Measurement of motivation for exercise - Oxford Journals

HEALTH EDUCATION RESEARCH Theory & Practice

Vol.15 no.6 2000 Pages 695–705

Measurement of motivation for exercise

Donna J. Plonczynski Abstract Motivation for exercise is a theoretically and empirically significant concept that is variously measured in the literature. This paper reviews recent studies that measure motivation for exercise. The findings from 22 studies that met inclusion criteria demonstrate that there is a deficiency in the published literature regarding the establishment of the psychometric properties of reliability and validity. Only five of the 22 studies report both reliability and validity measures on an instrument. An improvement in the reporting of psychometric measures and the utilization of established tools will advance the research and science of exercise motivation. The improvement in study psychometrics has implications for practical application in the field of exercise and the more general category of health promotion.

Introduction Motivation for exercise is a theoretically and empirically significant concept that is variously measured in the literature. Exercise motivation is an important concern due to the complex nature of the activity, the abundance of health benefits inherent in habitual exercise and the plethora of conflicting frameworks utilized in the literature. This concept is significant across various fields of study and has been diversely understood.

School of Nursing, Northern Illinois University, 1240 Normal Road, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA

© Oxford University Press 2000. All rights reserved

Recently, it has been noted that the literature lacks understanding of motivation (McEwen, 1993; Haq and Griffin, 1996) and effective interventions (Marcus et al., 1996) for exercise promotion. This deficiency occurs despite the finding that motivation is important (Damrosch, 1991) and the best predictor of adherence to exercise (Dishman et al., 1980). This difficulty with the measurement of motivation does not derive from a lack of theoretical frameworks, for there is a multiplicity of models. Although its benefits are well documented and understood, exercise is not practiced by a majority of the population (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1998). Regular exercise provides multiple health benefits that prevent or treat many causes of morbidity or mortality, such as heart disease, hypertension, diabetes and osteoporosis (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). The health promotion literature extols that to a large extent, lifestyle moderates morbidity. Exercise confers additional benefits of improvements in body habitus, fitness, endurance, strength and flexibility (American College of Sports Medicine, 1998). In fact, despite the decline in muscular strength seen with aging (Skelton et al., 1994), exercise can improve strength and some functional measures (Skelton et al., 1995). In addition to the physical benefits, regular physical activity is effective in the reduction of anxiety and depression symptoms (Paluska and Schwenk, 2000). A recent study of older adults found exercise therapy to be as effective as an antidepressant medication after 16 weeks of treatment (Blumenthal et al., 1999). Motivation is at the crux of health behavior performance and thus, to a great extent, health. It

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D. J. Plonczynski is postulated that understanding motivation is key to the health-promotion efforts of physical activity (Dishman and Sallis, 1994). For purposes of clarity, the following definitions are provided. Motivation is the intrinsic determination toward goal attainment. Self-motivation is the best determinant of exercise adherence among the psychological variables studied (Dishman et al., 1980). In contrast to the provision of external influences, the primary goal for health providers promoting lifestyle modification is the facilitation of the individual’s internal motivation (Hunt and Hillsdon, 1996). Extrinsic measures such as encouragement from family, friends or professionals are seen as social support (King et al., 1992; Willis and Campbell, 1992). Exercise is defined as the deliberate performance of a physical activity that requires exertion. Specifically, it is recommended that individuals exercise for at least 30 min at moderate intensity for 5 days or more per week to reduce risk of morbidity and mortality (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Additionally, this same report recommends at least 20 min of vigorous intensity activity for 3 days or more per week to additionally maximize aerobic fitness. Measurement, in its broadest meaning, is defined as the assignment of numbers to objects (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). No measurement paper progresses far without discussing the requisite psychometric issues of reliability and validity (Carmines and Zeller, 1979). These properties must be demonstrated in any instrument, for a measurement does not become useful in the absence of consistency and accuracy (Kaplan, 1990). Therefore, instruments that fail to demonstrate reliability and validity are of unknown value for the science.

