March 02-03, 2015 ABSTRACTS

International Conference on Postcolonial Societies in Transition

March 02-03, 2015

ABSTRACTS

Edited by EA Gamini Fonseka, Upali Pannilage and GDRUU Abeyratne

Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka 1

Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences University of Ruhuna Wellamadama MATARA Sri Lanka © Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. The authors are responsible for the ideas presented in the respective abstracts. National Library of Sri Lanka – Cataloguing-in-Publication Data International Conference on Postcolonial Societies in Transition Abstracts Edited by EA Gamini Fonseka, Upali Pannilage and GDRUU Abeyratne – Matara Author: 2015 184 pp. : 7.17 x 10.12 cm ISBN 978-955-1507-38-1 Price: 00 i. 822 DDC21 ii. Title Postcolonialism, Society, Culture, Transition

Cover Design and Desktop Editing: EA Gamini Fonseka Printed at WAS Printers, Bandarawela (Sri Lanka)

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Contents

Message of Vice Chancellor – University of Ruhuna

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Message of Conference Chair – ICPST

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Organizers of the Conference

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Referees

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Foreword

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Citation – Keynote Speaker, Professor Emeritus Gerald Porter

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Keynote Address

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Citation – Plenary Speaker, Professor M.J. Vinod

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Plenary Address

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Guide to Technical Sessions and Abstracts

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Technical Session 1: Economy and Development

51-64

Technical Session 2: Environment, Ecology and Technology

67-84

Technical Session 3: Health and Hygiene

87-93

Technical Session 4: History, Archaeology and Tourism

97-110

Technical Session 5: Language and Education

113-130

Technical Session 6: Art and Culture

133-150

Technical Session 7: Political Changes

153-166

Technical Session 8: Society and Social Issues

169-184

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Message from Vice Chancellor - University of Ruhuna I am sending this message to the proceedings of the “Sri Lanka’s Postcolonial Legacy 1815-2015: International Conference on Postcolonial Societies in Transition (ICPST)” organized by the Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences, University of Ruhuna to commemorate the takeover of Island’s sovereignty by the British Empire on 2nd March 1815. Though it is not a pleasant thing for a nation to commemorate the loss of country’s sovereignty as the academics we may have many things to learn about this incident. Therefore, first of all, I, as the Vice Chancellor of University of Ruhuna, wish to offer my congratulations to the Dean of the Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences and the organizers of “ICPST” for their efforts to make this event a success. During the period of 1505 to 1948, Portugal, Holland and Great Britain invaded and exploited Sri Lanka by colonizing them. This rushed to conquer and dominate land and resources and disrupt the lives of people. Although the colonial era ended with national liberation movements in the 1940s, nearly four centuries of foreign control left many of their marks on our country. Colonial legacy is a term used to describe such marks left by these invasive colonial rulers. In Sri Lanka like in many areas of the world, colonialism brought a dramatic change in many facets of society, including government structure and organization, political practices and even economics. The changes of Sri Lankan culture, economy and society due to colonialism have impacted the country positively as well as negatively in the postcolonial period from 1948 to date. Better health facilities, infrastructure development, English medium education, democracy etc. can be considered as positive impacts of colonialism. However, political strife, plantation mentality, loss of traditions can be considered as some of the negative impacts. During the colonial period, over exploitation of natural resources, use of Sri Lanka for marketing colonial products, formation of English speaking elite society and many such disturbing changes were taken place. I believe neocolonialism is the biggest postcolonial legacy that took place in Sri Lanka. Therefore, I consider this conference will provide a platform for scholars to argue their views on different aspects of postcolonial legacy. Once again I extend my congratulations to the organizers of the Conference and wish them all success. I wish all the best for all paper presenters and participants.

Senior Professor Gamini Senanayake Vice Chancellor University of Ruhuna 15/02/2015

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Message from Conference Chair - ICPST “Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man.” Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Satisfying the fundamental concerns of a nexus of epistemological practices within a university, as projected by the 16th Century English philosopher Francis Bacon in a nutshell in terms of reading, conferencing and writing leading to the formation of an individual thorough, vigilant and accurate in perception of the truth, it is timely to organize this conference addressing issues of the postcolonial societies in transition at the completion of 200 years of Sri Lanka’s experience of British colonialism. This takes university away from its traditional ivory tower boundaries and sets it in confrontation with burning problems precipitated by colonization, the most significant socio-cultural and political phenomenon in the world shortly before and after the European Renaissance. From the 100 odd abstracts received for presentation it is clear the message of the conference has already reached a large number of academics from a wide spectrum of disciplines actively engaged in research in their respective fields from a postcolonial perspective. It is clear from their work that no academic can bypass or evade postcolonialism in whatever discipline he or she specializes. Therefore, I am proud to state that this conference sheds light on the academic alertness and vigil of the Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences as well as the University of Ruhuna. If not for the tremendous support of Senior Professor Gamini Senanayake, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Ruhuna, the Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences, the Senate, the Council, the administrative staff, the nonacademic staff and the minor staff of the University of Ruhuna, the generous financial assistance of the funding organization, the commitment of the service providers, and the dedication of the conference committee this exercise would not be a success at all. Therefore I express my sincere gratitude to all of them.

Professor S. Wawwage Chair – ICPST 2015 (Dean – Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences) University of Ruhuna 20/02/2015

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Organizers of the Conference Advisory Committee Snr. Prof. Gamini Senanayake (Chair) Snr. Prof. Sarath Amerasinghe Prof. Sumanasiri Wawwage Prof. EA Gamini Fonseka Prof. P. Hewage Prof. KG Amarasekara Mr. Senarath Gamage Dr. Upul Abeyratne Dr. BM Sumanaratne Dr. MV Chandrasiri Dr. SS Thenabadu Chief Organizers Conference Chair

- Prof. S. Wawwage

Co-Secretaries

- Prof. EA Gamini Fonseka - Dr. Upul Abeyrathne

Overall Coordinator

- Mr Upali Pannilage

Editorial Board Prof. E.A. Gamini Fonseka Mr. Upali Pannilage Dr. Upul Abeyratne Mr. Senarath Gamage Rev. Dr Kattakaduwe Chandhawimala Mr. Indrajee De Zoysa Mrs. Indu Gamage Mr. Ruwan Gunawardhana Mr. S.G.S. Samaraweera Mr. KSGS Nishantha Ms Wasana Pushpananda Mr. M.S.M.L. Karunarathne Mr. Manoj Darshana Bandara

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Referees Prof. S. Wawwage Prof. E.A. Gamini Fonseka Prof. Sarath Amarasinghe Prof. P. Hewage Prof. Sarath Lekamwasam Prof. Nawarathna Bandara Prof. Raj Somadeva Prof. Anura Kumara Prof. Gamini Keerawella Dr. Upul Abeyrathne Dr. Nirmal Ranjith Devasiri Dr. Tissa Hematrathne Dr. Samantha Kumara Dr. Harshani Dissanayake Dr. Indi Akurugoda Mr. Upali Pannilage Mr. G. Senerath Mr. Seevali Bandara Manathunga Mr. Rohan Laksiri Mr. Sampath Hemakumara

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Foreword Numerous are the historical records of colonization throughout the world. Colonization and exploration are two processes that went hand in hand throughout the history. The earliest form of exploration took place for the purpose of meeting the basic survival needs and then it turned into a process of pleasure and manhood test when humans started living in communities confined to regular settlements. In the course of moving from plainness to complexity, the humans developed an insatiable desire to collect wealth, and the adventure of exploration became an expedition of rampage to loot the wealth of the others. The practices evolved in this concern in a spirit of exploration of new territories became a matter of symbolic identity among communities. However, with the emergence of capitalism it resulted in the exploration of wealth mines and markets in previously unknown territories and the collection of wealth to fill the coffers of the explorers. For the purpose of long-term exploitation of the wealth belonging to the new territories colonization schemes of various patterns developed. In certain territories, the local communities were assimilated into the culture of the colonizer almost to the full. In certain others, a selected few were assimilated so as to create a loyal segment of the native community that could be strategically manipulated in all attempts to rule the masses with the twin objective of sustainability of the market economies and inculcation in the natives values of the colonizer. Compared to the Francophone colonies such as Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, Sri Lanka’s experience of Anglophone colonization took a different form. While the French culture flowed into every nook and corner of the French Colonies, in Sri Lanka the British Culture remained confined to a privileged few who were mobilized to control the others. The low cost assimilation style of British Colonialism seems to have proved very effective while looking at how powerfully the systems of law and order, governance and administration, education and technology, health and medicine, etc. have been influenced by British models. The task of colonizing the native community of Sri Lanka became somewhat easier for the British because of the exposure they had previously received to Portuguese and Dutch powers since 1505. However, because of their longprevailed intellectual traditions and the long-standing resistance to foreign invasions, the natives of Sri Lanka did not get totally converted to the values of the British community. They are still undergoing a radical process of transition.

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Concerning the transition, it is timely that the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka has organized this conference to provide a forum for scholars of colonial and postcolonial studies throughout the globe to share their research, remarks, observations, ideas, views, opinions, arguments, positions, theories, models, and discoveries about various subjects in a wide spectrum of related disciplines. It is said that research confined to nation states and new nation states is a bygone, social, cultural, political and economic phenomenon in the postmodern, late capitalist or global world order being experienced today. Therefore the topic of the conference, formulated so as to mark the 200 years of Sri Lanka’s British colonial heritage which is to culminate on the 2nd of March, 2015, has a great deal of currency. The geo-space known as the island of Sri Lanka has been under many different foreign influences right from the very beginning of its human habitation. The British captured the island in its entirety on the 2nd of March, 1815 and vigorously propagated on it their system of values in culture, economy, politics, religion, administration, technology, industry, health, education, etc. Colonialism has made similar impacts throughout the world wherever it had its vested interests. Nations in the colonized world experience both positive and negative conditions engendered by their respective colonial regimes. In this context the moment at which Sri Lanka completes 200 years of colonial legacy provides an appropriate occasion to reflect on colonialism with a view to obtaining critical assessment of the experience, developing new strategies and models for the former colonial societies to follow while facing the challenges of future, and defining the possible contributions such societies could make to the betterment of life on the planet earth. This conference is a nexus of contributions of so many individuals and institutions made in a spirit of epistemological endeavour. On behalf the organizing committee, we express our sincere gratitude to: Senior Professor Gamini Senanayake, Vice Chancellor – University of Ruhuna for his timely advice and guidance and generous cooperation and support; the Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences, the Senate, the Council, the Administrative Staff and the Nonacademic Staff of the University of Ruhuna for their assistance; Keynote Speaker Professor Emeritus Gerald Porter of the University of Vaasa, Finland, for his offer to grace the conference as Chief Guest; Plenary Speaker Professor M.J. Vinod of the University of Bangalore, India for his offer to grace the conference as Guest of Honour; Presenters of Papers, Participants, and Well-wishers for their commitment; the funding organizations – the H&SS Faculty Development Fund and the ELTU Development Fund of the University of Ruhuna, the University Grants

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Commission, the Bank of Ceylon, the People’s Bank, the Commercial Bank and the Southern Provincial Council for financing various aspects of the conference; the service providers – the Hotel Pearl Cliff and the Hotel Sanaya at Matara and the WAS Printers at Bandarawela for their excellent service in their respective sectors. Finally, we wish the outcome of this highly intellectual exercise will assist all who are interested in developing solutions to various problems faced by postcolonial societies in transition.

EA Gamini Fonseka & GDRUU Abeyratne Co-Secretaries – ICPST 20/02/2015

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Citation – Professor Emeritus Gerald Porter It is a great privilege for me to introduce to this august audience Dr Gerald David Julian PORTER, Professor Emeritus of English Literature and Culture of the Department of English, University of Vaasa, Finland. Professor Porter was born in Cambridge, UK, on the 26th of December 1946. He earned both his B.A. (Hon.) and M.A. (Hon.) Degrees in English Language and Literature from the Department of English at the University of Oxford in UK. Thereafter he earned his Licentiate of Philosophy and Doctor of Philosophy degrees from the Department of English at the University of Umeå in Sweden. The dissertations he produced for these "Variability in Four Traditional Ballads" and "The English Occupational Song" remain authoritative works in British oral culture. His forty-three year long illustrious academic career (1970-2013) spans over a wide range of full-time appointments as Lecturer in English, Senior Lecturer in English, Associate Professor in English and Professor of English Literature and Culture respectively in the universities of Oulu, Turku, Åbo Akademi and Vaasa. In addition, he acted as Visiting Lecturer at the University of Sheffield Department of English, Visiting Research Fellow at the University of Durham Department of English, and Visiting Professor of English, Shandong University, Jinan, China. The contribution he made to the academia became official because of the numerous respected administrative positions and positions of responsibility he held such as Member of Teaching and Research Committee, Member and Chair of the Department Council, Department of English, Oulu University and Member of the Steering Committee for Teacher Training programme, Deputy Member of International Affairs Working group, Sexual Harassment Contact Officer for Faculties of Production Economics, Humanities and Social Sciences, Member of the Steering Committee for the Intercultural Studies (ICS) MA programme, Member, Equal Rights Committee, Deputy Member of University Senate, Member of Faculty Council of the Faculty of Humanities, Deputy Head of the Department of English, Head of the Department of English, Vaasa University. As Member of Finnish Literature Society, Kommission für Volksdichtung/International Ballad Commission, International Society for Folk Narrative Research, English Folk Dance and Song Society and Contributor to Enzyklopädie des Märchens (de Gruyter, Berlin), Executive Committee Member of Nordic Irish Studies Network, Equal Opportunities and Sexual Harassment Officer for Humanities Social Sciences Faculties, Member and deputy Chair of FINSSE (Finnish Society for the Study of English) board , Board Member Deputy Chair and Chair of Vaasa Research Group for LSP, Multilingualism and Translation Theory (VAKKI), Co-opted member of the

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Scientific Committee, 13th European Symposium on LSP, Vaasa, Corresponding member for Finland for Kommission für Erzählforschung in der Deutsche Gesellschaft für Volkskunde, Freiburg, Member of Electoral College, Vaasa University, and Examiner and Supervisor for MA and Doctoral theses, he always succeeded in introducing profundity through his firsthand experience of the real life products and practices of language, art, literature, and culture into his academic exercises. In addition to being a university teacher, educational administrator, intellectual, critic, adjudicator and guiding star in cultural studies, Professor Porter is an erudite scholar and a prolific writer. His main publications are Singing the Changes: Variation in Four Traditional Ballads, The English Occupational Song and Fragments and Meaning in Traditional Songs from the Blues to the Baltic(2003) with Mary Ann Constantine. There are 37 refereed articles to his credit. He has produced 47 items as other published articles and 50 items as Reviews, Introductions and Newspaper Articles. Also there are four online Coursebooks with Teaching Material (4 publications) uploaded by him on the website Cultures of the English-speaking World http://www.eng.umu.se/culturec/. He also edited with others the collections of articles known as Beyond Ireland: Encounters across Cultures, Riots in Literature, Imagined States: Identity and Longing in Oral Cultures, The Evidence of Literature. Interrogating Texts in English Studies, Dangerous Crossing. Papers of Transgression in Literature and Culture: News that Stays News, The Enactment of Present and Future in American Literature, and LSP and Theory of Translation. He was also Member of Editorial Board a considerable number of voluminous publications: The Flowering Thorn. International Ballad Studies published by Utah State University Press in 2003 under the editorship of Thomas Mckean; The High-Kilted Muse. Peter Buchan and his Secret Songs of Silence published in Aberdeen, Scotland, in 2010, under the editorship of Murray Shoolbraid; Up Yon Wide and Lonely Glen published by University Press of Mississippi in 2012 under the editorship of Elizabeth StewartandBallads in the Street, the Interface between Oral and Print Traditions published by Ashgate in 2014 under the editorship of David Atkinson and Steve Roud. Professor Emeritus Gerald Porter, Sir, on behalf of the University of Ruhuna and the organizing committee for Sri Lanka’s Postcolonial Legacy 1815-2015: International Conference on Postcolonial Societies in Transition let me announce the floor is yours.

