Material Science and Engineering

CONTENTS

CONTENTS MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Material Science and Engineering - Volume 1

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Material Science and Engineering - Volume 2

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

CONTENTS VOLUME I Materials Science and Engineering Rees D. Rawlings, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, UK 1. 2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

7. 8.

Introduction Structure of Materials Defects in Crystals 3.1. Sub-atomic Defects 3.2. Point Defects 3.3. Line Defects: Dislocations 3.4. Planar Defects 3.5. Large (macro) Defects Processing of Materials 4.1. Continuous Casting 4.2. Silicon for Electronic Devices 4.3. Laser Direct Casting Efficient Production and use of Materials 5.1. Good Design 5.2. Recycling 5.3. Reuse 5.4. Non-destructive Testing Materials in Combination 6.1. Composites 6.2. Coatings 6.3. Functionally Graded Materials Some Active Areas of Materials Development 7.1. Biomaterial 7.2. Smart Materials Concluding Remarks

Optimization of Materials Properties Harvey M. Flower, Imperial College, London, UK 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

52

Introduction Optimization through Solidification Processing Optimization through Mechanical Processing 3.1. Exploitation of Transformation Plasticity Optimization through Heat Treatment 4.1. Precipitation Hardening Optimization by local Microstructural Modification Final Comments

Bonding in Solids, Structural and Chemical Properties Robin W. Grimes, Imperial College, London, UK 1. 2.

1

69

Introduction Atomic Orbitals: their Origin and their Shapes 2.1. The Four Quantum Numbers 2.2. The Schrödinger Equation 2.2.1. Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation: The Wave Function 2.2.2. Hydrogen as a Central Force Problem 2.2.3. The Angular Component

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3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

2.2.4. Parity 2.2.5. The Radial Component 2.2.6. Energy Level Values 2.3. Atoms with more than One Electron Forming Bonds between like Atoms: Bonding and Anti-bonding Molecular Orbitals, Sigma and Pibonds 3.1. The Born-Oppenheimer Approximation 3.2. The Molecular Orbital Approximation 3.3. Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals 3.3.1. s Bonding Orbitals 3.3.2. s Anti-bonding Orbitals 3.4. The Binding Curve for H2+ 3.5. Predicting the Stability of Other Simple Molecules 3.6. The Fluorine Diatomic Molecule: Another Homonuclear Molecule 3.6.1. π Bonds in F2 Forming Bonds between Unlike Atoms: Polar Covalent and Ionic Bonds, Two Extremes of the Same Process 4.1. HF, a Polar Covalent Molecule 4.2. NaF, an Ionic Molecule A Simple Model for an Ionic Solid: A Balance between Coulombic Attraction and Short-range Repulsion 5.1. Effective Potentials for Ionic Molecules 5.1.1. The Coulomb Term 5.1.2. Short-range Contributions 5.2. Extending the Model to Bulk NaF 5.2.1. The Madelung Constant 5.2.2. The Lattice Energy and the Born−Harber Cycle 5.3. Calculating the Bulk Modulus From Hybridization to Conjugation to Band Structures: Why Diamond and Graphite have such Different Properties 6.1. Carbon 6.1.1. The Diamond Structure 6.1.2. Graphite 6.2. Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals 6.2.1. The BeCl2 Molecule 6.2.2. Methane: CH4 and sp3 Hybridization 6.2.3. Bonding in Diamond 6.2.4. Ethene: C2H4 and sp2 Hybridization 6.2.5. Conjugation and Butadiene 6.2.6. Extending the Model to Graphite More about Bands: Metals, Insulators and Semiconductors 7.1. Forming Bands in Metals 7.2. Energy Level Distribution from a Free Electron Model 7.2.1. Schrödinger Equation for a Free Electron 7.2.2. Boundary Condition 7.2.3. Electron Gas Pressure 7.2.4. Effect of a Periodic Lattice Potential on the Free Electron Density of States 7.2.5. Effect of Temperature on Electron Distribution 7.3. Forming Bands in Insulators 7.4. Forming Bands in Semiconductors 7.4.1. Intrinsic Conductivity 7.4.2. Impurity Dominated or Extrinsic Conductivity 7.5. Summary Molecular Solids, van der Waals Solids and Hydrogen Bonding 8.1. Forming Solids from Molecules 8.2. Molecular Interactions 8.2.1. Interactions between Dipoles 8.2.2. Dipoledipole Interactions: Orientation Interaction

