mechanical and swelling properties of hydrogels

MECHANICAL AND SWELLING PROPERTIES OF HYDROGELS

Ting Yang

AKADEMISK AVHANDLING

Som med tillstånd av Kungliga Tekniska högskolan i Stockholm, framlägges till offentlig granskning för avläggande av teknisk doktorsexamen torsdag 6 december 2012, kl. 10:00 i sal F3, Lindstedtsvägen 26, KTH, Stockholm. Avhandlingen försvaras på engelska. Fakultetsopponent: Professor Jöns Hilborn från Uppsala University, Sweden

Copyright © 2012 Ting Yang All rights reserved

Paper I © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Paper II © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. TRITA-CHE-Report 2012: 63 ISSN 1654-1081 ISBN 978-91-7501-471-5

ABSTRACT Hydrogels have been used as one of the novel soft materials in many biomedical applications such as drug delivery and tissue engineering for recent decades. In the main part of this work, bi-functional poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) precursors with either thiols (PEG-SH) or allyls (PEG-Al) , covering molecular weights from 3 kDa to 8 kDa were synthesized and thoroughly characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, FT-Raman and MALDI-TOF techniques. By combining PEG precursors with complementary trifunctional crosslinkers, a library of well-defined single-network hydrogels was efficiently constructed via the robust UV-initiated thiol-ene coupling (TEC) chemistry. Novel sequential interpenetrating network (seqIPN) hydrogels based on PEG were fabricated by diffusing and afterwards crosslinking secondary-network precursors within dense (2 kDa) to loose (8 kDa) primary networks. The impacts of polymer chain length and diffusion time on the swelling and mechanical properties were assessed for the seqIPN hydrogels. Additionally, disperse red 13 decorated PEG 2 kDa and 8 kDa were synthesized and used as probes to monitor the secondary-network precursor diffusion rate by UV/Vis spectroscopy. FT-Raman and leaching tests were conducted to evaluate the efficiency of the TEC reaction for the development of PEG networks and their gel fractions. All gels were fully crosslinked within 5 minutes and with the gel fraction above 84%. The chain length of PEG, location of functional groups of PEGs, solvents, solid content were found to have directly influence on the mechanical and swelling properties of PEG single-network hydrogels. The utilization of the diffusion time dependent seqIPN strategy enabled further freedom to control the swelling and mechanical properties of PEG hydrogels, with the degree of water swelling ranged from 280 – 870% and the tensile modulus ranging from 1135 kPa to 175 kPa. Furthermore, the seqIPN strategy was utilized for fiber reinforced free radical polymerized hydrogels. N, N-dimethylacrylamide (DMA) with crosslinker poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate were diffused in bacterial cellulose (BC) aerogel thereafter UV crosslinked to form BC-DMA hydrogels. FT-Raman and leaching tests were conducted to evaluate the efficiency of the free radical polymerization and the BC-DMA gel fractions. After UV cure for 10 minutes, robust DMA networks were formed within BC aerogels with over 94% gel fraction. The high porosity and robust interpenetrating DMA network within BC fibers were further analysed with FE-SEM. Compression tests showed that fiber reinforced DMA hydrogels have higher compression modulus than DMA hydrogels, ranging from 4.4 to 8.3 MPa with water content from 78 to 70%.