Professor EA Gamini Fonseka Head – ELTU, University of Ruhuna

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More Interlude than Empire: Displacing Colonialism and the Power of the Word Gerald Porter Professor Emeritus of English Literature & Culture University of Vaasa, Finland Today we are said to live in a period called postcolonialism. The finite period of colonialism is long over: the British occupation of Ceylon lasted a historically limited period (133 years, and the name Ceylon lasted only another 24 years before the ancient name of Sri Lanka was restored. Nevertheless, the period left an indelible mark not only on the buildings and monuments of both countries. The Palestinian critic Edward Said in his book Orientalism (1978) famously suggested that colonialism and empire are words that are focused on a distant Other, or “Us and Them,” and the identity of the West was produced in its own dialectical relationship to the Orient. His book was hugely influential and his conclusions were soon extended to all countries then identified with the “Third World.” For example, the Ghanaian writer Ama Ata Aidoo’s short story collection No Sweetness Here included examples of the mimicking of whiteness by West African women (hair-straightening, face creams, even wigs worn like a hat as a kind of parody of European hair); “For Whom Things did not Change” showed the way that money and education was synonymous with the West, while ‘underdevelopment’ was reserved for former colonial states. Aidoo’s book was published as late as 1970, at the same time as Walter Rodney (1972) had shown that the word “underdevelopment” should rather be regarded as a transitive verb, as a process imposed on the poor by the rich world. Poststructuralists have made us aware that such binaries as Occident/Orient and underdeveloped/developed are unstable, and in particular have made us suspicious of the existence of homogeneous national identities. This paper suggests that the way in which this process was represented in the songs and the speech of this historically brief period of colonization by the English, and in the literature which followed, was already polysemic. It further suggests that the undermining of the ideologies of the colonial period has progressed to the point where a better description would be that proposed recently by the poet John Drew, “more Interlude than Empire” (2015: iii). Empire, which began with slavery, can be seen as a vast process of displacement, of goods, of ideas, of capital and above all of people, the great diasporas which are such a feature of the modern world and of which I, my family before me, and many of you here, have been a part. The project of building an empire, which was, of course, primarily focused on land, raw materials and consumer goods, became simplified in popular culture to a small series of stereotypes: the Christian faith, education and monocultures (tea,

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bananas, cocoa).Correspondingly, local and diverse practices came to stand for the ‘exotic’ at the same time as they were standardised: thus eating practices were reduced to pabulum, 'ethnic food', a mere object of consumption on their arrival in the ‘mother country’. This paper sees this not just as a movement of people but a return of the repressed. In recent years the echo of empire has continued with the vast movement of people across the verb, as refugees or migrant workers, leading to the growth of diasporas, which Homi Bhabha called “the scattering of the people . . . in the nations of others” (1990: 291). The role of Orality In the song culture of English-speaking nations this process was represented ambiguously: on the one hand the ideology of Empire appeared in the casual racism and stereotyping of experience, while on the other, singers and audiences alike were conscious that their place was not with the imperial elite but with those who were being exploited. These feelings became concentrated in a few discrete areas which came to stand for the whole: the body, work and occupation. In recent years the role of vernacular and popular song has been recognized as giving access to the ‘lost voices’ of that period. A thriving culture of cheap printed song texts underpins the oral culture of the eighteenth to twentieth centuries. For example, more than a hundred song sheets of the time refer to India and Ceylon, mostly but not always in jingoistic terms. These voices are not unmediated: all discourse is a system of regulation and one person’s Mutiny is another’s War of Independence. However, the jingoistic messages of the London broadsheets were often challenged. In 1970, soon after his country’s independence, the Ugandan poet and philosopher Okot p’Bitek asserted not only the significance but the primacy of local praxis in the form of social institutions, worldviews, oral methods of recoding and recall, proverbs and mythology. For example, he asserted that the Acoli idea of a high god was a recent phenomenon, “a creation of the missionaries”, since African pantheons such as that of the Luo and the Acoli were in fact non-hierarchical (quoted in Masolo 2004: 91, 93). In this way he directly challenged European monotheism. He showed how missionaries gave higher status to written sacred texts, codified doctrines and a centre or centres of authority than to the oral culture of his own people, the Acoli, which was diffuse, polyglossic and resistant to control from above (Masolo 2004: 86). His most famous work, The Song of Lawino (1966) is an oral performance with a long history, the complaint of a woman about her husband. It challenges a discourse which regards prose and print as the only acceptable mode of philosophical debate, a position which the heroine, Lawino, sees as explicitly gendered. She regards print culture as Other, a Trojan horse which is displacing the value system which the Acoli have developed through praxis. In the spirit of the missionaries, her husband Ocol is constantly trying to silence the voices that he hears around him:

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He says He does not want To hear noises[,] That children’s cries Disturb him. (67) He does this so as to replace the voices of his own people, their oral beliefs and traditions, with foreign texts: as Lawino puts it, “My Husband’s House is a Dark Forest of Books” (p’Bitek 1984: 113). This is analogous to the notorious shelf-ful of European books which, in his famous Minute on Education of 1835, the historian Thomas Babington Macaulay considered would replace the whole of Indian literature: he believed that “the intellectual and imaginative wealth of the world was laid up” in English literature (Boehmer 1995: 53). In this way poems on daffodils and skylarks, and novels on young girls competing for husbands in country houses set in parks, all unheard of in Africa, became part of a “universal” education in humanities. However, Homi Bhabha has emphasized that there is a paradox in such discourses of colonialism: they simultaneously represent “rigidity and an unchanging order as well as disorder, degeneracy and daemonic repetition” (1983: 18). Thus Acoli gods or spirits such as jajuoks (nocturnal, morally bad individuals or spirits) were sometimes incorporated into Christianity as “devils” (Masolo 2004: 90). The assertion of a specific African philosophy, which began in the 1960s in the years following decolonization (Mbiti 1969), was openly counterhegemonic, aspiring to reconstruct the new societies on the ruins left by colonialism. This is seen in the lively debate between the adversarial world views of husband and wife in p’Bitek’s songs of Lawino and Ocol. Like p’Bitek himself, Lawino, the woman, argues for a traditionalist philosophy which is constructed from African peoples’ morality, oral tradition, ethics, religion, folklore; in short from their collective world view or metaphysics. His challenge to the universality of Western philosophy places him close to a pragmatist position. By decentering and defamiliarizing belief systems like Christianity, introduced to Africa very recently in historical terms, p’Bitek makes of The Song of Lawino a text of what the American philosopher Fredric Jameson (1981) calls ressentiment, of the Empire Writing Back (Ashcroft etc., 1998). Disaffection and displacement The oppositional “Us and Them” model of colonialism was already undermined by the time of the gradual occupation of Ceylon by the British at the end of the 18th century. By that time parts of Ireland had already been colonized for six hundred years. As early as 1726 the Irishman Jonathan Swift had described the unwillingness of Gulliver to support England’s overseas adventures, describing the process of colonisation in this way:

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A Crew of Pyrates are driven by a Storm they know not whither; at length a Boy discovers Land from the Top-mast; they go on Shore to rob and plunder; they see an harmless People, are entertained with Kindness, they give the Country a new name, they take formal possession of it for the King, they set up a rotten Plank or a Stone for a Memorial, they murder two or three Dozen of the Natives, bring away a Couple more by force for a Sample, return home, and get their pardon. Here commences a new Dominion acquired with a Title by Divine Right. Ships are sent with the first Opportunity; the Natives driven out or destroyed, their Princes tortured to discover their gold; a free Licence given to all Acts of Inhumanity and Lust; the Earth reeking with the Blood of its Inhabitants; and this execrable Crew of Butchers employed in so pious an Expedition, is a modern Colony sent to convert an idolatrous and barbarous People. (Swift 1965: 284) It is significant that the ‘Crew of Pyrates’ that Swift describes would have included numerous Scottish and Irish soldiers as well as English ones: Paul Muldoon’s title ‘Meeting the British’ for the nineteenth century encounter with native Americans is well-chosen, since by the mid-century Irish soldiers made up a third of the British army (Palmer 1988: 286). Ireland’s hybrid role as both conquered and conqueror is seen in a very popular song in which a girl greets her crippled sweetheart with bitter irony on his return from suppressing an uprising in Ceylon: You haven’t an arm, you haven’t a leg, huroo! huroo! (3 times) You’re an eyeless, noseless, chickenless egg You’ll have to be put in a bowl to beg, Och, Johnny I hardly knew ye! ... I’m happy for to see you home, huroo! huroo! All from the island of Sulloon [Ceylon], So low in flesh, so high in bone, Och, Johnny I hardly knew ye!1 ”Johnny I hardly knew ye” was one of James Joyce’s favourite songs and is frequently quoted by him in both Ulysses and Finnegan’s Wake (see Gifford 1988: 99, 300, 517). While social history cannot be simply “read off” from this song, it is clear that this refers to an actual uprising: the song was first published in 1887 and there were several insurrections before this date such as the civil uprising of 1848, harshly suppressed by the Governor, Lord Torrington.

From Irish Minstrelsy, edited by H. H. Sparling (1887), reprinted in G. Grigson, ed. Penguin Book of Ballads (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 297. “Huroo” is an AngloIrish corruption of the Irish ‘a rúin’ meaning ‘my darling’. 1

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The song is particularly striking for taking the form of a lament, which undermines the glamour of war. The Irish were themselves involved in a quite different form of displacement at the time, a process of uprooting and mass emigration which can be compared with that experienced by slaves and forced labourers (the Indian in Uganda or Trinidad, or the Chinese ‘coolie’ in Australia) but has become a condition of the modern world in the form of the migrant worker and the mercenary soldier. Michael Ondaatje (from Sri Lanka to Canada), Peter Abrahams (migration within South Africa), Jean Rhys and Sam Selvon (from Jamaica to London) and many others have described the life and psychology of the migrant, the cultural exile who is regarded as an uninvited and unwelcome stranger. The process of finding one’s own voice under these conditions is most strongly seen in the adaptation of a form of oral expression widely practiced by women and the disempowered, the lament. A lament is not only used of the dead: its primary function is to allow the living to show their feelings of sorrow, but also anger and resistance: Arab women used their shrill ululation to oppose French colonialism during the anticolonial struggle in Algeria in the 1950s (Savolainen 2009: 113), a reminder that grieving has traditionally been performed by women. In the same way, the keening of the Irish in defeat from the seventeenth century onwards, repeatedly mocked in London street ballads of the time, had an oppositional quality as well (Porter 2010: 185). Lawrence Grossberg maintains that such forms of expression are constituted “by a project of or struggle over empowerment, an empowerment which energizes and connects specific social moments and subject-positions” (1996: 168). This use of laments to express dissent was undoubtedly one of the reasons why they were often strongly opposed as unchristian (Ling 1997: 59, 61; Lysaght 1997: 66). Thus at the funeral of the greatly-admired singer Joe Heaney in Co. Galway in 1984, the singer Maíre Davitt was refused permission by the priest to sing a lament in the church unless it was a sacred one (Ó Laoire 2005: 276). Songs of migration In Ireland, it was songs of migration in particular that took on some of the features of the formal lament: in Lillis Ó Laoire’s words, “the secular song tradition drew some of [the Catholic Church’s] functions to itself” (2005: 279). One reason for this was because the practice of taking leave of an intending migrant through the night before departure for Australia or the United States often bore great similarity to the ritual associated with night-long watching over the dead. Since death has been associated with the crossing of water since classical, indeed Ancient Egyptian times, it was, not unnaturally, the sea-crossing that was symbolically associated with dying: the possibility of shipwreck in the “coffin ships,” the overloaded and unseaworthy vessels on the Atlantic route,

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the liminality of the sea-boundary and the unlikelihood, in the early days, of return all intersected with the preoccupations of mourners contemplating death. It was seen as the final adventure. It was said that you could have walked dry-footed to North America on the bodies of those who had died on the voyage (Harte 2004: [25]). This huge displacement of Irish people across the Atlantic can be compared to the present dangerous sea crossings between North Africa and the European Union. Incidentally, it also led to the movement of large numbers of singers, which in turn brought about the dispersal of song traditions to North America, the Indian subcontinent and Australia and permanently affected their oral culture. The conditions of the sea passage themselves gave rise to huge numbers of songs (Moulden 1994), many written on arrival in the United States, but just as many composed and performed by those who stayed behind. Thus Geordie Hanna of Co. Tyrone expressed the ordeal of the Atlantic crossing vividly in this stanza of “Erin’s Lovely Home” (c.1845): We hadn’t been long sailing till fever it seized our crew, Falling like the autumn leaves and overboard were threw; The ocean waves they rolled o’er our graves and our bed’s the ocean foam, Our friends may mourn for we’ll ne’er return to Erin’s Lovely Home. (Moulden 1994: 30). This stanza gives a good idea of the pervasive melancholy of such songs, with its Biblical intertext of human lives falling like leaves in the autumn and the idea of the ocean as a vast graveyard, a passage to the other world, like the River Styx. The fever mentioned in the first line was typhus, which spread easily among the passengers and crew in the crowded conditions on board. In those conditions songs of exile functioned as close relatives of the lament, with émigrés as the “walking dead”. Within this tradition they can be seen as songs of loss, of a people unsettled, whose lives have been ruptured and suffered a kind of “little death”. In Newfoundland, on the eastern seaboard of North America, where the Irish diaspora is strong, laments are still composed and performed in traditional style (Greenleaf 2004: 142-45; Irish Descendants 1991). Next, like the laments, the songs dwell on the spirit of the place that is being left behind as much as the hope of paradise, whether in heaven or Ohio. This is seen in the frequent memories of a carefree childhood, or a desperate backward look at the lost homeland, which appears in songs of emigration from a very early date, such as “Greencastle Shore” (c. 1825), here given in a version collected by the song collector and scholar Hugh Shields on the Magilligan peninsula in Derry town in 1954: From scene to scene my fond eye roved over mountain, hill and dale,

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Till resting on dear Walworth’s groves well talked [o’ertopped] by Drumnamail, My agonizing heart did swell; my soul was troubled sore, Viewing these scenes I left behind upon the GreencastleShore. . . Next morning we were all seasick . . . (Shields1981:87. The verse is intercalated into a version by John Fleming recorded 15 years later) Many songs of exile written (for they were first published on broadsides and thus very text-bound) in the spirit of national Romanticism showed the mother standing weeping on the dock or at the departure gate to mourn the parting son. She was not only a mother but as a symbol of free nationhood, in this case Róisin Dubh, the poor old woman of Ireland, a motif or mythical figure representing the Irish nation. Such a tableau made an appeal to the departed hero to return to rescue her from danger and revive the spirit of the nation. The dream of such a return is a belief which has sustained many an ethnic group through times of crisis. Such representations of women were undoubtedly stylized and reductive, like the shamrock for Ireland. Occasional references in rebel songs to “mothers, wives and sweethearts” waiting far away (see, for example, Heaney 2000: 48) suggest a world without women not dissimilar to that of the British military force that was being resisted. However, these songs should be seen not in the context of their composition but of their performance, against the grain of their often literary language and overblown idealization of an Ireland where it never rains. Cultural texts are not inscribed with permanent meanings: the meaning of these songs is constructed and negotiated with each new performance by the singers in what Lawrence Grossberg has called a “politics of feeling, a response to power which was more nuanced than one structured purely in terms of the ideology of nationalism” (1997: 171). Diaspora Joep Leerssen (Beller and Leerssen 2007: 342-3) uses the term “hetero-image” to describe the version of the Other found in popular representations such as jokes, proverbs or songs. At the same time these songs also create auto-images of Scottish, Irish and English cultural identity (Porter 2001: 101-35). The heteroimage has a tendency to doubling: the same passage may have both idealizing and demonizing features. This is seen in the Irish song “George's Quay, or the Forgetful Sailor”: The vessel crossed the harbour bar, Her course was set for foreign waters, To China where they’re very wise And drown at birth their surplus daughters.

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(O Lochlainn 1978: 176-77) Here the eighteenth century Sinophile concept of China as the Asian counterpart of European Enlightenment and civilization is juxtaposed with the imperialist nineteenth century one of a land of barbarians (Beller and Leerssen 2007: 127-8) in a way which see sees otherness as a binary to be romanticized or demonized rather than as a complex web of mutual influences. Since Chinatowns began to be set up in European cities as in America, often having an impact on the demographic structure of localities, there were also bemused references to stereotypical features in the appearance of the Chinese (such as the queue or “pigtail” and the opium pipe) and their occupations (taking in washing and serving food). This was not a recognition of the plurality of identities that was characteristic of Europeans but a reduction of China to a series of disjunctive objects, recalling the dismemberment of the country itself between the European powers, beginning with the Opium Wars. Blithe joking references to the explosive effects of so-called gunpowder tea conceal a serious trade imbalance which was to have violent consequences: at the beginning of the nineteenth century Britain imported between three and seven times as much from China as she exported in the form of cloth and textiles, and as a result she forced China to import opium to make up the deficit (Roberts 2003: 247; Bai 2002: 381). This led to a war in 1840 of which the Liberal Member of Parliament (and later Prime Minister) W. E. Gladstone said: ‘a war more unjust in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with disgrace, I do not know and I have not read of’ (Roberts 2003: 252). It is a reminder of how central war making was to the process of colonialism: one is reminded of the popping muskets of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1899) and at the same time of how, in contrast, The Ramayana sees going to war as an extreme solution to be avoided as far as possible. Many songs parody Chinese difficulties in speaking English, which often bear no relation to any known sounds and structures of the language: Hitchee-kum, kitchee-kum, ya! ya! ya! Sailorman no likee me, No savvy the story of Wing Chang Loo, Too much of the bober-eye-ee, Kye-eye! (Hugill 1984: 340) The words ‘no savvy’ in particular became a touchstone at the time for Chinese identity, as with the cook in the Australian bush ballad on the Kelly gang, whose only action is to say ‘no savvy’ when threatened (Bromley 1989: 211). It can be compared with the babble of the (presumably Hindi-speaking) boatmen in Mumbai harbor on the opening page of Joseph Conrad’s Nigger of the Narcissus (1897; US title Children of the Sea), contrasted with the measured speech of the officers and crew of the British ship being loaded.

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Imagemes and stereotypes While individual Asians like Wing Chang Loo appear as comical or barbarian in contemporary songs, the East itself was associated with vague wealth, particularly precious stones, gold and spices, a feature that appears in the earliest literature celebrating Empire, such as John Dryden’s envious lines in 1667 on the Dutch empire, mentioning Ceylon, and relying on the same stereotypes of heat and jewels: For them alone the Heavns had kindly heat; In Eastern Quarries ripening precious Dew [precious stones]: For them the Idumaean Balm [balsam from Palestine] did sweat, And in hot Ceilon (sic) spicy Forests grew. (Dryden 1910: 24). Joep Leerssen uses the term imageme to describe such images in all their implicit, compounded polarities (Beller and Leerssen 2007: 344). One example is the way the concept of heat was used not simply as an empirical descriptive term but to suggest its position as both an extreme and a peripheral culture, and also more subtly, in connection with its raw materials. In Alexander Robb’s version of the song “The Highland Shore” collected by Gavin Greig in northeast Scotland in 1906, he refers to the extreme heat encountered there: A voyage to India was my desire, And when that clime unto me was known The very world seemed all on fire Such an awful heat in the Torrid Zone. (Shuldham-Shaw et al. 1987: 335) India here stands for any foreign country that was the object of attention from European countries. Extremes of heat frequently featured in songs in this way, placed in antithesis with the extremes of cold found in Greenland, to emphasise the “naturalness” of the temperate or “moderate” zones of Europe. In a prime example of ideology masquerading as science, writers in the Enlightenment adapted this belief, dating from classical times, to emphasise how it was not only God’s will but also a fact of cosmology for societies outside Europe to be on the margins. What is equally significant is that Greig recorded the words of the same song at the same time in the same part of Scotland in which the same stanza appears, but with reference to China (Shuldham-Shaw et al. 1987: 334). This was not an isolated case: Richard Cambridge switched the setting of his poetic tale The Fakeer (sic)(1756) from China to India while carelessly retaining here and there Chinese words and dashes of local colour (Qian 2005: 207). However, Antonio Gramsci regarded folk song as often taking an oppositional stance to such hegemonic discourse. As he wrote in his Prison Notebooks, “That which distinguishes folksong in the framework of a nation and its culture

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is neither the artistic fact nor the historic origin; it is a separate and distinct way of perceiving life and the world, as opposed to that of “official” society.” (Gramsci 1976: 220). Gramsci did not consider that song culture somehow stood outside the hegemonic. We have already seen this operating in the way the song “The Highland Shore” applied the Aristotelian mean to place Europe between 23 countries characterized as experiencing extremes of heat or cold. The same song casts what can only be described as a capitalist’s eye over “all the riches of that nation”: I viewed with raptures of admiration Their silver streams and their golden mines Their fruitful valleys and rich plantations Which nature’s beauty so much refines. (Shuldham-Shaw et al. 1987: 335) Another stereotype which prevailed from the beginning of the nineteenth century was the view of China as unchanging, a static society lying outside history. China, for example, in the words of Samuel Taylor Coleridge (Table Talk; 1.1.1823), was “permanency without progression” (Qian 2005: 172). This view was very durable: as late as 1938, a standard British history of architecture included buildings in Ceylon, together with Indian, Chinese and Arab architecture, under “non-historical styles” in contrast with the vigorous development of European and American architecture (Fletcher 1938: xi). Cannibals and the demonized other Of course it was cannibalism thatwas the central marker of barbarism in the construction of nineteenth century ideology, particularly imperial ideology. Cannibalism has been part of the rhetoric of imperialism since the time of Columbus. A passage in his journal (if indeed it is by him) describes how the Arawaks, the soon-to-be-exterminated inhabitants of Jamaica, were in great fear of the inhabitants of a neighbouring island whom they called "canibales" because they ate people and were very warlike. Their name gradually replaced 'anthropophagi': in this way the colonial term replaced the purely descriptive (Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin 1998: 30). It is also part of the discourse of the marvellous: Othello refers to cannibals in the same breath as the 'men whose heads/ Do grow beneath their shoulders' (Othello I. iii. 144-5). Defoe's wellknown description of Robinson Crusoe's encounter with cannibals introduced the almost pornographic physical detail which was to characterise later accounts: 'This was a dreadful sight to me, especially when[,] going down to the shore, I could see the marks of horror which the dismal work they had been about had left behind it, viz. the blood, the bones, and part of the flesh of human bodies, eaten and devoured by those wretches, with merriment and sport' (Defoe 1869, 88).