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8.2.3. Dipole-induced Dipole Interactions: Induction Interaction 8.2.4. Induced Dipole: Dispersion Interaction 8.2.5. Comparison of Interaction Terms 8.2.6. Hydrogen Bonding 8.2.7. Repulsive Forces Conclusion: How to use the Knowledge 9.1. General Comments 9.2. The Influence of Defects 9.3. Concluding Comments

Structure and Properties of Polymers 135 Pavel Kratochvil, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republicc 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Macromolecules and Polymers Synthesis of Polymers Structure of Macromolecules Structure of Polymers Design of Polymers with Specific Properties Mechanical Properties of Polymers Rheology and Viscoelasticity of Polymers Electric and Optical Properties of Polymers Additives Polymer Processing Polymers and the Environment Methods of Polymer Characterization Specialty Polymers Conclusion

Mechanical Properties of Polymers Anil K. Bhowmick, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

157

Introduction to Mechanical Properties: General Considerations Deformation Behavior of Polymers Statistical Molecular Theories 3.1. Single Polymer Chain 3.2. Polymer Network Large Deformation Theory Finite Element Idealization Experimental Stress-Strain Plots 6.1. Stress-Strain Curves of Polymers 6.2. Stress-Strain Behavior of Elastomers 6.3. Stress-Strain Curves of Various Plastics 6.4. Stress-Strain Behavior of Block Copolymer 6.5. Stress-Elongation versus Stress-Retraction Curves 6.6. Stress-Strain Plots Under Various Deformations Dynamic Mechanical Properties 7.1. General Considerations 7.2. Zones of Viscoelastic Behavior 7.3. Stored Energy and Dissipated Energy 7.4. Equation of Motion 7.5. Temperature and Frequency Effects 7.6. Interpretation of Dynamic Mechanical Spectra of Polymers 7.6.1. Glassy Polymers 7.6.2. Crystalline Polymers 7.6.3. Elastomers

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8.

Ultimate Stress and Ultimate Strain of Polymers

Mechanical Properties of Crystalline Materials 221 Zhongguang Wang, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction Stress-strain Curves Elastic Deformation Anelastic Deformation Viscous Deformation Geometry and Crystallography of Plastic Deformation 6.1. Resolved Shear Stress and Schmid Law 6.2. The Stress-strain Curve of Ductile Single Crystals 6.3. Geometry of Slip 6.4. Twinning 7. Plastic Deformation of Polycrystals 8. Work-hardening, Recovery and Recrystallization 9. Fracture of Metals 9.1. Ductile Fracture 9.2. Brittle Fracture 9.3. Fracture Toughness 10. Fatigue of Metals 10.1. Fatigue Life Behavior 10.2. Cyclic Deformation 10.3. Crack Initiation 10.4. Crack Propagation 11. Creep and Creep-rupture 11.1. Primary Creep 11.2. Secondary Creep 11.3. Tertiary Creep and Creep Rupture 12. Mechanical Properties of Ceramic Materials 12.1. Mechanisms of the Deformation of Ceramic Materials 12.2. The Strength of Ceramic Materials 12.3. Toughening of Ceramic Materials Phase Equilibria and Microstructure 256 Philip Nash, Professor, Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering Department, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA 1.

2.

3.