Theory Measurements are based upon the theoretical frameworks guiding the research (Cronbach and Meehl, 1955), therefore a brief theoretical review is presented. This review is not intended to be allinclusive or complete. The intent is to present common frameworks upon which recent studies are based. The frameworks are categorized into

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three major sections: primarily cognitive, outcomebased and multidimensional. Conceptually, early works considered motivation to be primarily a function of cognition (Rosenstock, 1974; Bandura, 1977). Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) advocates that the emotive component, selfefficacy, is the primary mediator of the change in behavior and this is mediated through cognition (Bandura, 1977). Cognition is seen as mediating an initial change from which evolves success and subsequent self-efficacy. Further mastery promotes repeat performance in SCT. This classic work advocates that motivation is concerned with initiation as well as maintenance of a behavior. Recent tests support the theory (McAuley et al., 1994; Taylor et al., 1999). Furthermore, self-efficacy is defined as confidence (DiClemente et al., 1985) and is a good predictor of intention (Bandura, 1977). Tests of the Relapse Prevention Model, derived from SCT, have found that relapsers have fewer strategies for program continuation (Simkin and Gross, 1994). The Health Belief Model (HBM) involves primarily the motivational and attitudinal components of perceived susceptibility and severity of a disease, as well as the costs and benefits of the directed action (Becker et al., 1972). Subsequent derivations of the HBM have evolved. Protection Motivation Theory is a hybrid model inclusive of the motivational and attitudinal components of the HBM as well as self-efficacy derived from SCT. This theory, which includes perceived severity of threat, vulnerability to threat and effectiveness of intervention at controlling threat (Rogers, 1975), was utilized in an earlier study without consistent results (Wurtele and Maddux, 1987). The Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) and the subsequent Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1985) consider the individual’s attitude and social norms as accurate predictors of intentions. Intention is a significant indicator of a behavior’s performance (Ajzen, 1985; Godin, 1994). The latter theory includes the individual’s perceived control, which is seen on a continuum, as a component of intention (Godin, 1994).

Measurement of motivation for exercise These cognitive models contain a component, but not the overall conceptualization of motivation. Any model that lacks environmental or physical activity variables is inadequate to explain behavior (Dishman and Sallis, 1994). When addressing exercise motivation specifically, one study stated that other psychological attributes fail to predict adherence (Dishman et al., 1980). Self-efficacy is the best known predictor of a health behavior, yet only explains 39% of the variance of exercise performance (Conn, 1997). Therefore, there is more to motivation than self-efficacy. Other models focus on the outcome of the behavior. In one thought-provoking article, it is argued that there are only two health outcomes of any importance, life expectancy and quality of life (Kaplan, 1990). However, behavior analytic models emphasize only the behavior performance. A recent study conjoins escape from negative thoughts with positive consequences to accurately predict behaviors (Birkimer et al., 1996). Behavior, which is an incomplete measurement of motivation, has been utilized in the past as the outcome of motivational models (McEwen, 1993), but is rarely used in the recent literature. The Behavioral Model of Health Services Use initially focused on behavior as an outcome, but subsequent revisions focus on the more significant issue of health as an outcome (Anderson, 1995). There are only a few models in the past which have used behavior as the outcome of a motivational model. Behavior is complex and involves more than merely the performance (Morse et al., 1996). Health behaviors such as exercise exemplify this sentiment. Motivation is an antecedent to exercise (Ulbrich, 1999) and, as demonstrated by SCT, the behavior is the predecessor of the outcome (Bandura, 1977). Conceptual limitations generally prohibit the use of behavior as an outcome of a model. A final category of studies from this literature review is the multidimensional frameworks. These models address many of the previously discussed conceptual concerns. The Transtheoretical Model (TM) has been well received and has been explored in various studies. This model delineates the pro-

cess and five stages of change, which are precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance (DiClemente et al., 1985). Studies have found that the model is predictive of progress through the stages (DiClemente et al., 1991; Marcus et al., 1992). A recent book demonstrates the TM’s framework for exercise counseling with the provision of individual interventions at each stage (Hunt and Hillsdon, 1996). The advantage of this model is that it delineates the individual’s readiness for change. However, Haber (Haber, 1996) questions if staging models limit the range of strategies utilized for health promotion and prefers multiple options offered from which the individual may choose. Further development and application of staging is needed. Other models have a holistic perspective of the individual and of motivation. One such model is the Health Promotion Model (Pender, 1996). In this model, environment, self-efficacy, personal and interpersonal factors are combined with barriers and benefits of action to explain performance of a health behavior. A recent study supports this theory (Jones and Nies, 1996). These divergent theories have framed a variety of exercise motivation studies with apparent success. Therefore, there is some value in the frameworks discussed above. However, the ideal has not yet been formulated as these competing theories each contribute to some part of motivation for the science. A lack of accurate measurement has been identified as limiting the progress in the field of exercise research (Dishman, 1994; Robison and Rogers, 1994). To assess the development in the field of exercise motivation since these publications announced this concern, a literature review was performed. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the psychometric properties of motivation for exercise in recently published studies. This paper is intended to contribute to the knowledge of exercise motivation measurement and therefore to the development of strategies for practical application in the improvement of wellness for the individual.