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The theme of cannibalism in popular discourse coincided with periods of high colonialism when relations with the Other were at their most sharp. Herman Melville describes the cannibal harpooner Queequeg as a touchstone of all that lay outside the worldview of the Christian Ishmael. Yet at the same time he describes him as 'General Washington cannibalistically developed'.2 It is not the horror of cannibalism but this fusion of worlds that are by definition supposed to be kept apart that is one of the continuing and fascinating features of the phenomenon. W. Arens (1979) argued that cannibalism has never been a socially-accepted practice but functions as a way of stabilizing a society in crisis, and in fact, the narrative power of eating human flesh easily overwhelms its cultural significance. By the nineteenth century, street literature in Britain began to adopt the term to describe any group perceived as 'foreign' and therefore threatening. For example, broadside ballads about the first Indian War of Independence (1857; also known as the 'Mutiny') routinely refer to Indians generically as 'cannibals'. 3 This was evidently intended as the representative mark of barbarism at the time rather than as a sober characterization of what was undoubtedly the most vegetarian nation on earth. In fact, the nineteenth century was to demonstrate that such practices, the 'unspeakable rites' of Mister Kurtz in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness, were not so much a marker of the colonized other as an integral part of the imperial project itself (Reid 1966, 45-54). David Livingstone observed in 1853 that nearly all the Africans he met believed whites to be cannibals.4 This may have been a figurative way of viewing the grab for Africa, but it also accurately represents contemporary narratives that undermine the whole association of cannibalism with the barbarian. In contrast, the popular songs that dealt with the theme had another, entirely contradictory narrative of cannibalism, as a strategy of personal survival among shipwrecked sailors. The persistence of this topos is shown by the book and film Alive based on the 1972 Andes plane crash, and recurring reports in the press.5 Survival cannibalism was common enough in Victorian England to earn its own euphemism, the “custom of the sea”(Simpson 1984: 240). Nevertheless, despite these attempts to put clear water, as it were, between survival cannibalism and its savage variety, its role in asserting a power

Herman Melville, Moby Dick (1851), ch. 10. Accessed 10.1.2015.

2

'The Fall of Delhi '(l. 58) and 'The Horror of the Indian Mutiny' (ll.7, 21) (Frith broadside collection c.14 (80, 83), Bodleian Library, Oxford. 3

Oxford English Dictionary (1991: 835), under 'Cannibal'.

4

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hierarchy remains clear: victims were nearly always the disempowered, such as young boys or foreigners. Reported cases call into question the real element of chance in drawing lots, which fell to a disproportionate extent on the weakest victim, such as a woman, boy or a foreigner. Both the broadsides and contemporary news reports show that what appeared to be a random sacrifice for the greater good was often actually rigged in favour of those in a position to assert their power. In 1765, in the case of the Peggy, the crew devoured a pigeon, a cat, tobacco, candles and any leather they could find before casting lots. The victim selected in this way was an African American who was part of the ship's cargo. As Brian Simpson comments, 'it strains credulity to suppose that lots were fairly cast' (1984: 124). Thus, ironically, the Other were the victims, not the perpetrators, of cannibal practices. The distinction between 'survival' and 'barbarian' cannibalism was, of course, full of contradictions. For example, a letter in the London Times of 1841 describes it as what might be expected 'among the savage and heathen inhabitants of the South Seas', yet ironically, the first reference to eating human flesh in the South Seas was actually a case reported about an American ship, the William Brown (Simpson 1984: 171). On some occasions no straws were drawn, and then the chain of command was even more evident: hierarchies dominated even in death. Typically the officers survived, or (once again) the English castaways rather than the foreign (Simpson 1984: 128). In such cases a new authority was invoked for the elimination of the weak: Darwinism. When, in Joseph Conrad's novella of cannibalism Falk: A Reminiscence (1903), the protagonist explains that no drawing of lots took place on his boat before the sacrifice of the carpenter, so that 'the best men would live,' the narrator pointedly comments to him, 'the toughest, you mean' (Conrad 1963: 321). Conclusion This paper has been concerned to continue Said’s project at the same time as questioning the way he regarded colonialism as a single vast hermeneutic text. Sri Lankan culture, in all its diversity, is best seen not primarily in a dialectical relation to colonialism, in terms of subjugation, assimilation and the resulting resistance, but in dialogue with its own history (of which colonialism is one part), its ecology and its social dynamics. When, in Shakespeare’s Tempest, Prospero, having colonized an island similar in some ways to Sri Lanka, promises finally to “drown my book” (Tempest V. i. 57), the colonial discourse can be said to be entering the postcolonial, an oral sphere in which the subaltern can speak (the Jataka tales and Ramayana). In Paul Muldoon’s emphatically cross-cultural collection ‘Meeting the British’, discussed earlier, an Indian boy on the Amazon plays the melody of the ancient

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ballad ‘The Lass of Aughrim’ on a flute ghoulishly made out of the tibia of a priest at the Mission that has invaded his space (Muldoon 1987: 15). The song, which is known all over Ireland and Scotland, the two countries which between them supplied most of the soldiers in the Indian subcontinent, describes a woman returning with her baby to a castle where her husband lies sleeping. She is refused entry and as she turns away from the door she sings to her baby:. Who will boot your pretty foot And who will glove your hands, Who will lace your slender waist Which Henry oft-times spanned; Who will comb your yellow locks With that brown and berry comb, And who will be the babe’s father ‘Til young Henery [sic] will come home?i In the United States this stanza has entirely taken the place of the longer narrative. Paradoxically, in her moment of destitution, the unnamed woman finds herself mirroring the position of the doubly alienated memsahib, the colonialist woman, with whom, as a king’s daughter, she is historically linked. In Muldoon’s poem the connection is made clear: in playing the song of the occupier the native American boy outside the Catholic mission station is expressing with his flute the return of the repressed. Instead of “singing for”, the usual direction of cultural influences, he is performing by himself, and in that dialectic of “for and “by”, ideology maintains its momentum.

WORKS CITED Agwuele, Anthony Onyemachi. 2009. Rorty’s Deconstruction of Philosophy and the Challenge of African Philosophy. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Aidoo, Ama, No Sweetness Here (1970/1995) Arens, W. The Man Eating Myth.New York,1979. Bhabha, Homi K., “The ‘Other’ Question” Screen, vol.24, no. 6, pp. 18-34. 1983. Bhabha, Homi K. Nation and Narration. London: Routledge, 1990. Boehmer, Elleke. Colonial and Postcolonial Literature. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. Bowen, Elizabeth. The Last September.1929. London: Vintage, 1998. Bromley, Roger. Narratives for a New Belonging.Diasporic Cultural Fictions, 2000. Conrad, Joseph. The Nigger of the 'Narcissus', Typhoon and other Stories. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963. Defoe, Daniel. Works.Ed. John S. Keltie. Edinburgh: Nimmo, 1869. Drew, John. When Cricket first Came to India. Cambridge: Cricket Wicket Press, 2015. Dryden, John. Poems of John Dryden. Ed. John Sargeaunt, London: Oxford UP; 1910.

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Easthope, Antony, and Kate McGovern. Critical and Cultural Theory Reader.2nd edition. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004. Fletcher, Banister. A History of Architecture on the Comparative method. London: Batsford, 1938. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977. Gramsci, A. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Ed. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith. 1971. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1976. Gifford, Don. Ulysses Annotated. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Greenleaf, E.B., and G.W. Mansfield eds. Ballads and Sea Songs of Newfoundland.St. John’s, Newfoundland: Memorial University Press, 2004. Grigson, G., ed. Penguin Book of Ballads. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975. Grossberg, Lawrence. “History, Politics and Postmodernism”. In David Morley and Kuan Hsing Chen eds. Stuart Hall.Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies. London: Routledge, 1996. 151-73. Harte, Frank. The Hungry Voice. CD Booklet. Hummingbird Records, 2004. Heaney, Joe. (Seosamh Ó hÉanaí) The Road from Connemara. London: Topic Records. TSCD518D. 2000. Hugill, Stanley, ed. Shanties from the Seven Seas. 1961. Second ed. London: Routledge, 1984. Irish

Descendants. Misty Morning Shore.Audio cassette Newfoundland: First City Productions, 1991.

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Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious. London: Methuen, 1981. Ling, Jan. History of European Folk Music. Trans. Linda and Robert Schenck. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1997. Lysaght, Patricia. Caoineadh os CoinnCoirp. The Lament for the Dead in Ireland. Folklore108. 1997: 65-82. Masolo, D. A. The Concept of the Person in Luo Modes of Thought. In Lee Brown (ed.). 2004. African Philosophy. New and Traditional Perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 84-106: 2004. Mbiti, John. African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heinemann, 1969. Moulden, John. Thousands are Sailing. A brief song history of Irish Emigration. Portrush. Ireland: Ulstersongs, 1994. Muldoon, Paul. Meeting the British. London: Faber, 1987. Naidoo, Beverley (South Africa). The Other Side of Truth. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2000. Naipaul, V. S. The Mimic Men. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967. Ó Laoire, Lillis. On a Rock in the Middle of the Ocean. Songs and Singers in Tory Island. Indreabhan, Conamara: Cló Iar-Chonnachta, 2005. O Lochlainn, Colm, ed. Irish Street Ballads. 1939. London: Pan Books, 1978. p’Bitek, Okot. African Religions in Western Scholarship. 1970. p’Bitek, Okot. Song of Lawino. Song of Ocol. London: Heinemann, 1984.

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Palmer, Roy. The Sound of History. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1988. Porter, Gerald. ‘Who talks of my Nation?” The Role of Wales, Scotland and Ireland in constructing “Englishness”’. In Gerald Porter and Luisa Del Giudice, eds. Imagined States. Identity and Longing in Oral Cultures. Utah State University Press, USA, 101-35, 2001. Porter, Gerald. “Irish Laments and the Structure of Collective Emotion”. In Niina Nissilä and Nestori Siponkoski eds., Käännösteoria, Ammatikielet ja Monikielisyys.”Language and Emotions”. Vaasan yliopiston käännösteorian, Ammattikieltenja monikielisyyden tutkijaryhmän julkaisut N:o 37. 280-90. 2010. Qian Zhongshu. A Collection of Qian Zhongshu’s English Essays. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2005. Reid, Stephen A. 'The "Unspeakable Rites" in Heart of Darkness.' In Conrad. A Collection of Critical Essays. 45-54. Ed. Marvin Mudrick. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 1966. Rodney, Walter, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, 1972. Said, Edward. Orientalism. London: Routledge, 1978. Savolainen, Matti. “Amazons and Guerillas. Monique Wittig’s Les Guerillères and William Burroughs’s Wild Boys as sites of gendered Utopias and anti-colonial struggle”.In Tiina Mäntymäki and Olli Mäkinen eds. Art and Resistance.Vaasa: University of Vaasa. 2009: 105-28. Shields, H., ed. Shamrock, Rose and Thistle. Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 1981. Shuldham-Shaw, Patrick, et al., eds. 1987. The Greig-Duncan Folk Song Collection. Vol. 3. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. Simpson, A. W. Brian. Cannibalism and the Common Law. The Story of the Tragic Last Voyage of the Mignonette and the Strange Legal Proceedings to which it gave rise. Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1984. [Slocombe, Marie, ed.] “Some ‘English’ Ballads and Folk Songs Recorded in Ireland.1952-54.” Part 2. Journal of the English Folk dance and Song Society. Vol.8. No. 1(1956): 16-28. Swift, Jonathan. Jonathan Swift. A Selection of his Works. Ed. Philip Pinkus. Toronto etc.: Macmillan, 1965. Voparil, C. J., and R. J. Bernstein eds. 2010. The Rorty Reader. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.

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Citation - Professor M .J. Vinod Dr M.J. Vinod is currently Professor and Chair - Department of Political Science at the Bangalore University in India. He received his MA, M.Phil and Ph.D degrees from the Bangalore University. His Doctoral thesis titled “The United States Foreign Policy towards India: A Diagnosis of the American Approach”. His more recent books published include ‘Contemporary Political Theory’ (Prentice Hall of India Learning, New Delhi: 2013); ‘Security Challenges in the Asia-Pacific Region: The Taiwan Factor’ (Viva Books, New Delhi: 2010); India, United States, Japan Trilateral Dialogue: Issues, concerns and Trends (Dept. of International Relations, Jadavpur University, Kolkota: 2012) Some of his more recent research articles include: The China Factor in IndiaUnited States Defence and Strategic Relations: Dynamics and Trends’ (2014), ‘India’s Response to the American Pivot and Rebalancing’ (2014), ‘India as an Emerging Power: Challenges and Opportunities’ (2014), ‘Obama Administration and US-Pakistan Relations’ (2014), Social Constructivism and Security Studies’ (2014), ‘India-United States Strategic Relations: Issues, Concerns and Trends’ (2013), Strategic Engagement of India: A Comparative Study of the European Union and United States (2012). He has published widely in edited books and professional journals in India and elsewhere. Some of the fellowships conferred on him include the Salzburg Fellow, Ford Foundation Fellow at the University of Maryland; Swiss Foreign Ministry Fellow at the Graduate School of International Studies; Visiting Fellow at the Henry L. Stimson Center. He has been a Visiting Professor at the Dept. of Geopolitics, the Manipal University, Dept. of International Relations, the Jadavpur University and Kolkata and regularly visits the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. His areas of specialisation include United States-India Relations, Nuclear Issues with particular reference to developments in South Asia, South Asian Security issues and Indian Foreign Policy. Recently he completed a UGC major research project on ‘Migration into Bangalore City: a Study of its Social, Economic and Political Implications’.