Phase Equilibria 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Gibbs Phase Rule 1.2.1. Phase 1.2.2. Components 1.2.3. System 1.2.4. Equilibrium Relationships 1.2.5. Gibbs Phase Rule Phase Diagrams 2.1. Binary Phase Diagrams 2.2. Ternary and Higher Order Phase Diagrams 2.3. Metastable Phase Equilibrium Diagrams 2.4. Thermodynamic Calculation of Phase Diagrams Microstructure 3.1. Analysis of Microstructure 3.2. Non-equilibrium Microstructures 3.3. Effect of Processing on Microstructure

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3.4. Second-phase Strengthening 3.5. Grain Boundaries Index

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VOLUME II Structural and Functional Materials Helen V. Atkinson, University of Sheffield, UK 1.

2.

1

Structural Materials 1.1. Properties 1.2. Elastic Modulus 1.3. Yield Strength, Ultimate Tensile Strength, Ductility, Hardness 1.4. Plasticity: Dislocations 1.5. Work-hardening, Recovery and Recrystallization 1.6. Fracture Toughness 1.7. Fatigue 1.8. Creep 1.9. Corrosion and Oxidation 1.9.1. Oxidation 1.9.2. Wet Corrosion 1.10. Wear 1.11. Summary of Structural Materials Functional Materials 2.1. Optical Materials 2.1.1. Absorption by Isolated Atoms 2.1.2. Band Theory 2.1.3. Lasers 2.1.4. Raman Scattering 2.1.5. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence 2.2. Electrical Properties 2.2.1. Wide Range of Electrical Conductivities 2.2.2. Fundamentals of Conduction 2.2.3. Fermi Surface and Fermi Sphere 2.2.4. Scattering Mechanisms 2.2.5. Semiconductors 2.2.6. Superconductors 2.2.6.1. Applications of Superconductors 2.2.6.2. High Tc Superconductors 2.3. Dielectrics 2.3.1. Piezoelectrics 2.3.2. Ferroelectrics 2.3.3. Optical Fibers 2.3.4. The Photocopying Process 2.3.5. Liquid Crystals 2.4. Magnetic Properties 2.4.1. Ferromagnetism, Paramagnetism, Diamagnetism 2.4.2. Curie Temperature and Domains 2.4.3. Origin of Magnetism at an Atomic Level 2.4.4. Ferrimagnetism 2.4.5. Origin of Domains 2.4.6. Hard and Soft Magnets 2.4.7. Origin of Hysteresis

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2.5. Thermal Properties 2.6. Summary of Functional Materials Magnetic Materials 49 I.R. Harris, School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK A.J. Williams, School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11.

12. 13.

14.

Introduction The Origin of Magnetism Magnetic Terminology and Units Types of Magnetic Materials 4.1. Diamagnetism 4.2. Paramagnetism 4.3. Ferromagnetism 4.4. Antiferromagnetism 4.5. Ferrimagnetism Intrinsic Properties of Magnetic Materials 5.1. Saturation Magnetization 5.2. Magnetic Anisotropy Magnetic Domains Magnetic Hysteresis 7.1. Magnetic Parameters 7.2. Coercivity Mechanisms Observation of Magnetic Domains 8.1. The Bitter Method 8.2. Magneto-optic Methods Hard Magnetic Materials 9.1. Alnicos 9.2. Hard Ferrites 9.3. SmCo-based Materials 9.4. NdFeB-based Materials Applications of Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials 11.1. Iron-silicon Alloys 11.2. Amorphous and Nano-crystalline Alloys 11.3. Nickel-iron Alloys 11.4. Soft Ferrites Applications of Soft Magnetic Materials 12.1. AC Applications 12.2. DC Applications Magnetic Recording 13.1. Magnetic Tapes 13.2. Magnetic Disks 13.3. Writing and Reading Data Other Magnetic Materials 14.1. Magnetostriction 14.2. Magnetoresistance

High Temperature Structural Materials John D. Venables, Consultant on Advanced Materials, USA 1. 2.

84

Introduction Review of Current High Temperature Structural Materials 2.1. Ceramics and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) 2.2. Nickel-base Superalloys 2.3. Refractory Metals

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4.