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Method The literature review across disciplines was progressive and originated with a computerized search of Medline, CINAHL (Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature), PsycInfo, HAPI (Health and Psychosocial Instruments) and ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) for the topics of health and motivation and exercise. The search was limited to the English language and the years 1994–1999. Inclusion criteria included a population of healthy adults and a study that utilized a measurement tool. Exclusion criteria included qualitative studies, unpublished works and those not included in the inclusion criteria. The resulting progressive search produced over 200 readings, 16 theoretical frameworks and a multiplicity of tools. The resultant articles were reviewed for consideration based upon the inclusion criteria. The pertinent data was directly recorded in the tabular format that resulted in Table I.

Results A total of 22 studies met the inclusion criteria, the results of which are presented in Table I. There are a total of nine theories utilized in these studies. Three studies used a blending of theories (Courneya, 1995; Godin et al., 1995; Rodgers and Gauvin, 1998) and five studies did not state a theory upon which the research was based (Cash et al., 1994; Fontaine and Shaw, 1995; Hurrell, 1997; Melillo et al., 1997; Smith et al., 1998). Measurement issues of the instruments were next evaluated. Eight of the studies did not state the names of all the instruments utilized (McAuley et al., 1994; Courneya and McAuley, 1995; Godin et al., 1995; Birkimer et al., 1996; Hurrell, 1997; Gebhardt and Maes, 1998; Rodgers and Gauvin, 1998; Taylor et al., 1999). Only one study repeated all measures from a previous study (Smith et al., 1998), the remaining studies used various instruments. Three studies (14%) had no level of measurement listed (McAuley et al., 1994; Frederick et al., 1996; Hurrell, 1997). A majority of the

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studies that listed a scaling type (77%) utilized ordinal scaling for at least one instrument. Only two studies used no ordinal scales (Simkin and Gross, 1994; Lombard et al., 1995). Reliability data was presented for all utilized instruments in 10 (45%) of the studies (McAuley et al., 1994; Courneya, 1995; Fontaine and Shaw, 1995; Lombard et al., 1995; Wilcox and Storandt, 1995; Frederick et al., 1996; Melillo et al., 1997; Mullan et al., 1997; Rodgers and Gauvin, 1998; Smith et al., 1998). The remaining 12 studies were missing reliability data on one or more instrument. There was no reliability data presented for any instrument in five studies (DuCharme and Brawley, 1995; Birkimer et al., 1996; Hurrell, 1997; Nigg et al., 1997; Gebhardt and Maes, 1998). Methods other than internal consistency rarely were utilized to demonstrate reliability. Two studies presented test–re-test statistics (Frederick et al., 1996; Melillo et al., 1997) and two studies included inter-rater reliability statistics (Simkin and Gross, 1994; Lombard et al., 1995). Validity is not addressed for all instruments in 18 (82%) of the 22 studies which met inclusion criteria (McAuley et al., 1994; Simkin and Gross, 1994; Courneya and McAuley, 1995; DuCharme and Brawley, 1995; Fontaine and Shaw, 1995; Godin et al., 1995; Lombard et al., 1995; Wilcox and Storandt, 1995; Birkimer et al., 1996; Frederick et al., 1996; Jones and Nies, 1996; Ransford and Palisi, 1996; Hurrell, 1997; Nigg et al., 1997; Gebhardt and Maes, 1998; Rodgers and Gauvin, 1998; Smith et al., 1998; Taylor et al., 1999). When validity is presented, it is usually content validity by face validity. One study referred to their instrument as being ‘rationally conceived’ (Cash et al., 1994). For clarification, Table II was developed to demonstrate those studies that included both reliability and validity of a measure. Remarkably, only five studies met this criteria (Cash et al., 1994; Courneya, 1995; Frederick et al., 1996; Melillo et al., 1997; Mullan et al., 1997). Furthermore, Table II reveals that only four instruments (one instrument was modified) demonstrate reliability