Dr GDRUU Abeyratne Senior Lecturer in Political Science, University of Ruhuna

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The Maritime Silk Road: A Comparative Study of The Indian and Sri Lankan Perspectives and Interests M.J. Vinod Professor & Chair of Political Science University of Bangalore, India

Introduction Originally the maritime Silk Road(MSR) was proposed by China at the 16 th ASEAN-China Summit in Brunei. MSR is a pet project of President Xi Jinping. He originally presented the idea in a speech before the Indonesian Parliament in October 2013, which has since been vigorously marketed by Beijing. He invited the ASEAN countries to join China in building a new MSR and help accelerate the economies of the regional countries. He even proposed setting up a China-ASEAN Maritime Fund to augment maritime related projects. Incidentally Xi himself is from Shaanxi province a terminus of the historic Silk Road. The reach and expanse of the MSR has been expanding ever since, which could see Chinese influence spread from Bali to the Baltic. The MSR which will begin near Guangdong on the South China Sea, will move through the Malacca Strait and Indian Ocean, make its way around the Cape of Good Hope, onto the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, and wind up in the historic city of Venice. The route represents the dominant link between southern China and the Mediterranean with a network of Southeast Asian and South Asian ports in between. President Xi’s concept works on dual tracks both land and sea. China has in recent times clearly stepped up its maritime diplomacy in the Indian Ocean littoral. Technically, the MSR is an ambitious oceanic trade route linking China and Europe via Southeast Asia, India and Africa. It will also traverse through the disputed parts of the South China Sea. The project envisages a network of linked ports, infrastructure projects and special economic zones. The proposal has attracted enormous interest among policy makers and scholars. Though the Silk Road symbolized China’s connectivity with the whole world, yet it has raised geopolitical anxieties in many countries. Though most of the ports are technically civilian ports, New Delhi is anxious that they may portend a permanent Chinese presence in the Indian Ocean. China argues that its maritime investments are clearly economic oriented, with the potential for economic benefits accruing to the host states. Beijing terms it the ‘silk road economic belt’ and contends that it has only two altruistic

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objectives in promoting the MSR viz., to ensure the security of the sea lanes of communication and to ensure economic dividends. Beijing consistently argues that the MSR has no strategic or military dimension, and that it is purely commercial and developmental, and hence it can be a game changer. Beijing’s increasingly aggressive posture at sea in recent times has stirred up a hornets’ nest given its maritime disputes with many of its neighbours. Beijing has declared an Air Defence Identification Zone (ADIZ) in the East China Sea, and large swathes in the South China Sea, with the possibility of declaring an ADIZ in the South China Sea too. Moreover China contests the sovereignty of the Senkaku islands with Japan. The political credibility of the MSR to a large extent will depend on the extent to which Beijing is able to build bridges and assuage some of these concerns. In May 2014 China earmarked $1.6 billion for building ports to enhance maritime cooperation with Southeast Asia and Indian Ocean littoral states, including Maldives and Sri Lanka. Maldivian president Abdulla Yameen has been supportive of the MSR project. During President Xi’s visit, agreements have been signed for upgrading Maldives airport and to build a bridge from Male to the island on which the international airport is based. China is clearly going ahead with the project China’s Proposal China contends that historically India has been the converging point of the MSR and the Silk Road on land. The phrase ‘Silk Road’ evokes a romantic image – half history, half myth’. But the Silk Road and the MSR are not just part of the fabled past. It is an important feature of contemporary China’s foreign policy. The historical Silk Road comprised an ‘overland’ and a ‘maritime’ route. More than two thousand years ago India had very productive exchanges with ancient China through the passage of the southern Silk Road. Throughout the history of the Silk Road and Maritime Silk Road, scholars and traders from India had visited China.1 The naval expedition to the West by Zeng He in the early part of the Ming dynasty reflected the importance of the Silk Road. Admiral Zheng steered his naval fleet across the Indian Ocean seven times in the early 15th century. His expeditions included use of military force in contemporary Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and India. Records suggest that he even intervened in the dynastic politics of Indonesia and Sri Lanka, abducting and executing local rulers. He is supposed to have even seized the relic of the tooth of Buddha.2 Later the Ming and Qing Dynasties imposed a ban on maritime trade. Hence the countries along Zheng’s maritime route recall his adventures not just to promote trade and commercial contacts, but also military intervention. Let’s not forget that the ancient Chinese concept of ‘tianxia’ meant that the Chinese emperor was divinely sanctioned to rule the whole world. President Xi during his visit to Sri Lanka in September 2014 had recalled the thousand year old bond between the two countries, first through the spread of

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Buddhism and subsequently through Zheng He, the iconic Chinese traveller. Zeng He is remembered for his travels to Southeast Asia, Indian Ocean and the East African littorals several centuries back. The Maritime Silk Road was used to export Chinese silks, China tea, brass and iron. On the other hand the main items imported to China were spices, flowers, plants and rare treasures. Hence the maritime Silk Road was also known as the ‘the maritime China road’ or the ‘maritime spices road’. However in 1840 when the Opium War broke out, the Maritime Silk Road went into disuse. China’s interest in the island states of the Indian Ocean is relatively new and could turn out to be rather consequential. 3 China hopes to coordinate customs, quality supervision, e-commerce as well as set up trade zones. To meet its increasing demand for resources and to secure their maritime trade routes, China has either built or planning to construct vital facilities in Cambodia, Maldives, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Pakistan, Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Beijing is keen to open up to all countries and regions, and is already involved in the construction of deep water port projects in Gwadar, Hambantota and Chittagong, as well as a naval base and intelligence surveillance station in Sittwe in Myanmar, a surveillance base in Marao Island in Maldives. 4 The proposed Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar (BCIM) project from Kunming to Kolkota will play a key role in the economic belt. These developments are bound to strengthen China’s economic and strategic presence and influence in the Indian Ocean region. The MSR could help Beijing diversify its foreign assets and also have a greater influence in regional and international affairs through investments and control over resources. China is willing to invest, to support projects that will generate returns. Sri Lanka and China Robert Kaplan argues that ‘the Indian Ocean is the ocean of the 21 st century’. Sri Lanka is strategically located in the Indian Ocean region, and has historically been an active player in maritime matters in the Indian Ocean region. In the seventies it was Sri Lanka that had initiated the Indian Ocean Zone of Peace Proposal. The commitment of Sri Lanka to join the MSR indicates the proximity of the strategic aspirations and the national interests of China and Sri Lanka. 5 The two countries have now come to share policies on a wide range of issues. Sri Lanka is now a relatively active player in the MSR project and is increasingly emerging as an international transit center in the Indian Ocean. Right since former President Mahindra Rajapaksa came to power, China’s footprints in Sri Lanka have substantially expanded. President Xi incidentally was the first Chinese President to visit Sri Lanka. Since the end of the ethnic war in 2009, China has been funding massive infrastructure development projects in Sri Lanka. China and Sri Lanka have been working on the modalities of the maritime partnership for quite some time. The trade and investment ties

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between China and Sri Lanka have grown considerably. The thrust of the dialogue was on the complementarities of the two countries. Many scholars now perceive Sri Lanka as China’s closest economic and strategic partner on the MSR initiative. China’s support to Sri Lanka has been crucial especially to confront US backed resolution at the UNHRC. Both the countries now have a ‘strategic cooperation partnership’6 China had in the initial stages shared the MSR idea with the then visiting Sri Lankan Foreign Minister G.L.Peiris and expressed its interest in developing Sri Lanka’s economy, connectivity, fisheries, disaster prevention and search and rescue assistance at sea. The External Affairs Minister of Sri Lanka Gamini Lakshman was in China in February 2014 to meet his counterpart Wang Yi. It was agreed to “fully exploit maritime cooperation and jointly build the maritime silk route of the 21 st century’. Sri Lanka is emerging as a major factor in China’s maritime security initiatives and calculations in the Indian Ocean region, given its strategic location. President Xi Jinping calls the MSR as the “new Chinese dream”. This along with what he called the ‘Mahinda vision’ could make the difference in terms of national rejuvenation and development. Sri Lanka is expected to be the ‘hub of development’ along the MSR from three perspectives: 1. 2. 3.

Port construction and development. Expansion of the maritime economy; and Ensuring maritime security.

It has been argued that if China is to deepen its links with the countries in the Indian Ocean region, especially in South Asia, Sri Lanka will be the most suitable platform for maritime connectivity.7 Sri Lanka hopes to capitalise on MSR to develop into a world class hub. The former Governor of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Ajith Nivaard Cabraal spelt out Sri Lanka’s needs to forge ahead with the development of five hubs viz., maritime, aviation, energy, knowledge and commercial. Cabraal argued that while the MSR would serve Chinese global trade, it would also bring big time business to Sri Lanka’s ports and the hinterland. This would help the development of various hubs besides the maritime hub.8 Hence both China and Sri Lanka are trying to further streamline customs and tax policies, enhance engagement between the Central Banks and also ensure reduction of trade barriers. In a way Sri Lanka is already a part of the Chinese initiative. Sri Lanka had received $1.4 billion from China to build the ‘Colombo Port City’, which could perhaps in the long run compete with the thriving ports in Singapore and Dubai. Besides the Hambantota port, China has been engaged in construction in a wide array of infrastructure projects, an oil-storage facility, a new airport, a coal-fired power plant and an expressway. The Hambantota port is ideally located at the inter-section of major international trading routes. Maldives and

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Sri Lanka are both critical to the MSR initiative and can also stand to reap some benefits. President Maithripala Sirisena during the campaigning called foreign debt a trap for Sri Lanka. Concerns in relation to maritime security and stability have consistently come up as part of the annual ‘Galle dialogue’. Sirisena’s election manifesto argued that the “land that the white man took over by means of military strength is now being obtained by foreigners by paying ransom to a handful of persons.” Perhaps the reference was to the $1.4 billion Colombo Port City. With President Sirisenanow in power it does not necessarily mean that China’s role will be neutralized or reversed. Perhaps the tilt will be slightly reduced. But certain positive trends are visible as far as India is concerned. President Sirisena wanted his Foreign Minister Mangala Samaraveera to first visit India. Symbolically this matters too. Mr Samaraveera even stated that he “pro-China tilt” will be corrected, without necessarily suggesting that it will be replaced by a ‘pro-India tilt.’ In spite of the hiccups in the relationship from time-to-time, history, culture and ethnicity bind India and Sri Lanka. The two countries should try to maximize the advantages of their geographic proximity too. India’s Arguments/Reactions India would do well to examine where the MSR is headed. So far the response from India and some of the Southeast Asian countries has been mixed, given China’s rising military profile in the region. India has so far skirted the controversial MSR project. During the Special Representatives Talks in New Delhi, the Indian Representative refused to comment on the issue. China wants India to play a key role in the initiative and has expanded an invitation to India to join the MSR. It may be recalled that the Chinese Special Representative Yang Jiechi had extended the invitation to India’s then National Security Advisor Shivshankar Menon. The MSR issue was also raised during Vice President Hamid Ansari’s visit to China. The opaque nature of the MSR presents a major challenge for India. Even countries like Philippines and Vietnam fear that the MSR is more an attempt to strengthen China’s claims in the South China Sea. Southeast Asia will be crucial to the success of the project as it is the first major stop of the MSR outside China. As tensions increase in the South China Sea, maritime cooperation between China and the Southeast Asian states will become that much more difficult. China has been vigorously trying to promote the idea in Southeast Asia. In fact one of the main themes on the China-ASEAN expo in 2014 was titled: ‘Jointly Building the 21st Century Maritime Silk Route’.9 Except for Philippines and Vietnam, most of the other Southeast Asian countries are on board. Cambodia has praised the MSR as a ‘boon for the entire region’.

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The dilemma before India is whether India should chart out its own course or become part of what is essentially a Chinese dominated Asian economic system, whether onecalls it the Pacific Age or a New Silk Route or a panEurasian system. Some argue that the Asian order has already been established by China, and hence India has few options. China’s location and economy is perceived as the hub which connects to the rest of Asia. India has been promoting east-west connections through Myanmar, Thailand and on to Vietnam. This is to balance China’s north-south connections to South-East Asia. New Delhi wonders whether the string of pearls has been reincarnated as the MSR. What is the link between the maritime silk route and the ‘string of Pearls’ strategy? The ‘String of Pearls’ is a phrase that originated in 2005, and has never been used by the Chinese.10 The term carries with it a variety of military interpretations, perceptions and misperceptions. From the Indian perspective the fear reflects the possibility of China capitalizing on a number of port facilities in the region, to establish a string of pearls to contain India. The string of pearls could well provide the Chinese navy accessibility to ports stretching from the Arabian Sea to South China Sea. From China’s perspective India’s inclusion in the scheme of things perhaps appears rational and logical, given the idea of the Bangladesh-China-IndiaMyanmar (BCIM) economic corridor, also referred to as the ‘southern silk road’. It may be recalled that these four countries had entered into negotiations in late 2013, to chalk out a future timetable for the plan of enhancing economic connectivity. A Study Group was constituted for this purpose, which argued that the plan would help facilitate four trends, viz., 1. 2. 3. 4.

Multi-modal connectivity. Harness economic complementarities. Promote investment; and Facilitate people-to-people contacts. 11

Since India has shown its approval for the BCIM development plan, there are some chances that New Delhi could also approve the MSR. Undoubtedly MSR does offer some opportunities for India to tap the technological gaps in infrastructure development like ship-building and world class ports for example. However as of now Chinese companies are barred from participation in India’s maritime infrastructure projects because of security reasons. A recent map of the MSR route brought out by the State owned Xinhua News Agency seems to have omitted Gwadar port. The map showed Kolkota and Colombo as cities with which to enhance trade exchanges. This is also perhaps an incentive for India to join. The Chinese are trying to make an offer to India which it will find it difficult to reject. To make India part of the MSR would involve substantial assurances from China. One of the stumbling blocks between China and India in taking the MSR forward is the trust deficit. The

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Indian argument suggests that the huge financial investments that China is making will not come without a price viz., the long-term strategic implications, especially in terms of its regional maritime dimensions. Given the infrastructure development visualized by China in the Indian Ocean littoral, Beijing’s reach and access in the Indian Ocean region is bound to grow by leaps and bounds. Some writers argue that the MSR is perceived as a strategic move to dominate the maritime domain through economic, cultural and naval influence in the Indian Ocean region. India’s National Security adviser Ajit Doval had twice raised the issue about the docking of Chinese submarines in the Colombo harbor. Concerns about the visits in September and October 2014 by Chinese submarines to the new Chinese built port in Colombo have been a matter of concern for India. 12 Whether, this will be the beginning of an arrangement signalling Beijing’s intention to maintain a submarine presence in the IOR only time will tell. The issue becomes all the more controversial as the region is volatile with critical sea lanes of communication traversing the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean region. The MSR India believes could radically alter the strategic balance in the Bay of Bengal too, though China argues that its interests in the Indian Ocean region are purely economic. From the Indian perspective joining the MSR does not necessarily resolve its String of Pearls concerns and dilemmas. Hence, Beijing’s growing security ties with Sri Lanka tends to cast doubts on China’s claims that the MSR is only an economic project. It may be recalled that President Hu Jintao had put forth the idea of China’s ‘manifest destiny’ at the center of the Chinese grand strategy in the 21st century, and he oversaw the dramatic expansion of the PLA Navy.13 Such a massive expansion has raised fears among many of China’s neighbours. For India any decision has to objectively factor in these realities and challenges. India does not deny the fact that economic advantages could accrue to the stakeholders in the project, yet the project could be detrimental to India’s strategic interests and stakes in the Indian Ocean region. Project Mausam Prime Minister Narendra Modi has initiated the discussion on an alternative ‘Project Mausam’ as an alternative to deter/check Beijing’s maritime challenge. The purpose is to revive India’s ancient maritime routes and cultural ties with countries in the region. Project Mausam – a transnational initiative - revolves around natural wind phenomenon, especially monsoon winds, ancient maritime routes that had been employed by India’s ancient sea mariners. Needless to say there is also a strategic dimension to the project. What shape and form it will exactly take only time will tell.

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Though it may also be in India’s interest to join the MSR, yet New Delhi cannot ignore its strategic interests as well. Project Mausam could enable India to establish ties with its ancient trade partners along the littoral of the Indian Ocean. This ‘Indian Ocean world’ would stretch from East Africa, along the Arabian Peninsula, past southern Iran to the major countries of South Asia and thence to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.14 The idea is only evolving and the project has historical, cultural, geographic and strategic dimensions. Conclusion The New Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road dwells on a vast network of roads, railways, tunnels, bridges, pipelines and ports across Asia and Europe. Beijing perhaps hopes that the Silk Road initiative will make China’s west and southwest regions the engines of China’s growth in the next phase of development. One should not be surprised that the MSR has elicited support from many small island states in the India Ocean region who are constrained due to lack of expertise and finances. The Chinese are visibly pushing in the MSR as a soft power projection in the region, by adding the cultural and historical dimensions to bilateral engagements. The reality also is that the MSR is indeed a vital strategic project for China in the Indian Ocean, which is bound to increase China’s presence along the regions shipping routes. Obviously India cannot and need not stop the neighbouring States from cooperating with China on infrastructure development. Though India has its own reservations and concerns which it is entitled to, yet some thought need be given to see how India could perhaps participate and shape its agenda. Rather than trying to keep China out of the Indian Ocean region, India needs to think of ways and means of reconnecting with the countries in the Indian Ocean region. India needs to capitalize on the fact that despite China’s economic heft, a change in guard in Colombo has triggered a new debate in Sri Lanka. From the Sri Lankan perspective the competition between India and China in Sri Lanka is not necessarily exclusive or confrontational. China’s role in Sri Lanka is relatively well embedded, and a reversal of China’s role seems inconceivable at this point of time. Let’s not forget the stakes are too high in the great game being played in the Indian Ocean region. China will inevitably follow up its commercial footholds in the Indian Ocean region with naval ones. The Indian government is in an MSR dilemma, since it is also contingent on what China would have to offer to India on the bilateral security front. Reponses from India have so far been mixed, since the MSR idea lacks clarity with respect to its intentions and details. However the MSR is a key initiative in China’s maritime policy. It is also a reflection of China’s rising naval profile especially in the Indian Ocean region and beyond. China has systematically gone ahead generating support and cooperation for the MSR especially among

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the strategically located island states in the region like Sri Lanka, Maldives, Seychelles and Mauritius. The distinction between an economic/trade based MSR and a military/strategic based string of pearls can be quite blurred. The MSR aspires to strengthen China’s geo-economic and geo-strategic position in the world. The MSR could be an attempt by China to counter the ‘string of pearls’ argument, and reiterate its commitment to its peripheral policy. Hence it projects the project as a winwin situation. India joining the MSR could be perceived as a way of legitimizing China’s maritime initiatives in the Indian Ocean, including its strategic objectives. Sri Lanka’s emergence as an emerging strategic hub in the Indian Ocean region is perhaps bound to increase in the days to come. The MSR perhaps provides Sri Lanka international recognition and acceptance as a non-aligned country that has ties and contact with all countries. Perhaps the fear of being left out of the commercial benefits has led many states to welcome the project. Yet many Sri Lankans are also fearful of a scenario where their sovereignty could be at stake. One wonders to what extent this dynamic perhaps was a factor in the defeat of President Rajapaksa. It has been a smart move on the part of China to invite India to join the MSR. India however needs to carefully study the implications of the MSR prior to committing to it because New Delhi is caught between two scenarios: One the need to work with China on the maritime domain; and two to see how it can deal with the rising influence of China in the Indian Ocean region. The MSR seems to be a flexible, ambiguous and nebulous peg in China’s foreign and economic policy in the Asia-Pacific region. Hence India has been much more circumspect about the project. Trust deficit seems to be the stumbling block that dissuades India from joining the MSR. Even if the MSR is exclusively economic in orientation, yet it could still have strategic implications for India. Though India cannot ignore the new Asian order that is fast emerging, yet the onus also lies on China in assuaging India’s concerns pertaining to the MSR. An economic investment could turn out to be a strategic weapon for the Chinese. At this point of time, the MSR tends to be more of a strategic concern than an economic opportunity for India. Hence Narendra Modi’s government would perhaps be wary of giving its approval to the MSR in haste. End Notes Ananth Krishnan (2014) China Wants India to play Key role in Silk Road Plan, The Hindu, August 10, 2014. 1

China’s Silk Road Revival – and the Fears it Stirs – are Deeply rooted in the Country’s History, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/shashi-tharoor/chinas-silk-road-revivalhistory_b_5983456.html?ir=India 2

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C. Raja Mohan (2014) Silk route to Beijing, Indian Express, September 15, 2014.