2.4. Intermetallics Applications 3.1. Fuel Cells 3.2. Gas Turbines for Electric Power 3.3. Coal Gasification 3.4. Space Shuttle The Future

Fundamental Aspects of Corrosion of Metallic Materials 99 Philippe Marcus, Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie des Surfaces, CNRS; Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie, Paris, France Vincent Maurice, Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie des Surfaces, CNRS; Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie, Paris, France 1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

6.

7. 8.

Introduction Electrochemical Characteristics of the Corrosion of Metallic Materials 2.1. Anodic Polarization Curves 2.2. Cathodic Reaction 2.3. Thermodynamic Aspects of Corrosion and Passivity Anodic Dissolution in the Active State 3.1. Mechanisms of Anodic Dissolution 3.2. Structural Aspects Passivity of Metallic Materials 4.1. Chemical Composition and Thickness of Passive Films 4.2. Potential Drops at Passivated Surfaces 4.3. Electronic Properties of Passive Films 4.4. Structure of Passive Films 4.5. Growth Mechanisms Passivity Breakdown 5.1. Phenomenology of Pitting 5.2. Stochastic Approach of Pitting 5.3. Mechanisms of Pit Initiation 5.4. Factors Stabilizing Pit Growth Effects of Alloying Elements 6.1. Anodic Dissolution of Alloys 6.2. Chromium Oxide Enrichment in Passivated Fe-base (Stainless Steels) and Ni-base Alloys 6.3. The Effects of Molybdenum 6.4. The Effects of Nitrogen 6.5. Passivity of Aluminum Alloys 6.6. Alloying Elements as Passivity Promoters and Dissolution Moderators Sulfur-induced Corrosion Concluding Remarks

Benefits of Fiber and Particulate Reinforcement 133 Paul A. Smith, School of Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK Julie A. Yeomans, School of Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

Introduction Types of Reinforcement Mechanical Behavior of Composites 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Mechanical Behavior of Continuous Fiber Composites 3.3. Mechanical Behavior of Short Fiber and Particulate Composites 3.4. Aspects of Design with Composites Processing of Composites Reinforced Polymers

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6.

7.

8.

5.1. Introduction 5.2. Particulate and Short Fiber Systems 5.3. Long (Continuous) Fiber Systems 5.4. Processing 5.5. Applications Reinforced Metals 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Particulate and Short Fiber Systems 6.3. Long (Continuous) Fiber Systems 6.4. Processing 6.5. Applications Reinforced Ceramics 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Processing of Ceramic Matrix Composites 7.3. Particulate Ceramic Matrix Composites 7.4. Continuous Fiber Ceramic Matrix Composites Concluding Remarks

Materials Processing and Manufacturing Technologies H. McShane, Imperial College, London, UK 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

155

Introduction Processing via the Liquid State 2.1. Metals 2.1.1. Disposable Mold Casting 2.1.2. Permanent Mold Casting 2.2. Glasses 2.2.1. Drawing 2.2.2. Rolling 2.2.3. Float Process Powder Methods 3.1. Metals 3.1.1. Production of Metal/Alloy Powders 3.1.2. Future Trends 3.2. Ceramics 3.2.1. Powder Production 3.2.2. Sizing 3.2.3. Mixing 3.2.4. Shaping/Forming 3.2.5. Drying 3.2.6. Firing (Sintering) 3.2.7. Finishing Mechanical Working 4.1. Metals 4.1.1. Forging 4.1.2. Rolling 4.1.3. Extrusion 4.1.4. Rod and Wire Drawing 4.1.5. Sheet Metal Forming 4.2. Plastics Polymer Matrix Composites 5.1. Thermoplastic Matrix Composites 5.1.1. Injection Molding 5.1.2. Rotational Molding 5.2. Thermosetting Matrix Composites 5.2.1. Continuous Fiber Composites 5.2.2. Chopped Fiber or Fiber Mat Composites

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7.

8.