Measurement of motivation for exercise Table I. Measurement of motivation for exercise: literature review inclusion studies Study author; model

Instrument; no. of items

Level of measurement

Reliability

Validity

Birkimer et al., 1996; Behavior Analytic Theory

Name not stated: scale of positive and negative health habits, self-talk and emotions regarding behaviors; no. of items not presented

Ordinal five-point Likert scale and considered-interval 15point Likert

Not presented

Not presented

Cash et al., 1994; no stated theory

Reasons for Exercise Inventory (REI)-modified, 25 items; Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS), eight items; Situational Inventory of Body Image Dysphoria (SIBID), 48 items

All ordinal REI: sevenpoint Likert; BASS: five-point Likert; SIBID: four-point scale

REI: internal consistency, 0.67– 0.81; BASS, stated to be reliable; SIBID, stated to have reliability

REI, content validity by face validity; BASS, stated to be valid; SIBID, stated has validity

Courneya, 1995; Reasons for exercise inventory, Theory of Planned 24 items Behavior and Transtheoretical Theory

Ordinal seven-point Likert

Internal consistency: 0.67– 0.81

Content validity by face validity

Courneya and McAuley, 1995; Theory of Planned Behavior

Subjective Norm (SN), one item; Social Provisions Scale (SPS), 24 items; Group Environmental Questionnaire (GEQ), 18 items; name not stated (Other1); attitude measure, six items; name not stated (Other2); perceived behavior control, three items; Continuous-Closed (Verbal) Scale (CCVS), one item (also measured exercise)

All ordinal: SN, sevenpoint Likert; SPS, fourpoint Likert; GEQ, nine-point Likert; Other1 and Other2, seven-point scale; CCVS, seven-point Likert

All internal consistency: SN, 0.59 with four items so reduced to 1; SPS, 0.66–0.92; GEQ, 0.69–0.75; Other1, 0.66; Other2, 0.80; CCVS, not presented

SN, not presented, SPS; stated to have shown to possess validity; GEQ, stated to have validity; Other1, Other2 and CCVS, not presented

DuCharme and Brawley, 1995; Social Cognitive Theory

Barrier Self-Efficacy (BSE), no. of items not presented; Scheduling Self-Efficacy (SSE), 12 items; Behavior intention (BI), three items (also measured exercise frequency)

BSE and SSE, ratio 0– Not presented 100% scale; BI, ordinal nine-point Likert

Fontaine and Shaw, 1995; no stated theory

Revised Life Orientation Test RLOT, ordinal fiveInternal Not presented (RLOT); 10 items; Aerobic Self- point Likert; ASE, ratio consistency: RLOT, Efficacy (ASE); five items (also 0–100 scale 0.77; ASE, 0.96 measured attendance)

Frederick et al., 1996; Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Motivation for physical activity measure (MPA), 32 items; Sports enjoyment questionnaire (SE), 20 items (also used demographic and adherence questions); no. of items not presented

Not presented

Internal consistency: MPA, 0.69–0.90; Test–retest: SE, 0.89–0.92

Not presented

Construct validity: MPA, for three subscales; SE, not presented

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D. J. Plonczynski Table I. Continued Study author; model



Reliability

Validity

Gebhardt and Maes, 1998; Competing Personal Goals

Name not stated: work and health questionnaire and one item of competing personal goal disruption; no. of items not presented

Scale not presented except for one item ordinal five-point Likert

Not presented

Not presented

Godin et al., 1995; Social Cognitive Theory and Stages Theory

Name not stated (Other1): measure of habit and intention, two items; name not stated (Other2); measure of exercise behavior, one item; Global Attitude (GA), eight items; Global Subjective Social Norms (GSSN), one item; Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), one item; Belief-based Measure of Attitude (BMA), 14 items; Belief-based Measure of Subjective Social Norm (BMSS), four items; Perceived Barriers to Exercise (PBE); five items

Other1, ordinal sixpoint scale and ratio 0– 100 scale; Other2, ordinal six-point scale; GA, GSSN, PBH, BMA, BMSS and PBE, seven-point scales

Internal consistency: Other1, 0.70–0.76; Other2, GSSN and PBC, not presented; GA, 0.86; 0.71; BMA, 0.72; BMSS, 0.70; PBE, 0.55

Predictive validity of Other2 with Other1, no other validities presented

Hurrell, 1997; no stated Name not stated—measure of theory current and past habits, behaviors and attitudes related to exercise; no. of items not presented