3

Patrick Mendis (20120) ‘The Colombo-Centric New silk Route’ Economic and Political Weekly, vol. XLVII, No 49, December 8, 2012, pp. 69-76 4

Jack Goodman (2014) Sri Lanka’s Growing Links with China, The Diplomat, March 6, 2014 5

Harsh V. Pant, China’s Growing Role in Lanka, Indian Express, January 29, 2015.

6

Chulanee Attanayake (2014) Sri Lanka: The Best Stop Over in China’s Maritime Silk Road, The Island (Online), November 21st, 2014.

7

Camelia Nathaniel (2014) Lanka, China Pledge to Make Silk Route A Success, The Sunday Leader, November 8, 2014. 8

Shannon Tiezzi (20140 China Pushes Maritime Silk route in South, southeast Asia, The Diplomat, September 17, 2014.

9

10

Shannon Tiezzi (2014) The Maritime Silk Road VS The String of Pearls, The Diplomat, February 13, 2014.

Ankit Panda (2014), China Invites India to the Maritime Silk Road, The Diplomat, February15, 2014. 11

12

David Brewster (2014) The Bay of Bengal: The Maritime Silk Route and China’s Naval Ambitions, The Diplomat, December 14, 2014.

C. Raja Mohan (20140 will India Join China’s Maritime silk route, Indian Express, Fenruary 15, 2014. 13

14

AkhileshPillalamarri (20140 Project Mausam: India’s Answer to China’s Maritime silk route, The Diplomat, September 18, 2014.

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Guide to Technical Sessions and Abstracts Session 01: Economy and Development Mani, K.P. & Jose P Chacko - Development Experience of the Indian State of Kerala: A Revisit Dissanayaka, N.P. & Kanchana Liyanapathirana - Impact of Internationalization of Small and Medium Enterprises on Developing Sri Lanka within Globalizing Context Marasinghe, M.P.G.R.K. & Kanchana Liyanapathirana - Economic and Trade Policies - Virtual Company in Sri-Lanka Jayantha. K, D.L.I.H.K. Peiris & Ruwan Rathnayaka - Open Space Management in Universities: A Case Study of the University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka A.L. Sandika - Tea Cultivation in Sri Lanka as a legacy of the Western Colonization: Impacts and Trends L.M.A.P. Gunawardhana - Life Insurance as a Strategy to Minimize Disaster Impacts: A Case Study in the Mihintale Divisional Secretariat Area Jayaweera, I.M.L.N., K.K.K.R.Perera & J.Munasinghe - Control of Traffic Congestion in Road Networks Using Centrality Measures Gama Achchige Thilini Nimeshika, Rural Credit and Economic Development in Sri Lanka (with Reference to Thawalama Divisional Secretary) Bandra, CMYSS & K Dissanayake - Human Resource of Public Sector in Sri Lanka: The Role of Citizens in Pre and Post-Colonial Public Administrative Organization Weerawansa, S. & I Aponsu - Women Entrepreneurial Success: Gender Bias in Their Potential and Real Outcomes Abewardana, Prsanna , Shashika Rathnayake and Prathibha Kahandage Factors Affecting the Adoption of Replanting by the Corporate Tea Sector in Uva Region Niroshika Liyana Muhandiram - An Overview of the British Influence on Law of Insurance in Sri Lanka K. V. Weerasingha & R.A.S.P.Ranabahu - Impact of International Male and Female Labour Migration on Families: A Case Study of the Karandeniya DS Division in the Galle District K.K. Saman Udaya Kantha - Will BRICS and New Development Bank Build a Big Challenge to Western Economies?

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Session 02: Environment, Ecology and Technology Malika.K. & Raveendran. S - Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts of Southern Expressway in Sri Lanka Madanayaka, Shashikala Aloka Kumari - Post Conflict Foreign Policy Challenges of Sri Lanka: With Special Reference to India Priyadarshana, O.A.V. & Kanchana Liyanapathirana - Climate Change as an Emerging Trend in the International Trade Law in 21 st Century and its Impact on Sri Lanka Dayalatha, W.K.V. - The Depletion and Degradation of Mangroves in Southern Coastal Area in the Matara District Udagearchchi, U.A.H.H. - Globalization, Sustainable Development and its Environmental Impacts in the Recent Development Discourse in Sri Lanka Konara, K.M.B.N. - The Geography of Ceylon: Lanka Wistraya (1853) A Critical Analysis of the Oldest Existing Sinhala Geography Book Chaminda Kumara, R.K. - Tendencies of Natural Forest Resource Utilization (Endemic Shorea Species) among Peripheral Communities of the North Western Slope of the Sinharaja Forest Reserve in the British Colonial and Postcolonial Srilanka Haniffa, M.A.C.M., R. Senthilnithy & K.R.R. Mahanama - Sodium-Adsorption Ratio in an Inland Agricultural Water Sources: A Preliminary Study in the South Eastern Region Dharmadasa, R.A.P.I.S. & K.P.K.S. Kodikara - Role of Agriculture Sector in Economic Development and the Evolution of Sri Lankan Economy Mohamed Ali S.K.,R.M. Anuradha Sandamali & R.K. Chaminda Kumara Disastrous Impact of High Winds on Daily Human Activities in Post Colonial Sri Lanka: With Special Reference to Gale Force Winds of July 2014 in the Welimada DSD, Badulla District Wijeratne, S. - Geographical Factors that Affect the Changes of Tsunami Impacts of the South West Coast of Sri Lanka Katupotha, Jinadasa - Evolution of Colombo City and its Environs in The Recent Past Chandralatha, W.M. Gangani - Colonial Impacts on Traditional Land Use Pattern in Sri Lanka: A Case Study of the Use Traditional Home Gardening Knowledge to Increase Flora Diversity in the Wet Zone Peripheral Forest Areas

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Amaraweera, P.H. - Temperature and Rainfall Changes in Sri Lanka: An Analysis of Long-Term and Recent Trends Hemakumara, GPTS & Ruslan Rainis - Identification of Low Lying Areas that are Most at Risk Due to Households Emerging in the Colombo Metropolitan Region Svendsen, Helene & Piyadasa Hewage - Relationship between Tropical Rain Forest Biodiversity and Local Communities & its Impact on Forest Conservation: A Case Study of the Sinharaja Forest Reserve Walpola, B.C & K.K.I.U. Arunkumara - Isolation and Characterization of Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria from the Rhizosphere of Tomato Plants De Silva, Gihan Lakmal, U.M.Roshan Madhushanka Jayathunga, W. Imesha Dumindi Perera & U. Priyatharsan - Retina – An Android Application for Visually Impaired People to Identify Currency

Session 03: Health and Hygiene Malawi Pathirana, Ranjani - Abortion and Homicide; the Buddhist concept Adikari, Thakshila - Food Consumption Patterns of Adolescent School Girls in a Sub-Urban Area in Sri Lanka Vidanage, Kaneeka & Jayarathne Lakshman - Prevention of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) in Sri Lanka Via Gaming: A Survey Hewavithana, P. B., G.B. Hettiarachchi, F.F.Hassen, K.B. Galketiya, P. V. R Kumarasiri, K. de Silva - Family History and Risk of Breast Cancer: A Sri Lankan Experience Ketheeswaran, K. - Assessment of AAHPER Youth Fitness Norms: Between (Sabaragamuwa and Southern Province) Sri Lankan Adolescent Boys Liyanage, Chandani - Role of Traditional Medical Systems in Postcolonial Societies in the Context of Emerging Health Hazards Kirinde, G.W.R.W.M.R.M.W.K & H.C. E Wegiriya - Survey on Mosquito Larvae and their Relationship with Some Physico-Chemical Parameters in Selected Water Bodies in the Matara Area

Session 04: History, Archaeology and Tourism Wijethunge, Deepika Udayangani - H.C.P. Bell and Archaeology of Sri Lanka Karunarathna, Mahinda, W.M Chandrarathne, Palitha Weerasinghe, Amalka Wijesuriya, Kamal de Soysa, Chamal K Gamage, Nadeeka Kumari - Sri Lanka Postcolonial Experience of Underwater Archaeology: New Maritime Archaeological Research on SS Indus

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Ven. Warapitiye MangalaThero & Ven. Aththaragoda Piyadhamma Thero - A Study on the Aliases of Sri Lankan Kings with Reference to Inscriptions and Chronicles in Sri Lanka Somadeva, Raj - Scientific Superiority, Technological Dominance and Democratic Stance: A New Form of Colonial Reminiscence in Archaeology of Sri Lanka Dissanayake, Wasantha K. & Kusumasiri Kodithuwakku - Postcolonial Transport System Depicted in Folk Poems Kodithuwakku, Kusumsiri - British and Postcolonial Period Inscription Technology in Sri Lanka H.M.S.B. Herath - Using of Guns by Sri Lankans under the British Colony Pallethanna, Thilina, Rasika Muthucumarana and Rukshan Priyandana Shipwrecks in a table; a way of building awareness Muthucumarana, Rasika - Witnessing Globalization, Immigration and Transformation through the Maritime Archaeological Records Amarasinghe, Malinga, Indrachapa Gunasekara & Piyumi Embuldeniya - A study on Developing Situlpahuva Pilgrimage Site as an Archaeological and Nature Tourists Attraction. Hapugala, K.W.R.B.P.R.H. & K.N. Lankapathirana - Need of a New Economic and Trade Policy in the Field of Medical Tourism in Sri Lanka Weerasingha, G.B. Indrachapa & M.R. Ransi - Potential for Spice Tourism in Sri Lanka: A case study of spice gardens in Matale District Lecamwasam, Nipunika O. - An Analysis of Post-colonial Tourism Marketing Strategies in Sri Lanka Kaur, Jasmine - The Potentials of Religious Tourism for Regional Development in India: “A Case Study of ‘Rishikesh And Haridwar’, Religious Zone in Uttarakhand”

Session 05: Language and Education Ariyawansa, Dilini - Identifying Paucity of Verb-Stems as a Character of PostColonial Sinhalese Language Liyanage, Dineesha - Semiotics of the language used in Advertisements Jayatunga, Hasanthi - Difficulties Encountered by Advanced Level Students in Writing in French Pushpakumara, K.A.N. - Assessing the Impact of Existing Curriculum of Life Competencies and Civic Education in Lower Secondary Curriculum

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Diwakara. Anurin Indika - A Study on the Annotations Found in Modern Sinhala Grammar Books on Sidath Sangarawa with Reference to Sandhi Riithiya Ferdinando, D.Thilini - Globalization and its Effect on Language with Reference to Sinhala and English Rev. Kurupita Assajithissa - A Phonological Survey on How English Phonetics Interferes with Sinhalese Phonetics Tissera, Thakshala - Writing Nature, Righting Violence: Depiction of Nature and its Connection to Violence, in Romesh Gunesekera’s Prisoner of Paradise Karunarathna, L.S. - Consonant Gemination in Sinhala Ranwala, Chalani Vindhya - Kaduwa: The Double Edged Sword: A Study of Postcolonial Identity and Language Studies in Sri Lanka Surenthiraraj, Esther - Language Policy as Language Practice: Situating the ‘Trilingual Sri Lanka’ Initiative within the History of Language Planning and Policy in Sri Lanka Jayasinghe, Ramani Ratnamali - Acquisition of English Prepositions by the ESL Learners of Sri Lanka Ruwanpathirana, Nirosha - Low Attendance of English Classes among University Students: With Special Reference to the Faculty of Arts, University of Colombo Jayasundara, JMPVK - Acquiring Writing Skill by Second Language Learners Fonseka, E. A. Gamini & S.G.S.Samaraweera - Post Colonial Symptoms Experienced in Society while Endeavoring to Promote English at a Grass Root Level Gunawardane, Ruwan - Using Short Films and Videos in Improving the Language Skills among University students: Special Focus on the Faculty of Science, University of Ruhuna Rajamohan, Vithuja - Attitude to English in Postcolonial Literature in Sri Lanka Konara, K.M.B.N. - The Commentator (Wistrakarannā) The Oldest Existing Sinhala Journal in Sri Lanka

Session 06: Arts and Culture Gunathilaka. Chathuri - Embodiment of a Marginalized Art; Traditional Roles in a Modern Setting Ven Moragaswewe Vijitha - Whether the Aṭṭhagarudhamma (The Eight Strong Rules) Imply Anti-Feminist Approach of the Buddha

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Ranathunga, G. M - Emerging Fashion Trends: Fashion Elements of the Common People in the Kandyan Era of Sri Lanka Madhubashinie, Anupama - Contemporary Fusion Dance: An Aethetic Solution to Ethnic Prejudice Khandare, Saheb - Indian Folklore in Colonial and Postcolonial World Sabaananth, S. &T.Thevanthy - Comparison of Physiological Parameters between Amateur and Professional Bharathanatyam Dancers Peiris, D.L.I.H.K. - Extraversion and Neuroticism in Women University Athletes Who Participate in Traditional and Colonial Sports Seneviratne, Sumudu Niragie - “Ārya-Sinhala Identity”: Amalgamation of the Community through a Misnomer Ukwatta, Wijayantha & RavindraSamarawickrama - Colonial Identity and Post-Colonial Cultural Diversity in Colombo, the Capital of Sri Lanka Wickramasinghe, L A S - Chinua Achebe’s Contribution to Critiquing Colonialism and Naturalization of Earth Zone Ideology Rajapaksha, R.S. & A.G.A.U. Nandasiri - The Buddhist Philosophical Perspective on Environmental Preservation and Management Wimalarathna, K.R. - Hingort Generation in Sri Lanka Ven. Dr. Kattakaduwe Chandawimala - British Colonial Attitude to Kandy Perahera, the Most Famous Buddhist Procession in Sri Lanka Ven. Dr. Beligalle Dhammajoti - Significance of the Service to Buddhist Scholarship rendered by the British Scholar Professor Rhys Davids during the British Colonial Period in Sri Lanka Karunaratne, Priyanka Virajini Medagedara - Fashions: Globalization of cultural heritage of Sri Lanka Amarasinghe, Pulsar Aravinda - Children of Macaulay, their Tragedies and Victories de Zoysa, Asoka - Landscape Painting and Three Dimensionality when Depicting Buildings: A Study of European Influence in the Matara School of Art Bandara, T.A.C.J. S. & Shamitha Pathiratne - A Sri Lankan Case Study of Influence of Social Media on Adolescents

Session 07: Political Changes Silva, Crishni - Inner Party Democracy in Sri Lanka: A Case Study on Sri Lanka Freedom Party and United National Party

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Surendra Kumar, S. Y. - Is India-Sri Lanka-China Trilateral Cooperation Possible? Weerawansa, Saman - Level of satisfaction on Good Governance in Local Government Institutions in Sri Lanka Mayilvaganan, M. - Security and Development: Sri Lankan National Security and Foreign Policy in Transition Isankhya, G. I. D. Udani - The Reception of the Rylands V. Fletcher Rule in Sri Lanka: A Study on the Judicial Activism in Introducing English Law into Sri Lanka Rajapaksha, Kalpa - The Structures of Desire and Dispossession: Class-nature of neo-urbanization in post war Sri Lanka (A revisit to David Harvey’s conceptualization on capitalist city) Madanayaka, Shashikala Aloka Kumari – Post-Conflict Foreign Policy Challenges of Sri Lanka with Special reference to India Hettiarachchi, Nishantha - The U.S.-India-China Strategic Triangle Relationship since the Beginning of the Post-Cold War Period Priyadarshani, H.E.N. & A.J.M.C.J.W.Karunasena - An Analytical Study of the Current Activities of the Peoples’ Liberation Front in the Leftist Movement Ukwatta, Wijayantha & Aruna P. Kumara - Challenges in Professionalization of Political Communication in Sri Lanka Gunawardane , Chamalie, P.G.H.Tharanga Madushani, Inoj Kulathunge, M.S.M.L. Karunaratne - Independence through good governance in the post war situation in Sri Lanka Upul Abeyrathne & MSML Karunaratne - Emerging Cult of Kingship in Sri Lankan Political Culture: A Study of Post War Period Jayarathne, Sunil & Upul Abeyrathne - Democracy and Electoral Reforms in Sri Lanka Isankhya, G. I. D. Udani - The Role of the Judiciary in Implementing the Principal of Sustainable Development: A Legal Perspective

Session 08: Society and Social Issues Jayathilaka, Aruna - Post-War Sri Lanka: Challenge of Healing the Wounds in a War Torn Society Wijesundara, Tilak, Darshana Bandara & Mahinda Bandara - A Sociological study of Traditional Agricultural Rituals in Association with the Chena Cultivation in Sri Lanka: A Study in Monaragala District

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Thambugala, Lakshan & Thejani Jayawardane - A Study on Issues of ShortTerm Memory among Elderly Females in Elders Homes and Residences Herath, Oshadhi - Internal Conflicts and Resolution Methods Followed among Sri Lankan Gypsies: Ahiguntika People Sarojini, Pramoda - Cases for Avoiding Legal Intervention against ‘Domestic Violence’ in Sri Lanka: A Study Special Reference to Low Income Families Ananda, Tharaka & Charmalie Nahallage - Indigenous Knowledge Systems among Meemure Inhabitants; Kandy District Sri Lanka Ranaweera, H.K.C.K. - A critical study on the institutions of marriage and family as depicted in Henry Parker's "Village Folk Tales of Ceylon" Abeyrathne, Upul - Writing Caste History in a Changing Society: An Exploration of the Content of Caste Histories Pannilage, Upali - Social Impact of Globalization Process on Rural Villages in Sri Lanka Perera, Alex - Struggling to Survive: Maintaining a Vedda Identity in Education in the Face of Socio-Cultural Change Pannilage, Upli, Pulsie Handunmali Epa & Devika Nilanthi - Socio, Economic, and Cultural Factors Considered in Finding out The Life Partner in Sri Lanka Jayarathna, Nisanka & Udeni Herath - An Assessment of the Impact British Colonial Constitutional Reforms Had on the Ethnic Problem in Sri Lanka Ranabahu, R.A.S.P. - A Study of Productive Engagement among Elders of Sri Lanka Wijesundara, Tilak & Piumi Kankanamge - A Sociological Study on the Feminization of Childlessness in a Post Colonial Context: A Case Study in Hakmana MOH Division Raj Giri, Pradeep, Binto Bali, Brina Gangopadhya Lundmark, Sudish Niraula & Michael Straunbenmueller - Gaining Justice through Violence: A Case Study of Gulabi Gang - Uprising, Success and Crisis Bhatta, Punam - Impact of Armed Conflict on Women: Kathmandu District, Nepal