Processing of Fibers 6.1. Glass Fibers 6.2. Carbon or Graphite Fibers 6.3. Other Synthetic Fibers Recycling and Reuse of Materials 7.1. Polymer Recycling 7.1.1. Sorting 7.1.2. Comminution 7.1.3. Decontamination and Reprocessing 7.2. Glass Recycling 7.3. Metals Recycling 7.3.1. Separation Techniques 7.3.2. Secondary Metal Production Joining of Materials 8.1. Metal/Metal Joining 8.1.1. Mechanical Fasteners 8.1.2. Welding 8.1.3. Soldering and Brazing 8.2. Plastic/Plastic Joining 8.2.1. Welding of Thermoplastics 8.3. Ceramic/Ceramic Joining 8.3.1. Reactive Brazing 8.3.2. Adhesive Bonding 8.4. Ceramic/Metal Joining

Processing from the Liquid State 184 Arne K. Dahle, Senior Lecturer, CRC for Cast Metals Manufacturing (CAST), Department of Mining, Minerals and Materials Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia David H. StJohn, Professor, CRC for Cast Metals Manufacturing (CAST), Department of Mining, Minerals and Materials Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia 1. 2. 3.

4.

Introduction Liquid State Fundamentals of Processing from the Liquid State 3.1. Heat Flow 3.2. Crystallisation 3.2.1. Nucleation 3.2.2. Growth 3.2.3. Microstructure Modification and Control 3.3. Non-equilibrium and Metastable Phase Formation 3.4. Rheological Properties 3.5. Casting Defects 3.5.1. Porosity 3.5.2. Other Casting Defects Processing Methods 4.1. Continuous Casting 4.2. Net-Shape Forming 4.2.1. Sand and Investment Casting 4.2.2. Die Casting 4.2.3. Centrifugal Casting 4.2.4. Semi-solid Casting and Forging 4.2.5. Single-crystal Growth 4.3. Rapid Solidification Processes

Powder Methods Randall M. German, Pennsylvania State University, USA

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2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction 1.1. Shaping Versus Compaction 1.2. Shaping Technologies 1.3. Compaction Technologies 1.4. Sintering Technical Advantages Example Applications Industry Structure Growth and Economic Trends

Mechanical Working of Materials 242 Roy Crawford, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland 1. 2. 3.

4.

Introduction Types of Plastic - Effects on Manufacturing Methods Manufacturing Methods for Plastic Parts 3.1. Injection Moulding 3.1.1. Process Innovations 3.1.2. Reaction Injection Moulding 3.1.3. Injection Moulding of Metals and Ceramics 3.2. Extrusion 3.2.1. Manufacturing Methods Based on Extrusion 3.3. Thermoforming 3.4. Rotational Moulding 3.5. Compression Moulding Concluding Comments

Manufacturing of Polymer-Matrix Composites B. Tomas Åström, Department of Aeronautics, KTH, Sweden 1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

6.

262

Introduction Applications of Polymer-Matrix Composites 2.1. Automotive Applications 2.2. Marine Applications 2.3. Aerospace Applications 2.4. Construction Applications 2.5. Other Applications Constituent Materials 3.1. Matrices 3.2. Reinforcements 3.3. Preimpregnated Reinforcements 3.4. Core Materials Composite Properties Manufacturing Techniques 5.1. Molds 5.2. Wet Layup 5.3. Prepreg Layup 5.4. Liquid Molding 5.4.1. Resin Transfer Molding 5.4.2. Structural Reaction Injection Molding 5.4.3. Vacuum Infusion 5.5. Compression Molding 5.6. Filament Winding 5.7. Pultrusion Outlook

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Fiber Production J.W.S. Hearle, UK 1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