SAMMANFATTNING Under de senaste decennierna har hydrogeler studerats som nytt mjukt material och även tillämpats i biomedicinska applikationer såsom produktion av läkemedel och inom vävnadsteknik. I detta arbete har bifunktionell poly(etylenglykol) (PEG) med antingen tioler (PEG-SH 3 kDa till 8 kDa) eller allyler (PEG-Al 3 kDa) syntetiserats och karakteriserats med hjälp av tekniker såsom 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, FT-Raman samt MALDI-TOF. Kompletterande trifunktionella tvärbindare användes för att tvärbinda dessa bifunktionella PEG-system till väldefinierade nätverk (hydrogeler) med hjälp av robust UV-initierad tiol-en kemi (TEC). Av PEG-Al-systemet (2 kDa till 8 kDa) tillverkades även sekventiella interpenetrerande nätverk (seqIPN), där monomanerna till det sekundära nätverket fick diffundera in i ett tidigare tvärbundet nätverk, varpå det sekundära nätverket också tvärbands. Påverkan av diffusionstiden hos det sekundära nätverket på seqIPN hydrogelernas egenskaper utvärderades. Vidare utnyttjades disperse red 13-funktionaliserad PEG 2 kDa och 8 kDa (PEG-röd) för att utvärdera diffusionshastigheten hos det sekundära nätverket med hjälp av UV/Vis spektroskopi. Mätningar visade att diffusionshastigheten påverkades av tätheten hos det primära nätverket, med en lägre diffusionshastighet för tätare tvärbundna nätverk. Effektiviteten hos TEC-reaktionen utvärderades genom att studera omsättningen och gelfraktionen av de tillverkade hydrogelerna med FT-Raman och urlakning av oreagerad monomer. Studien visade att samtliga geler var helt tvärbundna efter 5 minuter med en gelfraktion på över 84 %. Det visade sig även att längden på PEG-kedjan, placeringen av funktionella grupper längs PEG-kedjan, vilket lösningsmedel som användes samt andelen fast material i gelerna hade en direkt inverkan på både svällningsegenskaperna och de mekaniska egenskaperna hos singelnätverk av PEG. Genom att utnyttja den diffusionsstyrda seqIPN-strategin erhölls större frihet att kontrollera svällningen och de mekaniska egenskaperna hos hydrogelerna. Detta resulterade i geler med en svällning i vatten från 280 till 870 % samt en E-modul mellan 175 och 1135 kPa. SeqIPN-metoden användes även för att tillverka fiberarmerade friradikalpolymeriserade hydrogeler. N, N-dimetylakrylamid (DMA) och poly(etylenglykol)diakrylat fick diffundera in i aerogeler av bakteriell cellulosa (BC), varpå systemet tvärbands genom exponering för UV-ljus och fiberförstärkta BC-DMA-hydrogeler bildades. Rena polyDMA-hydrogeler (DMA) tillverkade med samma tvärbindningsdensitet användes som referens. Omsättningen och gelfraktionen hos nätverk av polyDMA utvärderades med FTRaman och urlakning. Efter UV-härdning i 10 minuter erhölls robusta nätverk av DMA i BC-aerogeler med gelfraktioner på över 94 %. Den höga porositeten hos IPN av DMA i BC-aerogeler analyserades sedan med FE-SEM. Kompressionstest visade att de fiberförstärkta nätverken hade bättre kompressionegenskaper än hydrogeler av endast DMA. Mätningar visade att BC-DMA hydrogelerna hade kompressionsmoduler mellan 4,4 och 8,3 MPa samt en vattenhalt mellan 78 och 70 %.

献给爷爷 Dedicated to My Grandfather

LIST OF PAPERS This thesis is a summary of the following papers:

I.

‘Characterization of Well-Defined Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Hydrogels Prepared By Thiol-Ene Chemistry’ Yang, T.; Long, H.; Malkoch, M.; Gamstedt, E. K.; Berglund, L.; Hult, A. Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry 2011, 49, 4044–4054.

II.

‘Sequential Interpenetrating PEG Hydrogels Prepared by UV initiated ThiolEne Coupling Chemistry’ Yang, T.; Malkoch, M.; Hult, A. Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry 2012, published. DOI: 10.1002/pola.26393.

III.

‘The Influence of Diffusion Time on the Properties of Sequential Interpenetrating PEG Hydrogels’ Yang, T.; Malkoch, M.; Hult, A. Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry 2012, submitted.

IV.

‘Mechanical properties of N, N-dimethylacrylamide hydrogels reinforced with bacterial cellulose aerogel’ Yang, T.; Hult, A. manuscript.

This thesis contains unpublished results.

ABBREVIATIONS AEOBA Al BC BC-DMA C2,r Cn CDCl3 Da DCC DCM DMA DMAP DPTS E Ec EtOH FE-SEM FRP FT G G′ Gf Gf I Gf II HABA IPN II% Irgacure 651 l Ma MALDI-TOF MS Mc Mc,S Mc,T MeOH Mn Mr n md ms mc

4-(2-(allyloxy)ethoxy)-4-oxobutanoic acid Allyl Bacterial cellulose Bacterial cellulose reinforced n, n-dimethyl acrylamide hydrogel Mass concentration of polymer in solution before crosslinking Characteristic ratio of the polymer Deuterated chloroform Daltons Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide Dichloromethane N, N-dimethyl acrylamide 4-dimethylaminopyridine 4-(dimethylamino)pyridinium 4-toluenesulfonate Young’s modulus from tensile test or tensile modulus Young’s modulus from compression test or compression modulus Ethanol Field emission scanning electron microscopy Free radical polymerization Fourier transform Shear modulus Shear storage modulus Gel fraction Primary network gel fraction Secondary network gel fraction 2-(4-hydroxyphenylazo) benzoic acid Interpenetrating polymer network Secondary network solid content UV-initiator Average bond length Methacrylate Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry Molecular weight between crosslinks Molecular weight between crosslinks estimated from swelling Molecular weight between crosslinks estimated from tensile modulus Methanol Number molecular weight Molecular weight of the repeat unit Number of repeating units Weight of dry hydrogel Weight of equilibrium swelling hydrogel Weight of cured hydrogel before dry