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Session 01 Economy and Development

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Development Experience of the Indian State of Kerala : A Revisit Mani K.P Professor Department of Economics University of Calicut, Kerala, India Jose P Chacko Associate Professor of Economics Sacred Heart College, Chalakudy, Kerala, India

Economists put forward different growth and development strategies and global experiences support and oppose these strategies. Counters with colonial past for their onward development in the postcolonial era adapted different strategies. While some followed the capitalist approach, others followed socialistic approach and some countries tried a mix of both, the proportion of the mix being fixed on their own strategies. India since independence decided to accept the path of mixed economic system and a development path through five year plans. Ever since, the political history of Kerala witnessed the ‘seesaw’ politics, that is, the communists and the non-communists coming to power and going out of power in consecutive elections. One major change in the governance that has taken place is the enactment of panchayati raj in the state as a consequence of the enactment of the same in the Indian parliament in 1993. The focus of the present paper is (1) examine the development profile of the state since its formation, (2) to identify the achievements and failures of the development experience, and (3) to identify the constraints for sustainable development of the state and (4) to suggest policy interventions for sustainable development. The study is based on both time series and cross section data. Time series data are available from publications of the central and state governments. Cross section data is gathered from a primary survey covering selected local bodies. Collected data was analysed using appropriate and relevant techniques. Keywords: capitalist, communist, development

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Impact of Internationalization of Small and Medium Enterprises on Developing Sri Lanka within Globalizing Context N.P. Dissanayaka LLB Undergraduate – Final Year Department of Law, University Of Peradeniya Tel. 071-131-6-313, Supervisor - Mrs. Kanchana Liyanapathirana Lecturer in Department of Law, University Of Peradeniya Tel. 071-169-7-333, Many market surveys in international trade forecasts that in 2020, international trade in goods and services will be two and a half times of its value in 2010 and trade will focus around Asia. Recent development at international levelgives stimulation on each country and citizens are to be of new trends. Internationalization of SMEs is an emerging trend in 21 st century .This study focuses on the operations and challenges of Sri Lankan SMEs within global market. Multifarious forms of SME internationalizations are available. SMEs that start with a global strategy can move quickly to take advantage of crossborder activities. Sri Lanka is in a position to get competitive advantages from this process. Sri Lanka has been concerned more on optimal use of environmental and cultural resources. However, it appears number of Sri Lankan SMEs have not been active because there seems some challenges and barriers associated with internationalization. The focus of the study is on internal barriers like limited information, foreign business opportunities, and inability to contact overseas customers, lack of managerial time to deal with globalization and associated issues and the external barriers. The data for the present study has used secondary data. The data has been descriptively analyzed. The findings indicate that SMEs without international exposure faces problems and challenges. The study found the specific laws, policy actions and recommendations that could overcome from these barriers and encourage the internationalization of SMEs within Sri Lanka.It also provides solution for the challenge of youth unemployment highlighted in the millennium development goals.

Keywords: small and medium enterprises (SME), internationalization, barriers, difficulty, globalization

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Economic and Trade Policies - Virtual Company in Sri-Lanka M.P.G.R.K. Marasinghe Final Year Law Student Department of Law, University of Peradeniya Tel- 071-3891651, E- Mail- [email protected] Mrs. Kanchana Liyanapathirana Lecturer in Department of Law University of Peradeniya Tel- 071-1697333, E-Mail- [email protected] A virtual company is a one founded on internet. The concept of virtual company emerged with the immediate developments of the Information and Communication Technology. The company’s working environment is not physical but a virtual one where employees work from their home on internet. Sometimes the owner of the company and employers or employees and employees and customers are never met. Sometimes they do not have even a head office. With new trends of globalization, virtual companies play an important role in economic trade policies. Developed countries use this new concept thus taking more advantages and enrich their economy. Sri Lanka too can use this concept to develop its economy. Already some are using some features of virtual company but not for all the features of virtual company in Sri Lanka. This virtual company concept has both advantages and disadvantages. Rules and regulations governing this virtual company basically can be founded in Electronic Transaction Act No. of 2006 and there are other laws which govern electronic transactions in Sri-Lanka. Virtual company concept is a best concept in the eyes of economy. The major trust of the present paper is to explore whether we have authoritative laws to regulate issues arise out of this concept. How does it comply with Sri-Lankan community and ordinary life of the people? How do we can adopt this concept making some adjustments to it? The qualitative method is employed to gather data and they have been descriptively analyzed. The study concludes that virtual company is comfortable with people and it enriches economy of a country to a certain degree and it has got the possibility of customer being cheated. Keywords – virtual company, globalization, advantages, disadvantages

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Open Space Management in Universities: A Case Study of the University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka Jayantha. K, D.L.I.H.K. Peiris and Ruwan Rathnayaka Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Open space which refers to the land set aside during the development process is a contemporary topic in relation to facility management. Sri Lankans inherited an education system, centralized in Buddhist temples where a vast open space available. Such a system was changed by British and introduced schools with little open space. Qualitative research approach would employ in terrain (2184296m2) of the University Of Kelaniya (UOK), if advantages of education in an open space could be gained more by having more open space. Hence the intake of undergraduates of UOK are increasing significantly with available open space is decreasing and the benefits of open space cannot be absorbed which means that the per capita open space of UOK is decreasing. The key objective was to analyze sufficiency of the available open space of University of Kelaniya by 2014 while the specific objectives were to identify the available open space per an undergraduate of University of Kelaniya and to map the available open space of University of Kelaniya. Primary sources such as Department Records and Annual Records of Administration Division of the University of Kelaniya were used to collect data. University maps other quantitative data and code of practice on provision of public open space, sport and recreation by North Devon District Council were used in analyzing process with Arc GIS software as an analyzing tool. According to the analysis available open space per an undergraduate of the University is 177.21m2 by 2014. Among the four open space types viz. playing pitches, multi use games area, equipped facilities for children and young people and informal open space, only playing pitches and informal open space were identified. Space per undergraduate on playing pitches will be insufficient as the number of undergraduates increases. Other types of open spaces should be introduced to the University by utilizing the available informal space which is1370566m2. Keywords: education, open space, University of Kelaniya

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Tea Cultivation in Sri Lanka as a legacy of the Western Colonization: Impacts and Trends A.L. Sandika Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka [email protected] The structure of the Sri Lankan agricultural sector had been changed during the period of British colonization with the introduction of plantation crops. Coffee, Tea and Rubber were recognized as prominent plantation crops introduced by British. Tea as a plantation crop at present too plays a significant role not only for the economy but also socio-cultural and political legacy. In this context, tea as a crop contributes to provide more than 1.5 million job opportunities directly and indirectly. Therefore, tea has been the identical and most famous export; for generations, it has been contributing to the Sri Lankan economy, and plays a major part, even today, in the country’s fortunes. This paper therefore attempts to examine the tea sub sector development with the time and to evaluate the performance of tea sub sector in the country. Secondary data were used for this study. Qualitative and quantitative methods were applied to illustrate the results. Keywords: tea, export, economic, legacy

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Life Insurance as a Strategy to Minimize Disaster Impacts: A Case Study in the Mihintale Divisional Secretariat Area L.M.A.P. Gunawardhana Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Mihintale, [email protected] Sri Lanka has a long history. After the 18th centaury, Sri Lankan society has undergone rapid changes including human population, agriculture, economy, science, transportation, telecommunication, industrial products and environmental problems, etc. Due to the complex lifestyle of people, they frequently undergo both natural and manmade disasters ever than before resulting in a loss of lives, property, and money to the nation. After the tsunami situation, Sri Lanka government has laid down a strong foundation by instituting structured institutions and introducing laws in order to mitigate impacts of various disasters and hazards. But day by day impacts of disasters are increasing. In this environment searching various strategies is needed. That is why the researcher carried out this research in order to identify the potential of using life insurance method for rural families to reduce worse impacts. Objectives of this research were to recognize possibility of using life insurance for each family, to identify problems with life insurance system, and to realize the public perception on effectiveness of using life insurance system as a strategy for reducing impacts of disasters present in their day today life. It was found that the major reason for the people’s demotivation is the poor service of the insurance company and the people in this area have no faith about the insurance company and their service because they have been cheated earlier adding up to a bitter experience. Therefore people abhor buying life insurance. But there is a trend of buying life insurance within young family heads with good income. Any farming family has not taken life insurance. But they have an ability to pay 500 rupees per month for life insurance. But people have high level of trust about government institutions. Therefore, if the government can get involved effectively when it comes to the life insurance system, there is a very high potential to use this method as an effective impact reducing strategy in the area. Keywords: disaster, hazard, impacts, life insurance, rural family.

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Control of Traffic Congestion in Road Networks Using Centrality Measures I.M.L.N.Jayaweera, K.K.K.R.Perera and J.Munasinghe Department of Mathematics, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka This study addresses the problem of determining how to identify the traffic congestion in road networks. Since massive financial and man-hour loss take place due to traffic congestion, it becomes a major issue for all the cities in the world to analyze the traffic networks. In order to control traffic congestion, it is essential to understand the development of traffic flows. The objective of this study is to identify the most important locations in the network and design the routes in order to control the traffic congestion. Nowadays, Sri Lanka and most developing countries follow traffic control models which are identified as expensive. This study looks at the applicability of centrality measures to access the traffic congestion in road networks in Sri Lanka. As a counter example, a road network using the most possible number of routes covering an area between Thorana junction and Kiribathgoda junction has been constructed. First, two networks as undirected graphs based on one way routes from Thorana junction to Kiribathgoda junction and Kiribathgoda junction to Thorana junction have been created and finally they have been combined to get one large directed network. In this study, four centrality measures namely, Degree, Closeness, Betweenness and Eigenvector, which are mainly used to analyze the social networks such as food web, internet graphs, and biology networks etc. have been used. These measures have been used to compute the centrality of road networks. By considering centrality measures, the most important nodes and the road segments in our road network have been identified. It is proved that our computed centrality measures are useful to identify the traffic congestion in the road network. Correlation analysis is carried out to compare the shortest path betweenness and random walk betweenness. Clustering analysis of the whole networks is useful to identify the distribution of the road networks and measure the density of the traffic. Keywords: graph, centrality measures, road network, betweenness

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Rural Credit and Economic Development in Sri Lanka (with reference to Thawalama Divisional Secretary) Gama Achchige Thilini Nimeshika Department of Economics, University of Kelaniya, SriLanka [email protected] Sri Lanka is a Third World country which is called as developing country. About 70% of population lives in rural areas. Their life condition is at a low level. Therefore various programmes are conducted by the institutions as well as non-institutions for the purpose of helping them. Among those programmes, the study focuses on credit programmes. The study is to identify whether there is an impact on the life condition of the rural people from credit loans. The sub objectives of the study are to examine what the rural credit facilities are to develop the agricultural sector and to check whether the life condition of the people who are in rural areas have been increased and what are the factors which effect for getting loans. For this study, primary and secondary data have been used. The primary data have been collected randomly by selecting 50 families from Thawalama divisional secretary. For the secondary data, magazines, books have been referred. According to the study, rural people had received loans or credits from banks such as Bank of Ceylon, People’s Bank, Rural Bank due to the low rate. Due to the influencing factor by getting loans from the institutions like banks, the study has identified that there is a considerable impact on the life condition of the rural people due to credit loans. Keyword: rural credit, economic development, Sri Lanka

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Human Resource of Public Sector in Sri Lanka: The Role of Citizens in Pre and Post-Colonial Public Administrative Organization CMYSS Bandra1 and Dr. K Dissanayake2 Department of Business Management, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka 2Department of Management and Organization Studies, University of Colombo 1

Sri Lankan public sector management has a long history which goes beyond even the British administration. Currently, the country’s public sector maintains a large workforce but has been frequently criticized for its poor efficiency and effectiveness in providing services. The traditional public management system existed in the pre-colonial era had been strongly influenced by the colonial administrative mechanisms and as a result the human resource of the system was drastically changed. This paper aims at examining the changes of public sector organization and its human resource after colonization, with a special emphasis on the role of the citizen in this scope. Further, this paper searches the possibilities of reframing the role of citizens in order to improve the public service, utilizing the shared values of the traditional system. Being a desk research, secondary data gathered from archival sources was comprehensively reviewed and analyzed with the support of memoing and constant comparison, in order to arrive at conclusions. In the earlier system, the public sector organization was extended over the entire social organization accepting all the citizens as its direct members. The colonial administrative mechanism formed a separate organization consisting of officers to manage the public affairs. As a result, the citizens’ role as active members of the public administrative system was diminished and they became mere service receivers. Alienation of citizens from direct involvement in public services created a sense of loss of ownership which made ground for less accountability, less responsibility and less commitment in communal matters. Even though the contemporary context is different from the pre-colonial era, there may be opportunities of enforcing the commitment of citizens for better utilization of public resources and services through increasing their involvement. Keywords: public service, human resource, role of citizens

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Women Entrepreneurial Success: Gender Bias in Their Potential and Real Outcomes S. Weerawansa and I Aponsu Department of Economics, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka [email protected]; [email protected] This paper discusses woman entrepreneurs in terms of the exceptional challenges they face and explores how those affect their entrepreneurial potential and the outcome. Stated differently, women face challenges of a different sort in comparison to their male counterparts despite the fact that entrepreneurship is expected to be gender neutral. Notably, as a common outcome, and women taken broadly, women entrepreneurs have relatively low success rate or high failure rate as business entrepreneurs. Sri Lankan research on women entrepreneurship in general, and even in Asian context, has been extremely limited, that such data are subjective and extremely difficult to obtain may have been a major factor as to why such research has not gained any traction amongst the research community or policy makers. This research study which is a qualitative assessment is based on, first a pilot survey of women in business in particular in the SME sector, and next detailed case studies of selected women entrepreneurs who faced either mediocre success or complete collapse of business. Evident from the feedback was the struggle and the challenges women entrepreneurs face in business growth, or in the least, their struggle to remain afloat in business appear to be complex than any average business challenges faced by their male counterparts. The study concludes that women entrepreneurship at the outset is gender handicapped from their upbringing in a male-focused social fabric, especially in terms of their ability to go through business risks. Quite a number of women entrepreneurs are associated with their passion or skills in production of goods or services. But their initial drive appears to have not provided enough momentum for them to undertake an enlarged and complex business of running an enterprise It is hoped that this piece of research will generate further interest, and in the medium term, a critical set of policy interventions that will create a paradigm shift that enables, inspires and sustains women entrepreneurship as a vital input of development. Keywords: women entrepreneurs, business enterprises, work-life balance, gender-specific business challenges, women in SMEs, women in business

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Factors Affecting the Adoption of Replanting by the Corporate Tea Sector in Uva Region Abewardana Prsanna Rathnayake Shashika and Kahandage Prathibha Department of Export Agriculture, Uva Wellassa University, Sri Lanka [email protected] Tea industry plays an important role in the Sri Lankan economy and it earns foreign exchange which accounts for about 13% of the national foreign exchange earnings. The Ceylon tea productivity is decreasing by enabling competitors to extend their wings in tea market. Therefore, strategies such as replanting are encouraged to overcome the problem. Over the last five decades of commercial replanting, the average annual tea replanting rate was only 0.97%. To achieve the conventionally accepted norm of 2% annual replanting in the corporate sector, the extent replanted annually should have been an average of 1,453.68 ha per annum. According to a research conducted by Tea Research Institute, Talawakelle, lower rate of replanting adoptability has been in Uva region from 1956 to 2008. Since there are no empirical research studies regarding the replanting adoption of Uva region, this study was conducted to assess the current situation of tea estate sector with respect to replanting adoption, to estimate the average annual replanting rate of corporate tea sector in Uva region and to determine the factors affecting adoption of replanting by corporate tea sector in Uva region. A structured questionnaire based survey was carried out to collect data from 40 tea estates in Uva region using simple random and stratified sampling methods. The multiple linear regression was used in data analysis. The results revealed that the percentage of land allocated for replanting was significantly determined by the company support, climatic factor, impact of cost of replanting and the tea land size. The implementation of the government policy on replanting to enhance annual replanting rate will lead to incur foreign exchange to Sri Lanka. Keywords: replanting, corporate tea sector, adoption

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An Overview of the British Influence on Law of Insurance in Sri Lanka Niroshika Liyana Muhandiram Department of Legal Studies The Open University of Sri Lanka [email protected] Insurance is an integral part in the modern commercial world for which modern man is also more concerned in their day-to-day life. Due to the reasons beyond ones control, the risk of danger is there at any time of the day for life, property and liabilities of any person regardless of the fact that whether they are rich or poor. In the modern global society where personal, commercial and social relations have expanded greatly, it is Insurance that provides the precaution in respect of risks. Insurance has expanded today by leaps and bounds and as such it would be very difficult indeed, to find out any enterprise which has not resorted to insurance. Law of Insurance in Sri Lanka mostly derives from the English Law as a Legacy of colonialism by statutes as well as judicial interpretation. General Principles of the Insurance wholly depend on English law without considering any other legal system or current social needs of the society. This paper aims to look at the outline of law of insurance, applicability of English law relating to insurance and to find existing lacunas of the law. Finally, this paper would make suggestions for Sri Lankan Insurance law for the betterment of the people rather than confining to the English Common Law principles. Keywords: insurance, English law, statutes, judicial interpretation, principles of insurance