Not presented

Not presented

Not presented

Jones and Nies, 1996; Health Promotion Model

Health Promotion Lifestyle Profile (HPLP)—exercise subscale; no. of items not presented; Exercise Benefits/ Barriers Scale (EBBS), 43 item; Cantril Ladder (CL), importance of exercise (also measured demographics)

HPLP and EBBS, ordinal four-point Likert; CL, interval 10 cm

HPLP: internal consistency, 0.81; EBBS, 0.87–0.95; CL, not presented

HPLP and EBBS, not presented; CL, stated to have more construct validity than Likert in geriatric population

Lombard et al., 1995; Behavior Modification

Self-report of weekly exercise on logs

Nominal: counted frequency and times of walks

Inter-rater reliability: 0.89– 0.92

Not presented

McAuley et al., 1994; Social Cognitive Theory

Name not stated measure of Not presented adherence efficacy; 10 items (also measured adherence fitness and body composition)

Internal consistency: 0.92

Not presented

Internal consistency, 0.73– 0.88; test–re-test, 0.56–0.75

Criterion validity, predictive validity

Melillo et al., 1997; no Physical fitness and exercise stated theory activity of older adults scale; 41 items

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Ordinal four-point Likert

Measurement of motivation for exercise Table I. Continued Study author; model



Mullan et al., 1997; Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Behavioral regulation in exercise Ordinal: five-point questionnaire; 15 items Likert

Nigg et al., 1997; Decision Balance

Decision balance sheet; six steps, no. of items on list not presented (also measured attendance)

Ordinal: self-ranking of Not presented alternatives and consequences

Ransford and Palisi, 1996; Homan’s Exchange Theory

Subjective Health (SH), one item; Psychological Well-Being (PWB), seven items (also measured frequency of aerobic exercise and demographic data)

Ordinal: SH and PWB, four-point scale

SH, stated not SH, stated not present; PWB: present; PWB, not internal consistency, presented 0.67

Rodgers and Gauvin, 1998; Social Cognitive Theory and Transtheoretical Model

Name not stated (Other1); incentives; no. of items not presented; Name not stated (Other2); self-efficacy test, five items (also measured exercise behavior)

Other1: ordinal ninepoint Likert and ratio 0–100% scale; Other2: interval 100-point scale

Internal consistency: Other1, 0.74–0.87; Other2, 0.91

Not presented

Simkin and Gross, 1994; Relapse Prevention Model

Exercise Coping Task (ECT), 10 vignettes; Self-Motivation Inventory (SMI), 40 items (also used and cardiovascular and fitness testing measures)

ECT, interval, counted minutes and Nominal, count of strategies; SMI, not presented

ECT: internal consistency, 0.76; inter-rater reliability, 0.91– 0.98; SMI, not presented

Not presented

Smith et al., 1998; no stated theory

REI, 25 items; BASS, eight items; SIBID, 48 items (also measured demographics, height, weight and exercise patterns)

Ordinal all five- and seven-point Likert

Internal consistency: REI, 0.73–0.91; BASS, 0.80; SIBID, 0.96

Not presented

Taylor et al., 1999; Social Cognitive Theory

Childhood and Adolescent Physical Activity Patterns Questionnaire (CAPAPQ), 34 items; name not stated; psychosocial questions; no. of items not presented (also medical exam and medical history questionnaire)

Both: ordinal: five- and CAPAPQ: internal Not presented seven-point Likert and consistency, ⬎0.70; nominal: yes or no other, not presented response

Wilcox and Storandt, 1995; Social Cognitive Theory

SMI, 40 items; ESE, five items; ATE, six items (Also demographic, exercise and selfrated health scales)

SMI and ATE, ordinal five-point Likert; ESE, ratio 0–100% scale

and validity in the current exercise motivation literature. Overall, the reporting of the psychometric prop-

Reliability

Validity

Internal reliability: first test, 0.76–0.90; second test, 0.78– 0.90

Criteria validity: discriminant for subscales; refers to validity in discussion

Internal consistency: SMI, 0.90; ESE, 0.86; ATE, 0.84

Not presented

Not presented

erties of reliability (45%) and validity (12%) in the current literature was limited. As these qualities are essential for the interpretation of the study

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D. J. Plonczynski Table II. Reliable and valid instruments utilized Author, year

