48% by women. However, one point of concern in terms of the reproduction of inequality between the sexes in science and technology is the participation of women in terms of different categories. The discrepancy in the participation of men and women is more enhanced in the field of research, with 60% and 40%, respectively. Nevertheless, even more unsettling are the figures for doctorate students, in which the imbalance is increased to 70% men and 30% women.

Nevertheless, a higher degree of equality can be found in positions within the community entailing lower levels of responsibility and autonomy. In the support staff category, for instance, the ratios are reversed, with 60% of these positions held by women and 40% by men. In addition, a more balanced situation is found among service staff, of which 52% are men and 48% are women.

We have not obtained specific information with regard to the departure of scientists abroad – the so-called brain drain – but we do have some indirect indicators. When we examined statistics regarding applications for and the granting of patents, we found one highly relevant detail that is the ratio between the number of patents applied for by and granted to Bolivian scientists living in the country compared with those living abroad. On analyzing the number of patents granted, we saw for instance, that, in the last year we have information 18

for (2003), out of 300 applications for patents filed, scientists residing in Bolivia, as opposed to 240 who applied from abroad, presented 60. This discrepancy is repeated with the number of patents granted to residents in Bolivia (one) compared to those granted to applicants living abroad (six). We believe these data reveal the existence of a brain drain trend. Given, as we have seen, that we are dealing with a country with weak traditions and institutions in the field of science and technology, it is likely that some researchers would choose to pursue their careers abroad. It should be noted, however, that the question of the scientific brain drain in the case of Bolivia has not been detected in the different documents analyzed, which means there is no real awareness of this phenomenon.

8.

Informal structure of science and technology

In spite of the absence in Bolivia of any consolidated tradition and institutional system in the field of science and technology and innovation, we came across a paradox: while we have not encountered a large number of foundations and academies working to promote science and technology, we did manage to identify a significant number of publications on science and technology. Most of the activities intended to promote science and technology are performed by the university system and the foundations linked to the universities. The most dynamic sectors in relation to associations and foundations are the ones linked to culture and the country’s historic heritage. Similarly, the professional association system was found to be weak, to which end the associations relating to professional performance in liberal professions stand out more than scientific and technological activities.

Nonetheless, it is worth pointing out the significant number of publications written to report and discuss subjects relating to different scientific disciplines or the promotion of science and technology. More than 160 publications were identified in all (some of which no longer exist), their purpose being to report subjects relating to scientific and technological knowledge.6 Equally, worthy of note is that in this category, the Bolivian university system plays a key role in reporting science and technology and innovation, as well as in creating a scientific community that finances and publishes most of the country’s scientific publications that appear on a regular basis with the aim of reporting the findings of research.

This plethora of publications leads us to believe that there is a portion of the population that is interested in this type of subject and which extends beyond the people involved directly in professional activities in the field of science and technology and innovation. The main features of the government’s performance in connection with activities to promote science and technology include, first, the reporting of information among the scientific community. This task is performed mainly through websites on which most of the information provided relates to different state programs, grants available on both a national and international level, and the reporting of scientific activities inside and outside the country among researchers. As far as the other sectors of society are concerned, the main promotional task carried out by the State is centred on running the country’s 30 museums.

6

Latin American Guide for the Public Administration of Science. Organization of American States for Education, Science and Culture

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9.

Scientific cooperation and agreements

We have found that there are international cooperation programs run by different universities, but we have not managed to obtain any statistics or lists with figures on how many projects were carried out in this field.

The role of international cooperation in financing science and technology in Bolivia is important. In this regard, substantial contributions by NGOs and foreign sources were found, accounting for 23 per cent of total funds provided to scientific and technological research. This figure is one of the highest in Latin America, in terms of both the proportion provided and the total amount involved. It is possible that the weakness of policies aimed at promoting science and technology on the part of the Bolivian authorities has encouraged universities and research centres to look for funding from abroad to make up for such shortcomings.

10.

Conclusion

In spite of the efforts made recently, development in the field of research and innovation has been slow. The volume and structure of spending, the characteristics of the research community and scientific output highlight this in general, in terms of both publications and patents.

The different structures put forward in different periods indicate the clear influence of the recommendations and experiences in a regional and international context: starting with more centralized institutions and moving towards a more complex system, which involves the participation of a number of players, and emphasizing a decentralized structure that requires the involvement of local actors. Nonetheless, most of the institutions created failed to achieve their objectives, were unable to operate in a systematic manner or were just not created at all due to the lack of regulations that would have provided their actions with a framework. These aspects give rise to a system in which the specific roles and attributes of the different institutions, as well as the coordination mechanisms, are not clearly defined. We believe that the consequences of this situation include the absence of sustained programs with relevant funding to support the sector.

The recent change of government led to a novel approach to the Science and Technology and Innovation System, with enhanced interest in innovation and a more direct relationship between scientific and technological knowledge and the productive sector. However, we have noted the presence of difficulties during this transition period regarding both regulation and the centralism of the Department of Science and Technology (DGCYT) which depends on the Deputy Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology. As a result, the question of which institutional structure should be implemented to further the cause of Science and Technology and Innovation in the National Development Plan, introduced by the recently elected government, remains open. it could also be mentioned that it is leading towards integrating the theme of indigenous knowledge and their recovery. This discussion is already formally included in the science and research policy. 20

Table 11:

Some basic indicators of the Bolivian performance in science technology and innovation in international comparison

Invest. / Perc. GDPI

Invest./ capita

Argentina

0,39

Bolivia

per

Invest. / research

Research / Labour force

Patents

Rate of Dep.

Public / SCI.

Public / SCI/ population

Pub / SCI / research

9,86

13,86

1,63

1.062

5,2

5.581

15,2

21,4

0.26

2.7

49.85

0.38

300

6,5

129

1,4

10,3

Brazil

1,04

36,67

96,62

0,78

10.002

1,4

15.854

9,1

20,0

Canada

1,88

440,31

133,57

6,41

5.737

16,2

40.513

129,0

37,9

Costa Rica

0,39

17,75

-

1,53

-

-

278

7,0

-

Cuba

0,62

16,85

31,30

1,15

147

1,3

635

5,6

10,5

Chile

0,60

26,72

55,89

1,08

407

8,0

2.655

17,6

36,7

EEUU

2,64

960,03

217,42

8,77

164.795

0,8

331.538

115,1

25,1

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Table 11 Continued

Invest. / Perc. GDPI

Invest./ capita

Spain

1,03

México

per

Invest. / research

Research / Labour force

Patents

Rate of Dep.

Public / SCI.

Public / SCI/ population

Pub / SCI / research

162,35

81,51

5,09

3.464

46,4

28.409

67,9

34,1

0,39

24,84

95,26

0,64

526

23,8

5.995

5,9

22,0

Paraguay

0,10

0,98

11,93

0,18

10

25,1

36

0,7

7,9

Portugal

0,84

90,30

52,47

3,34

97

1154,4

4.619

44,8

22,6

Uruguay

0,22

9,59

26,09

1,00

34

17,3

398

11,8

32,0


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