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Impact of International Male and Female Labour Migration on Families: A Case Study of the Karandeniya DS Division in the Galle District K. V. Weerasingha and R.A.S.P.Ranabahu Department of Geography University of Ruhuna, Matara International labour migration of men and women from Sri Lanka has been increasing over the last several decades. According to Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment (2012), the male and female participation for foreign employment was recorded as 50.94 percent and 49.07 percent respectively. This labour migration is attributed to various issues in Sri Lanka affecting both the migrant as well as the family leave behind in the country. This particular study therefore attempted to examine the impacts of male and female labour migration on the migrant families in Sri Lanka. The primary data collection was performed using interviewer-administered questionnaire and in-depth interviews. The main respondents were returnee migrants, their family members including parents, spouses and children. The data and information was analyzed and presented qualitatively using quotations. The findings of this study show that, financial difficulties leading to debt, inability to provide education for children due to lack of financial resources, lack of proper housing, lack of permanent livelihood were the major reasons behind both male and female migration in the area. The migration has been occurred under a strong objection from the children in 85% of the female migrant households while in the case of male migrant households, the percentage was reported as 25%. In the male migrant households, the primary caregiver being the mother in the absence of their father, the care-giving was performed satisfactorily and therefore minimum negative impacts could be seen. In the case of female migrant households, majority of the children left behind was looked after by elders who were older than 65 years amidst various difficulties and shortcomings. The study therefore revealed that the negative impacts of migration could be identified more in the female migrant families than in male migrant families in both areas. Keywords: international labour migration, female migrants, male migrants, impacts, family

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Will BRICS and New Development Bank Build a Big Challenge to Western Economies? K.K. Saman Udaya Kantha Department of Economics University of Ruhuna-Matara [email protected] BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) leaders of the five nations enjoyed and celebrated their unbroken collaboration and strength, as the largest and fast emerging economies in international financial and economic system. BRICS countries actually have paid greater attention and continuously maintained profound and potential discussions to establish the New Development Bank (NDB) and Contingency Reserve Arrangement (CRA) during the long two years of negotiations. More importantly, because the two multilateral institutions are ineffective and inefficient with regards to developing nations included emerging economies. Particularly, IMF-World Bank policies brought negative effectiveness on emerging economies and they have been provided insufficient privileges and discriminative around the global aspects. The aim of this study is to examine the BRICS and New Developed Bank and it’s playing unmatched role to global economy. The CRA is actually a mutual-aid commitment mechanism. The BRICS countries are committed to contributing a total of $ 100 billion to the CRA. During recent years, emerging economies succeeded to demonstrate economically their sustainable growth performances. Today US Dollar used as the dominant currency but it failed to provide sufficient advantages to emerging economies, therefore BRICS needed to introduce alternative for US Dollar. World Bank-IMF they never consider existing agreement such as bi- or multi-lateral, but restrictions and imposed barriers are considered as the contradictory versions to Western-Led Neoliberalized Policy Package. The launching of the NDB is of deep and farreaching significance because it is about far more than just the birth of a multilateral financial institution. Keywords: BRICS, NDB, western economies

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Session 02 Environment, Ecology and Technology

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Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts of Southern Expressway in Sri Lanka Malika.K.1, Raveendran. S2. Temporary Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Jaffna, email: [email protected] 2 Senior Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Jaffna, email: [email protected]

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This research was intended to give an insight into the impacts of Southern Expressway on Social Economy and environment in the South Western region of Sri Lanka. The Expressway while providing enhanced connectivity and comforts in transport and some other economic benefits, causes considerable damages to the environment and Economy. This research is undertaken with a view to giving some productive recommendations to have the Expressway with negligible damage to the environment and Economy. This research has been undertaken by analyzing relevant dada including EIA report and other secondary and primary data pertaining to the Southern Expressway. Data, concerning the conditions and impacts of expressway suitable for research were collected through direct observation, questionnaire and interview from those who use the facilities and living in the vicinity. Environmental impact assessment and descriptive methods to assess the social impacts have been used to analyze the data. The finding shows that the bio-diversity, atmosphere, cultivable lands have been affected and few of the impacts continue to be so in the future. Increasing the employment and income level, reduction of CO2 emission due to lessened distances and the decrease in the duration of travelling are noticeable advantages. The research looks at this issue with a scientific point of view by deploying social and environmental impact assessments. The areas dealt with and the findings are pragmatic which emphasizes minimizing reclamation of environmental sensitive areas by latest construction technologies. The research while highlighting the advantages by the Expressway also emphasizes the need for consideration of efficient methods of developing highways to protect environment and other side effects when planning any Expressway in the future. Keywords: expressway, environmental sensitive area, corban emission, land use, economic impact

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Post Conflict Foreign Policy Challenges of Sri Lanka: With Special Reference to India Shashikala Aloka Kumari Madanayaka. Deaprtment of Economics, University of Kelaniya [email protected] The foreign policy of a state plays a key role in conducting legitimate and cooperative relations between countries. Likewise, Sri Lanka has continued cordial foreign policy relations with India for centuries, as the only closest neighbor of Sri Lanka in Indian Ocean. Due to the civil conflict with LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam) in Sri Lanka since 1930s, there were several controversial situations between Sri Lanka and India. India has influenced Sri Lanka directly during the civil conflict such as Indian Intervention in Sri Lanka civil conflict, 13th amendment, indo-Sri Lanka peace accord and Operation Poomalai. Fortunately Sri Lanka has gained the victory from the civil conflict by defeating LTTE in 2009. It resulted in several challenges with India in the context of foreign policy execution. The main research problem of this study is to identify the post conflict foreign policy challenges of Sri Lanka with India. The Sub objective of the study is to elaborate the post conflict foreign policy challenges of Sri Lanka with India. For this study, only secondary data is used. According to the study, the post conflict foreign policy challenges of Sri Lanka with India are, 13th amendment issue, anti-Sri Lankan movement in Tamil Nadu, Cooperation in Human Rights and War Crime issue, Perception of India regarding the China – Sri Lanka relation, and illegal maritime movement of Indians. These Challenges could be overcome with the collective effort of the new leadership of the Indian government and Sri Lanka. Keywords: Post Conflict, Foreign Policy, Challenges, Sri Lanka, India

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Climate Change as an Emerging Trend in the International Trade Law in 21 st Century and its Impact on Sri Lanka O.A.V.Priyadarshana Mrs. KanchanaLiyanapathirana Department of Law University of Peradeniya [email protected] [email protected] Climate change is a recent trend in the field of international trade law in 21 st century. The Stern Review (2006) notes that climate change is a serious challenge. The economic challenges are complex and require a long term international collaboration. Therefore, European countries have tried to draft policies, laws and regulations to tackle this problem. It is a major concern in the international trade law because handling them is required for sustainable development. Basically, international business and trade transactions depend on climate because changes in climate negatively affect the economic goals, social development and activities of human life. The major trust of this study is to examine whether those policies are sufficient to deal with climate changes under international trade law. The methodology of the study is qualitative approach and the relevant information was gathered from library resources and the valid internet sources. Those data are compared with Sri Lankan background and give recommendations to implement new policies regarding this area. The findings suggest that domestic level laws have a deficiency to handle climate changes with regard to international trade. It is revealed that in spite of treaties, conventions, protocols, regulations, acts and various legal aspects regarding handling of climate changes within the field of international trade there is a deficiency of domestic law. Keywords – climate changes, international trade law, policies, emerging trend, mechanisms

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The Depletion and Degradation of Mangroves in Southern Coastal Area in the Matara District W.K.V.Dayalatha Department of Geography, University of Ruhuna Sri Lanka is gifted with natural resources. Many estuaries and lagoons are fringed with vastly diverse mangrove forests with high biodiversity. The total mangrove cover is very small as 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the total land area. It plays a major role in preventing coastal erosion and support nesting and reproduction for fish and birds. Around 25 species of flora are exclusive to mangroves and more than 25 species can be identified as associated mangroves. Mangroves also help people sustain their livelihoods in fishing, timber, and various other socio-economic activities. Heavy utilization and reforestation for shrimp farms and building construction work severely affect this ecosystem. In recent years mangrove resources have been drastically damaged or reduced due to various illegal activities. The increased human activities in coastal areas such as illegal timbering, clearing for settlements and business, dumping municipal and urban waste, land-filling for housing development, taking medicinal herbs, vegetables, poles for fences and posts have caused serious pressure to the mangroves environment. The depletion and degradation of mangroves have directly and indirectly influenced the livelihood of the people and survival of the wildlife. Main objective of this study is to identify different uses of mangroves, people’s knowledge of the fauna and flora of mangrove habitats, human impact and degradation. Study area is Gandarawatta, DevinuwaraNugegoda, Garaduwa and Thalarmba South coastal GramaNiladari Divisions in Matara District. The main method used for data collection in the research was a questionnaire survey using random sampling to obtain the primary data. In addition, secondary data from relevant institutions was used. Furthermore, field observations, formal and informal discussions with inhabitants were also carried out. This study proposes various practices to promote conservation and management of mangrove swamps in Sri Lanka. Keywords: estuaries, fauna, flora, lagoons, mangrove, Sri Lanka.

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Globalization, Sustainable Development and its Environmental Impacts in the Recent Development Discourse in Sri Lanka U.A.H.H. Udagearchchi, Department of Law (2nd Year), University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka [email protected] Recently, Sri Lanka has started its development journey with special focuses on several mega development projects. Though, these efforts have directed to increase in standard of living of the people and strengthen the economic growth of the country, Sri Lanka faces a plethora of environmental problems including loss of bio diversity, coastal erosion and mass pollution of land, water and air. In present context, globalization helps to reduce the distance among countries and create close relationships. Therefore, it is an integral part of the development. However, at the same time, the development process should be oriented for the well-being of human and it includes not only the satisfaction of economic needs, but also aspirations for a clean and healthy environment and preferences in terms of social development. The principle of sustainable development has now come to embrace many other aspects, such as peace and security, environmental protection and restoration, economic development and social development or human rights. In line with this discussion, the area of the study would be the interlink between development and environment. Specially, the study is dealing with relevant legal framework, its lope holes and required amendments to mitigate adverse impacts on the environment in the process of development. In this backdrop, the main objective of the study is to analyze environmental impacts of recent development discourse in Sri Lanka and the inadequacy of existing legal framework. Finally, the study would suggest the ways and means of minimizing the adverse impacts on environment due to development by strengthening the existing legal framework. As methodology, the qualitative approach of research is utilizing to gathering and analyzing information throughout the research. Under this, author has done a comprehensive literature review on text books, journal articles, various reports and internet resources on the area of study. Keywords: environmental impact, globalization, stability, sustainable development, well-being

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The Geography of Ceylon: Lanka Wistraya (1853) A Critical Analysis of the Oldest Existing Sinhala Geography Book K.M.B.N.Konara Department of Sinhala, Faculty of Arts, University of Peradeniya [email protected] Lanka Wistraya, also known as The Geography of Ceylon, can be considered as the oldest existing Sinhala geography textbook used in Sri Lankan schools. Published by the Sinhalese Tract Society in 1853, Lanka Wistraya contains 64 pages and includes 12 chapters. The book, unlike modern geography books, does not include visual maps but instead relies on detailed written accounts of the country it describes—in this case, Sri Lanka. Though the author of the book has not been clearly identified, it is likely he/she was a foreign missionary writer who was able to converse and write in Sinhala. Though the book contains 12 chapters, it can easily be divided into two thematic parts. The first six chapters provide general accounts of Sri Lanka such as its location along with descriptions of Sri Lanka’s mountains, rivers, climate, and various inhabitants. The next six chapters provide specific geographical descriptions of the six provinces, which that author labels as, Western, Southern, Central, Northwest, North, and Eastern. The book identifies the main towns in each town along with the distances between each town. It also provides details, on a provincial level, of the people, jobs, production, and important places in each province. Historical descriptions are also provided when necessary. Importantly, the book also contains occasional mentions of the author’s missionary teachings and temperance ideologies. The sacred ascription of Buddhist and Hindu places is both explicitly and implicitly undermined as motivated by the author’s missionary agenda. My research attempts to critically analyze the Lanka Wistraya, delving deeper to explore its meaning and significance. Keywords: Lanka Wistraya, missionary teaching, Sinhala language, sacred places, Sinhalese tract society

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Tendencies of Natural Forest Resource Utilization (Endemic Shorea Species) among Peripheral Communities of the North Western Slope of the Sinharaja Forest Reserve in the British Colonial and Postcolonial Srilanka R.K. Chaminda Kumara Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Kelaniya, Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. [email protected] Sinharaja is a tropical rain forest located between 6 0 21’ – 60 26’ North and 800 30’ – 800 34’ East. It spreads across 11187 hectares in Galle, Matara and Rathnapura districts. Over the centuries, the peripheral communities of Sinharaja have interacted with the forest in many ways. Basically, their livelihood has been based on the natural resources from the forest. One of the major resources they receive from the forest are Dummala (resin) and Beraliya for their edible purposes from endemic Shorea species in Sinaharaja. The main objective of the study was to study the tendencies of natural forest resource utilization (Endemic Shorea species) among peripheral communities of Sinharaja Forest Reserve in the British colonial and post colonial Sri Lanka. Other objectives were to identify the Shorea species in the study area and to study the effect of forest degredation on Shorea species and to study the indigenous knowledge adopted by the community to consume forest materials. Six villages namely Kudawa, Pethiyakanda, Pitakele, Kosgulana, Kongahakanda and Ketalapaththala in North western slope of Sinharaja forest were selected for the study. A random sample of 20.0% from each of the six villages and a total of 59 families were selected. For analyzing the data sample, statistical methods such as obtaining percentages and mean values were used. The study shows the importance and interactions of the Shorea species for and with the human life. 96.61% of the villagers use Shorea species in their activities in the study area, while only 3.39% do not. Currently the effect of the legal system of the Forest Department and the government have reduced collecting those natural forest products. Due to tea plantation, busy life style, collecting Beraliya and dummala has been reduced in the study area. Keywords: endemic shorea species, Sinharaja, peripheral communities, utilization of shorea

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Sodium-Adsorption Ratio in an Inland Agricultural Water Sources: A Preliminary Study in the South Eastern Region

1&2

M.A.C.M. Haniffa1, R. Senthilnithy2, K.R.R. Mahanama3 Faculty of Applied Sciences, Southeastern University of Sri Lanka, Sammanthurai. 3Department of Chemistry, University of Colombo, Colombo 3. Corresponding author: [email protected]

The Inland agricultural water sources are contaminated by various types of pollutants such as domestic, municipal and industrial waste effluents. The water from these types of sources alters the quality of agricultural land through changing its characteristics. Among them Sodium-adsorption ratios (SAR) is one of most important factors and it may be larger in the above water sources than stream waters due to its receiving large amount of discharge wastewater effluents. The impact of these waste water effluents on the inland agricultural water system were monitored over a period of six months for two different water sources namely station 1(karivaku-Kalmunai) and station 2 (Allai-Sammanthurai). The significant level of SAR, Total dissolved solid (Tds) and specific conductivity (SC) were collected during the study. Average specific conductance of 792.56 (μS/cm) at 29 oC at station1 was larger than the average specific conductance of 508.20 μS/cm in random samples collected at station 2. Higher sodium concentration (11.45 mg/ l) and SAR (7.6) value were found at station1 and the opposite is true at station2 with sodium concentration (9.9 mg/ l) and SAR (6.3) value. SC and SAR values statistically significant (p-Values < 0.01) at two stations. The strongest correlations were observed between SC and SAR values at station1 (R2= 0.89) and at station2 (R2 = 0.91) respectively. Huge level (394.37 mg/ l) of dissolved solid was measured at station1 during monsoon and the lowest value was found at station2. Keywords: water bodies, sodium-adsorption ratio, total dissolved solid, specific conductivity

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Role of Agriculture Sector in Economic Development and the Evolution of Sri Lankan Economy R.A.P.I.S.Dharmadasa1 and K.P.K.S. Kodikara2 Department of Export Agriculture, Uva Wellassa University 2Department of History and Archeology, University of Ruhuna 1

This paper is an attempt to explore and review the role of agriculture sector with respect to the economic development in Sri Lanka. We mainly focus and consider the period after the independence putting special emphasis on the periods of import substitution and economic liberalization. The findings reveal that contribution by the agriculture sector to the economy has been declining for last few decades and shortage of labor in the sector has become one of the major challenges. The major reason behind shrinking of labor force is the outmigration of skilled and unskilled labor from agriculture sector. It further reveals that sector performance is nearly stagnant. If the agriculture sector is to be an important contributor to the economic growth in a country like us, we have to revive and restore agriculture by increasing production, reducing the yield gap between the potential and the actual, transforming the agrarian system and cropping patterns and developing an institutional framework to support a more productive and commercialized agriculture. Keywords: agriculture, economic development, import substitution, economic liberalization, labor outmigration

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Disastrous Impact of High Winds on Daily Human Activities in Post Colonial Sri Lanka: With Special Reference to Gale Force Winds of July 2014 in the Welimada DSD, Badulla District Mrs S.K. Mohamed Ali1,R.M. Anuradha Sandamali2, R.K. Chaminda Kumara3 1Department of Geography, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka. 2B/ MaligathannaVidayalaya, Rathkarauwa, Welimada, Sri lanka. 3Faculty of Graduate studies, University of Kelaniya, Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Sri Lanka’s climate is primary determined by the two Asian monsoons, the South West (SW) and North East (NE) Monsoons. The SW Monsoon lasts from May till early October. The SW monsoon, the stronger of the two is felt along the entire south west coast of Sri Lanka as well as in all interior areas and some mountainous regions. The dry SW monsoon winds assumed Gale force of 12 th to 14th of July in 2014 with wind speed between 117.5-180.0 kmph according to Fujita Scale of Damaging Wind and disrupted the day to day lives in the affected areas. More than 800 houses have been damaged by these winds in the Nuwara Eliya, Badulla, Rathnapura, Monaragala and Matale Districts. The main objective of this study was to study the damaging effect of the gale force winds of 2014 on day to day activities of the families in the affected Grama Niladari (GN) divisions of the Welimada DSD. Other objectives were to find out whether early warning had been issued, the observations of the community on the intensified winds situation, safety method adopted by the community during the disaster and the affect to dwellings and green houses in the study area. Five GN Divisions namely Alugolla, Ohiya, Palugama, Keppetipola and Gavaramana were selected as the study area of Welimada DSD in Badulla District of Sri Lanka. The primary method adopted was a questionnaire survey and field observation. Stratified random sampling technique based on a list of affected families provided by the Grama Niladari of each division was selected as the sample. One hundred and fifteen (115) families were selected from these divisions. Other supplementary methods included interviews, personal and group discussions. Simple statistical methods such as percentages were used to analyze the data. Keywords: wind damage, Welimada, damages, early warning, safety methods, greenhouses