Introduction 1.1. History of Fiber Production and Usage 1.2. Fiber Dimensions, Properties, and Units Plant Fibers 2.1. Cellulose 2.2. Cotton 2.3. Other Plant Fibers Animal Fibers 3.1. Proteins 3.2. Wool 3.3. Other Hair Fibers 3.4. Silk Manufactured Fibers 4.1. General Features of Production 4.2. Finishes and Additives Regenerated Cellulosic Fibers 5.1. Cellulose Chemistry and the Advent of Manufactured Fibers 5.2. Viscose Rayon 5.3. Lyocell Fibers 5.4. Acetate Fibers Melt-spun Synthetic Fibers 6.1. Polyester (PET) 6.2. Polyamides (nylon 6 and 66) 6.3. Polypropylene 6.4. Other Melt-spun Fibers Solution-spun Synthetic Fibers 7.1. Acrylic Fibers 7.2. Other Vinyl and Vinylidene Fibers 7.3. Elastomeric Fibers High-performance Fibers 8.1. Second-generation Synthetic Fibers 8.2. Glass Fibers 8.3. Carbon Fibers 8.4. Aramid (PPTA) Fibers 8.5. Other Liquid-crystal Fibers 8.6. High-modulus Polyethylene (HMPE) Fibers 8.7. Ceramic Fibers 8.8. Thermally and Chemically Resistant Fibers

Recycling or Reuse of Materials Lucas Reijnders, IBED, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

321

Introduction Why Reuse or Recycle? Current Practice Options for Near Term Improvement The Ultimate Goal: Recycling in a Steady State Economy

Joining of Advanced Materials Gurel Cam, Mustafa Kemal University, Antakya (Hatay), Turkey Mustafa Kocak, GKSS Research Center, Geestacht, Germany 1.

296

335

Introduction

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2.

3.

4.

Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Welding Metallurgy of Friction Stir Welding 2.3. Weld Properties 2.4. Remarks on Friction Stir Welding Joining of Magnesium Alloys 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Welding Metallurgy of Mg-Alloys 3.3. Welding of Mg-Alloys 3.4. Remarks on the Welding of Mg-Alloys Supermartensitic Stainless Steels 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Welding Metallurgy of Supermartensitic Stainless Steels 4.3. Joining of Supermartensitic Stainless Steels 4.4. Remarks on the Welding of Supermartensitic Stainless Steels

Index

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About EOLSS

373

VOLUME III Detection of Defects and Assessment of Serviceability Harold Harper, Harper Consulting Limited, Harrogate, UK 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

Introduction Defects in Solids Structural Defects 3.1. The Characteristics of Structural Defects 3.2. The Origins of Structural Defects in Solid Materials and Manufactured Products 3.3. The Growth and Development of Structural Defects in Service Nondestructive Testing and Nondestructive Evaluation Nondestructive Testing Methods 5.1. Visual Examination 5.2. Penetrant Testing 5.3. Magnetic Particle Inspection 5.4. Magnetic Flux Leakage 5.5. Potential Drop Testing 5.6. Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) 5.7. Radiography 5.8. Ultrasonic Testing 5.9. Eddy Current Testing 5.10. Acoustic Emission 5.11. Thermal Methods 5.12. Miscellaneous Methods The Performance and Reliability of Nondestructive Testing The Assessment of Serviceability 7.1. Applications Dealing with Defects

Defects Introduced into Metals During Fabrication and Service Andy J. Wilby, British Energy Ltd, Gloucester, UK David P. Neale, British Energy Ltd, Gloucester, UK 1.

1

48

Introduction

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3.

4.

5.

Primary Production Defects 2.1. Casting Defects 2.1.1. Pipe and Shrinkage 2.1.2. Inclusions 2.1.3. Segregation 2.1.4. Porosity 2.1.5. Surface Defects 2.1.6. Other Defects 2.2. Forming Defects 2.2.1. Cracks, Laps and Seams 2.2.2. Surface Defects Defects Introduced During Fabrication 3.1. Defects Resulting From Cutting 3.2. Joining Methods 3.2.1. Design Related Defects 3.2.2. Procedure and Process Defects 3.2.3. Metallurgical Factors 3.3. Heat Treatment 3.3.1. Stress relief of machined or welded components 3.3.2. Hardening and quench cracking 3.3.3. Embrittlement Defects Introduced in Service 4.1. Fatigue 4.2. High Temperature Defects 4.2.1. Mechanical property degradation and creep 4.2.2. Environmental interaction 4.2.3. Microstructural Changes 4.3. Wear 4.3.1. Abrasive Wear 4.3.2. Adhesive Wear 4.3.3. Fretting 4.3.4. Erosion 4.3.5. Rolling Contact Wear 4.4. Embrittlement The significance of defects entering service

Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluation of Metals George A. Georgiou, Jacobi Consulting Limited, London, UK 1. 2.