Instrument

Reliability

Validity

Cash et al., 1994

Reasons for exercise–modified, 25 items

Internal consistency: 0.67–0.81


Courneya, 1995

Reasons for exercise inventory, 24 items



Frederick et al., 1996

Motivation for physical activity measure


Construct validity: for three subscales

Melillo et al., 1997

Physical fitness and exercise activity of older adults scale

Internal consistency: 0.73–0.88; test–re-test: 0.56–0.75

Criterion validity: predictive validity

Mullan et al., 1997

Behavioral regulation in exercise Internal reliability: first test, questionnaire 0.76–0.90; second, 0.78–0.90

results, the current knowledge of exercise motivation is underdeveloped.

Discussion The call for improvement in measurement reporting (Dishman, 1994; Robison and Rogers, 1994) has generally gone unheeded. In a recent review of physical activity studies in the workplace, it was found that poor study qualities were utilized. There are few studies that have demonstrated a solid sampling, design and measurements in this literature (Dishman et al., 1998). A recent study concluded that motivational factors were not adequately addressed by the instrument utilized (Satariano et al., 2000). There continues to be a serious lack of reporting of the psychometric properties in the exercise motivation literature. Psychometrics are important in order to demonstrate a study’s value and improved reporting fosters the application of theory to practice. This deficit requires redress in future research. Additionally, there are theoretical issues to address as it is upon this framework that the associated measurements are linked. Definitions in the exercise motivation literature are frequently absent or unclear, leading to conceptual and theoretical difficulties. The absence of a comprehensive, unifying theory slows progress in the field of exercise motivation. Additionally, in this literature,

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Criteria validity: discriminant for subscales

measurements are routinely not operationally linked to the concepts, thereby leading to uncertainty as to what is actually being measured. If the concepts are not understood, the interventions will be unanchored. This deficit has practical implications. It has been proposed that the limited understanding of interventions may be the cause of the widespread physical inactivity rate (Dishman and Buckworth, 1996). Improvements in theoretical application are vital for framing the studies. The absence of one comprehensive theory that includes the most explanatory component of the cognitive models, i.e. self-efficacy, is an obvious deficiency in the field. As stated by one group of researchers, there is a need for theory development in exercise research as the current theoretical models were developed in other areas and thus may not be the best method for predicting and/or explaining exercise behavior (King et al., 1992). It is necessary to utilize and report measures with strong psychometric properties for the interpretation and evaluation of a study. Furthermore, a unifying theoretical framework is needed upon which studies develop measurements. A unifying framework for measures will provide a focus for advancement of the science. There are several limitations to this review. This paper exclusively reviewed exercise motivation studies. Therefore, measures that are utilized with

Measurement of motivation for exercise motivation for other health behaviors were disregarded. Another limitation of the study is that the definition of motivation was not required for inclusion in this study. This allowed for the inclusion of studies that utilize the terms determination and intention, which are conceptually related to motivation. This problem with overlapping terminology and the consequent difficulties has been noted previously (Dishman and Sallis, 1994). Another limitation is the inclusion of measures of attitudes, social factors and self-talk in the tables. This was done because motivation is composed of components of personality and personal habits that indicate performance (Korman, 1974). Also, study authors often neither provide definitions of motivation nor match the conceptual with operational definitions, leaving some doubt as to the purpose of the measure. In these cases, all personality, personal habits and motivational measures were included in tables. This study is further confined by utilization only of studies in the English language, which may lead to an omission of important measures utilized in non-English speaking countries. This was unavoidable due to the restriction imposed by interpretation costs. Finally, only a population of healthy adults was used in the studies due to underlying concerns regarding such issues as development, which may affect motivation for exercise. It is recommended that future research include the use of measures of motivation for physical activity, in addition to that for exercise. This is particularly pertinent in light of the recent 2-year study of previously sedentary adults that found cardiorespiratory fitness equivalent in the both exercise and the physical activity groups after interventions (Dunn et al., 2000). Future research on the topic of motivation for exercise needs to demonstrate strong measurement tools with improved psychometric reporting as well as a theoretical framework upon which the study is based. Improvements in measurement issues are critical to the advancement of the science of motivation for exercise and its application to the significant sedentary population.

Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank the three anonymous reviewers who assisted with an earlier version of this paper. Completed in part due to the assistance of NRSA Research Training Grant PHS 398.

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