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Geographical Factors that Affect the Changes of Tsunami Impacts of the South West Coast of Sri Lanka S. Wijeratne Department of Geography University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka The South West coast of Sri Lanka has become heavily impacted by the tsunami wave train that attacked to the Sri Lankan coast. However, the extension of tsunami inundation and consequent damage was not uniform over the south west coastal area, as well as affected coastal environment of Sri Lanka. In general, wave characteristics such as, velocity, height, distance, direction of wave approach are controlled by morphology and morphometrics of a coast. Accordingly changes of characteristics of tsunami waves, as well as, tsunami changes were identified through the interpretation of satellite images and field measurements. The data which were collected from these methods were analyzed using SPSS and Geographical Information System. With respect to tsunami affected areas, the damage was less on cliffy and intenedness coast of areas with resistant rocks such as, granites, charnokites and gneiss. The reason for minimizing the damages on these coastal systems was that the elevation of the land area is higher than the height of the tsunami waves. The relief of the area has caused the inundation distance of the tsunami waves and the tsunami impacts. The relief and inundation distance have a closer relationship. Accordingly, wherever the elevation is less, the inundation distance of the tsunami becomes high, and rivers, lagoons, estuaries and coastal plains are the special places for higher inundation among them. It can be identified that the coastal orientation affected the spatial variation of tsunami impacts. Differentiate of the influences of the tsunami waves also caused the beach; whether it is broad or not. 90% erosion of this coastal area by means of tsunami waves was caused above mentioned facts and if there was a broad and beach, the erosion has become less. According to the analysis of these geographical factors, it can be determined the risky areas of a future tsunami. Keywords: tsunami, morphometrics, inundation, intenseness, orientation, curvature

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Evolution of Colombo City and its Environs in The Recent Past Jinadasa Katupotha Emeritus Professor, Department of Geography University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka [email protected] The historical geography of Colombo City comprising the City proper, the Fort and Port and its environs can be traced from past maps, plans, images and plates, which look back more than five centuries. Most of these are military in nature where details are portrayed in drawings followed by written descriptions. Evolution and development pattern of the City, Fort and Port have a direct relationship with the local geology, relief and surrounding drainage pattern. Such physical phenomena influenced strongly in the development of the City. Although, the British colonial tradition which is to culminate on the 2nd of March, 2015, the history of Dutch and Portuguese invasions to colonize the country go back to 1505 A.D. Subsequently, Dutch Ceylon was established by the Dutch East India Company. It existed from 1640 until 1796. The British captured the island in its entirety on the 2nd of March, 1815 and vigorously propagated on it their system of values in culture, economics, politics, Christianity, administration, technology, industry, health and education. All these features of colonialism are evidently depicted in historical maps, plans, images and plates of Colombo. Based on such material, this paper highlights both positive and negative conditions imposed by the respective colonial regimes especially during the British Ceylon, known then as Ceylon. It was a British Crown colony between 1815 and 1948 as well as Post Colonial period between 1948 and up to now. During the past 65-year period, the Colombo City and its environs have transformed immensely as revealed by modified coastline, multitude of high-rise buildings, globally-linked multifaceted commercial establishments and modern-day infrastructural facilities. Keywords: evolution of Colombo city, historical maps, British Ceylon, postcolonial period

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Colonial Impacts on Traditional Land Use Pattern in Sri Lanka: A Case Study of the Use Traditional Home Gardening Knowledge to Increase Flora Diversity in the Wet Zone Peripheral Forest Areas W.M. Gangani Chandralatha Department of Geography Forest degradation and deforestation have become major global environmental problems. This situation is common for Sri Lanka too. There was considerable forest coverage in Sri Lanka in ancient times. But now, it is decreased. As an example there was 70% forest coverage in 1990, and it is decreased in to 50% in 1953 and 14% in 2000. Community based forest management is presented as a solution for this problem in the contemporary alternation. Home gardening can use as a community based forest management approach with using traditional and modern knowledge. Peripheral forest areas and wet zone are important with this concept. The main objective of this study is to identify how can used the traditional home garden knowledge for increase the flora diversity in the peripheral forest areas in the wet zone. Other objectives are study the flora diversity in traditional and modern home gardens, study the difference of this two home gardens, and study the suitability of usage the knowledge in modern and traditional home gardens for increase flora diversity in peripheral forest areas in the wet zone. Study area of this research is Kodikragama gramaniladari division in Pitabaddara divisional secretarial division. Data collection is done as the primary data collection and secondary data collection. Field studies are done in collecting primary data collecting and published and unpublished written sources are used in getting secondary data. Data analysis is done both quantitative and qualitative and became to the final conclusion. Final conclusion of the study is traditional home garden knowledge is suitable and possible to appropriate in peripheral forest areas and wet zone to increase the flora diversity. According to the above information people should informed giving traditional home garden knowledge to cultivating lands in peripheral forest areas in the wet zone to increase the flora diversity by responsible institutes. Keywords: traditional home gardens, modern home gardens, traditional knowledge, flora diversity, peripheral forest areas, wet zone

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Temperature and Rainfall Changes in Sri Lanka: An Analysis of Long-Term and Recent Trends P.H.Amaraweera Department of Geography University of Ruhuna, Matara Climate change is an issue of great concern over the world as well as in Sri Lanka. This paper examines the climate change evidences of Sri Lanka by analyzing temperature and rainfall data of two different observation periods: long term (1901-2012) and recent (1981-2012). Monthly mean temperature and annual and seasonal rainfall was collected from 14 Meteorological Stations located in three major climatic zones of Sri Lanka; wet, dry and intermediate. The time series of temperature and rainfall data were analyzed in order to detect the trends. The modified non parametric Man-Kendall Test has been used together with the Sen’s Slope Estimator for the determination of trend and slope magnitude. The analysis of data for both long term and recent periods have clearly shown a changein temperature and rainfall in Sri Lanka. Over the 112 year period from 1901 to 2012, annual mean temperature increased at all stations except Hambantota from 0.00130C(Kandy ) to 0.01200C (Puttalam). The results of the analysis performed for the recent period from 1981 to 2012 indicate that all the stations except Ratnapura, Mannar and Puttalam show an increasing trend.Compared with the long-term period, the recent period from 1981 to 2012 shows a stronger positive trend of warming except for mentioned three stations viz., Ratnapura, Mannar and Puttalam. According to the rainfall analysis for the period 1901 to 2012, all stationsexcept Colombo, Badulla and Puttalamshow a decreasing trend from 0.193ml (Hambantota) to 5.106ml (NuwaraEliya). In the recent analysis also, a decreasing trend has been shown in Puttalam, Kurunegala, Ratnapura and Nuwaraeliya while the rest of the stations indicate an increasing trend from 1.752 ml (Katunayake) to 23.733 ml (Batticaloa). Compared with the long-term period, majority of the studied stations have shown an increasing rainfall trend in the recent period from 1981 to 2012. Keywords: climate change, temperature, rainfall, trend, Man-Kendall test

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Identification of Low Lying Areas that are Most at Risk Due to Households Emerging in the Colombo Metropolitan Region GPTS Hemakumara1 and Ruslan Rainis2 Senior Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Ruhuna 2Professor, Geography Section, School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia [email protected] 1

Conversion of low lying areas has occurred due to several factors. This study examines how these low lying areas have been converted due to households emerging in Colombo Metropolitan Region (CMR) over the past decades. CMR consists of 40 sub-districts and constitutes the core economic hub of Sri Lanka. Hence, all lands including those in low lying areas of the CMR are in great demand for development activities as well as for individual housing requirements. This study mainly focuses on the locations of the low lying areas existing in CMR and the rate at which households have been emerging in these highly sensitive areas. According to the research investigation, out of 5769.11 hectares in Wattala sub-district, 3063.32 hectares comprise low lying areas, which account for 53.19% of the total land area. This study also focuses on how houses have been emerging in different areas of Wattala and notes that the emergence of new houses in Kerawalapitiya Village is very high compared to other areas of Wattala sub-district. It has been recorded that 1023 households have been newly established within the Kerawalapitiya GN Division where most of the land area is low lying. The Geographical Information System (GIS) was used to build a comprehensive information system for other areas at risk in the CMR as spatial database and these risk maps for the entire CMR were entered produced. Empirical research evidence was gathered during the field observations and questionnaire interviews to measure the level of conversion due to emergence of households. Finally, it was found that out of 408 houses that were surveyed for this research, there are 223 houses where the occupants have been highly active in converting their particular land plots to become stable households in the low lying areas of the CMR. The results of this study will prove useful in monitoring, managing and reducing the present practice of new households emerging in the low lying areas in an uncontrolled manner. Keywords: low land management, land conversion, household emerging

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Relationship between Tropical Rain Forest Biodiversity and Local Communities & its Impact on Forest Conservation: A Case Study of the Sinharaja Forest Reserve Helene Svendsen and Piyadasa Hewage This study aimed to investigate the socio-economic impacts of forest reserves on the livelihoods of surrounding local communities, particularly their sustainability. It is based on a case study of Sinharaja Forest Reserve. The site is an icon of biodiversity conservation in Sri Lanka, which has led to a considerable increase in conservation awareness among the general public. However, today, there are still some threats to the Sinharaja Forest Reserve, including but not limited to illegal encroachment by tea plantations along its boundary, camps for kithul tapping, and invasive species. These problems could seriously compromise the conservation of the World Heritage site in the future. The study was is based on a minor field study within the social sciences (global development studies), and the data were collected through semistructured interviews and observations, as the goal is to gain a lot of in-depth information, allowing a more complex insight that often get lost in surveys. In addition, the secondary data included available literary sources (books and journals) and reports by local governments, and quantitative secondary data such as statistical reports from, for example Sri Lanka Forest Conservation Department. To make sure that the data collected is reliable, data were collected from multiple sources to support a claim and create a sufficient level of reliability and validity. Respondents were found through purposive sampling in two different locations on different sides of the forest; close to Kalawana and Deniyaya. Within these villages, random sampling or the snowball effect were used to further select respondents for interviews. Respondents were asked more or less the same questions, to create multiple takes on the same issue in order to get a generalizable idea of the people’s views. One goal is to collect several records of experiences, in order to compare them and find similarities and contradictions. Components of the verbal discussions held with key informants were analyzed in an objective and systematic manner. To ascertain the values and attitudes of the respondents, all the interviews will be transcribed and added as an appendix to the research paper. Keywords: tropical rain forest biodiversity, local communities, forest conservation

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Isolation and Characterization of Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria from the Rhizosphere of Tomato Plants Walpola B.C1. andArunkumara K.K.I.U2. Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna 2Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna 1

Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) possessing the ability to solubilize insoluble inorganic phosphates was isolated from rhizosphere soil of tomato plants in South Korea. The inorganic phosphate solubilization potential of the strain was assessed under different culture and medium conditions. The strain was found to be efficient at solubilizing inorganic phosphate under a wide range of pH (7 to 10), temperature (20 to 40 oC) and salt concentrations (0 to 7.5 % NaCl). The maximum phosphate solubilization (645 µg ml -1) was recorded when the medium contained glucose (2 %) and ammonium chloride (0.1 %) respectively as the source of carbon and nitrogen and NaCl (2.5 %) with pH adjusted to 7 at temperature 35 oC. PCR amplification of the rRNA gene and sequence analysis identified the bacterium as Enterobacterludwigii DSM 16688. Based on the results, Enterobacterludwigii could be recommended as an attractive candidate for the development of microbial inoculants suit for stress environments. Keywords: Enterobacterludwigii, phosphate environments, microbial inoculants

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solubilizing

bacteria,

stress

Retina – An Android Application for Visually Impaired People to Identify Currency GihanLakmal De Silva1, U.M.RoshanMadhushanka Jayathunga1, W. ImeshaDumindi Perera1 and U. Priyatharsan1 1Department of Physical Science, Faculty of Applied Science, Vavuniya Campus of the University of Jaffna [email protected] Visual impairment is a decreased ability to see it causes problems that are not fixable by usual means, such as spectacles or medication. Although the visually impaired people are incapable of seeing who has a special level of touch sensitivity, they use this ability to identify objects. When it comes to currency, they use the unique embossed marks of the notes to differentiate them. Even in new currency note series of Central Bank of Sri Lanka a vertical order of heavily printed (Braille) dots (with one dot for Rs.20 banknote) according to denomination appears on the left hand side of the banknote to help the visually impaired to recognize the denomination. But due to misuse and frequent use these embossed marks wear-down. Then the visually impaired people cannot identify currency notes by themselves. In order to help reduce these difficulties this paper introduces a new Sri Lankan Currency Notes Detection System as an android application for visually impaired people. This system detects color and key points of the note using image processing techniques, then proceeds to recognize and tells the user the value of the currency note as a vocal output. Keywords: retina; visual impairment, android application, image processing techniques

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Session 03 Health and Hygiene

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Abortion and Homicide; the Buddhist concept Malawi Pathirana Ranjani Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka [email protected] Abortion means the destruction of the embryo conceived in a mother’s

womb. In other words, an unborn baby is killed. There are three main factors concerning the birth of babies in the human reproductive system. These factors are described in Mahātanhāsankhaya Sutta of Majjhima Nikhāya. In the process of the moment of conceiving a baby, the conscious mind is connected to it. The development of the embryo is stated in Indaka Sutta of Samyutta Nikhāya. If an embryo is destroyed after it is conceived, it will be a homicide. According to Buddhism, homicide is a sin or a demerit. Pārājikā Pāli states that any support given in the act of abortion is a demerit. The percentage of abortion is increasing gradually. The Laws are not adequately powerful to prevent abortions at present. It can be prevented according to Buddhism. Man is an animal with a higher mental state. There is the attachment caused by the pleasures of the human beings. Man can control his behaviour to prevent abortion. Because, Buddhism emphasizes that abortion is a homicide. This research paper reveals those facts. Keywords: child, abortion, homicide, prevent, Buddhism

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Food Consumption Patterns of Adolescent School Girls in a Sub-Urban Area in Sri Lanka Thakshila Adikari Department of Applied Nutrition, Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries and Nutrition Wayamba University of Sri Lanka [email protected]

1

Adolescence is the transition period between childhood and adulthood in where rapid physical, mental, emotional and social development takes place. These changes can impact significantly upon nutrition, as the transition process generates attitudes, beliefs, and ways of thinking that can strongly influence food choices. Adolescent girls are considered to be a nutritionally vulnerable segment since they need more Fe, Ca, Folate like micronutrients to achieve peak bone mass and to compensate menstrual Fe loss. Therefore, adequate nutrient intake through eating a balanced diet is essential to fulfill the nutrients requirements of an adolescent girl. Hence, this cross sectional study was carried out to assess the food intake patterns of a sample of adolescent school girls in Pannala. A self-administered lifestyle questionnaire and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) that consisted of foods from different food groups were used to gather information on socio-demographic characteristics and the frequency of food consumption. The subjects were asked to specify their consumption patterns of foods from different food groups and food consumption patterns were presented as a percentage of daily, weekly, monthly and never consumption. A total number of 143 adolescent school girls, aged 14-16 years (mean 16.48+ 0.68) were recruited from schools in Pannala. All of the girls consumed cereals for three major meals while one third of subjects were consuming 4-5 types of vegetables daily. This study concluded that the foods in adolescents’ diets have not represented verity of foods from different food groups. Education on importance of having a balanced diet should be addressed. Keywords: adolescence, consumption patterns, food groups, school girls

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Prevention of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) in Sri Lanka Via Gaming: A Survey. Vidanage Kaneeka1, Jayarathne Lakshman (PhD)2 University of Colombo School of Computing (UCSC), Sri Lanka [email protected] 2 [email protected] Before Sri Lanka became independent in 1948, it was initially conquered by Portuguese, Dutch and eventually by the English regimes. In that era, Sri Lanka was extremely exposed towards the colonization of the above conquerors. Though Sri Lanka obtained freedom after 1948, influences of colonial impacts are still remaining. The traditional social structures were heavily induced, by the impact of post-colonial effects. Noble social values like humanity, justice, honesty, unity are gradually diminishing and, instead several ill concerns like violence, greediness, conflicts, dissatisfaction are escalating. Presently, everything is measured in terms of money hence, “time is money” is like social motto. Money centered society has resulted in cutting throat competition. Hence currently, social wellbeing is truly a question mark, with polluted human mentality. Majority`s interpretation on gaming is negative. Many think, it is a waste, but the true fact is, it`s not. Games are highly interactive and engaging the user into it. It rewards certain behaviors of the player. Hence games are famous as strong teachers, if the game theme is developed on a positive concept with a social essence, as humanity, co-operation, collective decision making, stand against pollution or etc, players will interact with those concepts in practice in a virtual game environment. So proper grasping of thosewill be rewarded in the game. So soon, those practiced skills will become life skills.Similarly, attempt is made to prevent the Chronic Kidney disease (CKD) in Sri Lanka, by putting the strong teaching power of games into challenge. Keywords: social activities, serious games, situational analysis, cognetive behavioral therapy, depression

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Family History and Risk of Breast Cancer: A Sri Lankan Experience P. B. Hewavithana1, G.B. Hettiarachchi1*, F.F.Hassen1, K.B. Galketiya2, P. V. R Kumarasiri3,K. de Silva4 1Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, 2Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, 3Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, 4Onco Surgical Unit,General hospital, Kandy, Sri Lanka. email:[email protected] Family history is a known risk factor of breast cancer and is used to identify women at higher risk. The impact of risk factors for breast cancer among women with a family history is not well defined in local literature. Our study was designed to find out the distribution of age and family history in a group of women with a known breast cancer in Central Province, Sri Lanka. The study was conducted using data of 223 subjects, which were histologically proven for breast cancer. The cases were in the age category of 20y-80y, among the women who attended a mammographic facility in the Kandy district from 2006 to 2014. Individual data on breast cancer in family history including, first-degree relatives and second degree relatives were obtained from a mammography register maintained by the principal investigator. Family history of breast cancer was found in the first degree relatives, second degree relatives in 8.3% and 1.9% of the subjects respectively. However 89.8% had no family history of breast cancer. Breast cancer was commonest among the 50-59 age category of our study sample. Further analysis revealed that among the cases with family history 59.1% (13) and 36.3% (8) were identified as,in the age of >50y and