3.

4.

76

Introduction Defects in Metals 2.1. Defects in Parent Material 2.2. Defects in Forgings 2.3. Defects in Castings 2.4. Defects in Welds 2.5. Defects in Coatings 2.6. In-Service Defects Non-Destructive Testing Methods for Detecting Defects in Metals 3.1. Parent Material and NDT 3.2. Forgings and NDT 3.3. Castings and NDT 3.4. Welds and NDT 3.5. Coatings and NDT 3.6. In-Service Defects and NDT Evaluation of Non-Destructive Testing Data 4.1. Interpretation of Data 4.2. Acceptance/Rejection Criteria

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4.3. Dealing with Defects Composite Defects and Their Detection 103 Robert Alan Smith, Structural Materials Centre, QinetiQ Ltd, Cody Technology Park, Farnborough, UK 1.

2. 3.

4.

Introduction 1.1. Scope 1.2. Defects in Composites 1.3. Significance of Defects in Composites 1.4. Detection methods 1.4.1. Detection methods 1.4.2. Low-frequency Vibration Methods Types of Defect in Composites 2.1. Manufacturing Defects 2.2. In-service Defects Ultrasonic Inspection Methods 3.1. Basic Ultrasonics 3.1.1. Ultrasound 3.1.2. Interaction with Materials 3.2. Choice of Frequency 3.3. Defect Detection and Characterization 3.3.1. Detection 3.3.2. Delamination Sizing 3.3.3. Measurement of Bulk Attenuation 3.4. Ultrasonic Imaging Techniques 3.4.1. General Imaging Principles 3.4.2. Ultrasonic A-scan 3.4.3. Ultrasonic B-scan 3.4.4. Ultrasonic C-scan 3.4.5. Ultrasonic Depth Scan 3.4.6. Pseudo-3D Imaging 3.5. Production Inspection Techniques 3.5.1. Immersion Testing 3.5.2. Ultrasonic Jet Probes 3.6. In-service Inspection Techniques 3.6.1. Manual Single-point Inspection 3.6.2. Manual Scanning and Imaging 3.6.3. Automated Scanning and Imaging 3.6.4. Roller Probes 3.6.5. Multi-element Array Probes 3.7. Specialist Ultrasonic Techniques 3.7.1. Velocity Measurement 3.7.2. Full Ultrasonic Waveform Capture 3.7.3. Acoustic Backscattering 3.7.4. Polar Scans 3.7.5. Laser Ultrasound Techniques 3.7.6. Lamb Wave Propagation Low-frequency Vibration Methods 4.1. Global Assessment 4.1.1. Natural Frequency Measurement 4.1.2. Damping Measurements 4.2. Local Assessment 4.2.1. Tap Test 4.2.2. The Mechanical Impedance Method 4.2.3. Membrane Resonance Method 4.2.4. Velocimetric and Other Pitch-catch Methods 4.2.5. Choice of Local Technique

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5. 6. 7. 8.

Acoustic Emission and Acousto-Ultrasonics X-Radiography Optical Methods Thermal Methods 8.1. Thermal Imaging 8.2. Pulsed Thermography 8.3. Lock-in Thermography

Corrosion Detection and Diagnosis Einar Bardal, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway J.M. Drugli, SINTEF Materials Technology, Norway 1. 2. 3.

4.

5.

Introduction Inspection Organization Inspection, Detection and Monitoring Methods 3.1. Overview 3.2. Visual Inspection 3.3. Radiography 3.4. Ultrasonic Testing 3.5. Eddy Currents 3.6. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) 3.7. Liquid Penetrant 3.8. The Electric Field Signature Method (FSM) 3.9. Acoustic Emission 3.10. Leak Detection 3.11. Corrosion Monitoring 3.12. Pigging Devices Treatment and Analysis of Inspection Results 4.1. Description and Evaluation of Observations and Conditions 4.2. Diagnosis Based on Description of Attack and Service Conditions—Definition of Corrosion Forms 4.3. Characteristic Features and Conditions of Various Corrosion Forms 4.3.1. Uniform (General) Corrosion 4.3.2. Galvanic (Two-metal) Corrosion 4.3.3. Thermogalvanic Corrosion 4.3.4. Crevice and Deposit Corrosion 4.3.5. Pitting Corrosion 4.3.6. Intergranular Corrosion (IC) and Exfoliation Corrosion 4.3.7. Selective Corrosion (SC) (Selective Leaching) 4.3.8. Erosion Corrosion 4.3.9. Cavitation Corrosion 4.3.10. Fretting Corrosion 4.3.11. Stress Corrosion and Hydrogen Assisted Cracking 4.3.12. Corrosion Fatigue 4.3.13. Corrosion under some Special Environmental Conditions 4.4. Further Analysis From Diagnosis to Determination of Solution(s), Recommendations and Preventive Actions

Materials of the Future Philip Ball, Consultant Editor, Nature, London, UK 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

144

165

Introduction Synthesis and Processing Biomedical Materials Smart Materials Biomimetics and Self-assembly

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6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Nanoscale Materials and Assembly Future Information Technologies Display Technology Ultrastrong Fibers Materials Made To Measure

Smart Materials Brian Culshaw, Strathclyde University, Glasgow, UK 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

206

Introduction Responsive Materials in Engineering Instrumented Structures: Add-ons for Smart Materials Conventional Smart Materials 4.1. Piezoelectric Materials 4.2. Electrostrictive Materials 4.3. Magnetostrictive Materials 4.4. Electro-rheological and Magneto-rheological Fluids 4.5. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) Micromechanics: MEMS Chemically Triggered Mechanically Responsive Materials Carbon: Nanotubes and Bucky Balls Concluding Comments

Materials for Clean Energy Conversion 235 Harumi Yokokawa, National Institute of Materials and Chemical Research, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

Introduction Comparison between Combustion Processes and Fuel Cells for Energy Conversion 2.1. Combustion Process related to Heat Engines 2.2. Principle of Fuel Cells 2.3. Conversion Efficiency of Fuel Cells 2.4. Use of Natural Gases 2.5. Characteristic Features in Utilization of Fuel Cells Materials Requirements as Electrochemical Energy Converters 3.1. Electrolyte 3.2. Electrodes 3.3. Interconnects 3.4. Comparison between PEFC and SOFC 3.5. Comparison with Turbines 3.6. Fabrication Technology High-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 4.1. Additional Important Requirements for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 4.2. How to Meet the Requirements from the Materials-science Point of View 4.3. Valence Stability and Importance of Materials Thermodynamics 4.4. Valence Stability of SOFC Materials 4.5. Materials Behavior during Fabrication Process and under Cell Operation Future Trends 5.1. Fuel Flexibility and Increase of Conversion Efficiency 5.2. New Materials 5.3. Cost Reduction

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Aerospace and Space Materials 258 Manfred Peters, DLR - Institute of Materials Research, DLR, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany Christoph Leyens, DLR - Institute of Materials Research, DLR, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany 1. 2. 3.

4.

5. 6.

7.

Introduction Aluminum Alloys 2.1. Engineering Properties 2.2. Cost-effective Processing Titanium Alloys and Aluminides 3.1. Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of Titanium Alloys 3.2. Development of Titanium Aluminides 3.3. Oxidation and Coatings 3.4. Cost-effective Processing Superalloys 4.1. Microstructure and Properties 4.2. Alloys and Developments 4.3. Coatings Ceramics Composites 6.1. Polymer Matrix Composites 6.2. Metal Matrix Composites 6.2.1. Aluminum-based Composites 6.2.2. Titanium-based Composites 6.3. Ceramic Matrix Composites Outlook

Index

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About EOLSS

291

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