NaHSO4 NMR PEG PEG-Al PEG-Ma PEG-SH PTSA Q qF qW R semiIPN seqIPN SH T’ Tdiffusion TEC THF TMP TTT UV V1 Vis v2,r v2,s wt% εB ν ξ ρc ρp ρsol ρwater σB χ ̅

Succinic anhydride, sodium hydrogen sulfate Nuclear magnetic resonance Polyethylene glycol Polyethylene glycol functionalized with allyl group Polyethylene glycol functionalized with methacrylate group Polyethylene glycol functionalized with thiol group P-toluene sulfonic acid Volume-swelling ratio After cure weight swelling ratio Equilibrium weight swelling ratio Gas constant Semi interpenetrating polymer network Sequential interpenetrating polymer network Thiol Temperature of tensile test Secondary network precursors diffusion time Thiol-ene coupling Tetrahydrofuran Trimethylolpropane 1, 3, 5-triallyl-1, 3, 5-triazine-2, 4, 6(1H, 3H, 5H)-triazine Ultra violet Molar volume of solvent Visible Volume fraction of polymer in relaxed gel Volume fraction of swollen gel Weight percent Stress-at-break Poisson’s ratio Mesh size Crosslinking density Polyethylene glycol density Solvent density Water density Strain-at-break Polymer solvent interaction parameter Specific volume of polymer

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 1

2

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 2 2.1 HYDROGELS .................................................................................................... 2 2.2 HYDROGEL CROSSLINKING CHEMISTRY............................................................. 3 2.2.1 Thiol-ene coupling chemistry ................................................................... 3 2.2.1 Functionalized poly(ethylene glycol) ........................................................ 3 2.2.1 Free radical polymerization..................................................................... 4 2.3 HYDROGEL NETWORKS .................................................................................... 5 2.3.1 Single network ......................................................................................... 5 2.3.2 Interpenetrating polymer networks (IPN) ................................................. 6 2.3.1 Bacterial cellulose (BC)........................................................................... 7 2.3.2 Cellulose-reinforced hydrogels ................................................................ 9 2.4 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEL ............................................................ 9 2.4.1 Swelling properties .................................................................................. 9 2.4.2 Mechanical properties ........................................................................... 10 2.5 APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................... 11

3

EXPERIMENTAL.............................................................................................. 13 3.1 MATERIALS ................................................................................................... 13 3.2 INSTRUMENTATION ........................................................................................ 14 3.3 FABRICATION OF PEG HYDROGELS WITH TRIAZINE-BASED CROSSLINKER ......... 15 3.4 FABRICATION OF SEQUENTIAL-IPN HYDROGELS WITH TMP-BASED CROSSLINKER 18 3.4.1 Preparation of single-network TEC hydrogels........................................ 18 3.4.2 Preparation of chain length influenced seqIPN TEC hydrogels............... 18 3.4.3 Preparation of diffusion time influenced seqIPN and assessment of the diffuse rate ........................................................................................................... 20 3.5 PROPERTY ASSESSMENT OF PEG HYDROGELS ................................................. 21 3.5.1 Gel fraction determination by leaching test ............................................ 21 3.5.2 Swelling test .......................................................................................... 22 3.5.3 Structure evaluation .............................................................................. 23 3.5.3.1 Determination of the average molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc,S) and mesh size (ξ) from swelling profile ................................................................................. 24 3.5.3.2 Determination of the average molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc,T) and mesh size (ξ) from the tensile modulus ........................................................................... 24

3.6 FABRICATION OF BACTERIAL-CELLULOSE-REINFORCED HYDROGELS ................ 26 3.6.1 Preparation of BC aerogels ................................................................... 26

3.6.2 Fabrication of DMA and BC-DMA hydrogel .......................................... 26 3.1 PROPERTY ASSESSMENT OF DMA AND BC-DMA HYDROGEL .......................... 28 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................... 30 4.1 POLYMER PRECURSORS .................................................................................. 30 4.2 PEG HYDROGELS AND PROPERTY ASSESSMENT ............................................... 30 4.2.1 Influence of solvent and functional group location on hydrogels mechanical properties ............................................................................................................. 32 4.2.2 Influence of UV-irradiation cure time and PEG chain length on hydrogel properties ............................................................................................................. 33 4.2.3 PEG-Al and PEG-SH hydrogel structure evaluation............................... 34 4.3 SEQUENTIAL-IPN HYDROGELS PERPARATION AND PROPERTIES ........................ 35 4.3.1 Single-network hydrogels and assessment of their properties.................. 35 4.3.2 PEG chain length influence on seqIPN................................................... 37 4.3.3 Secondary-network diffusion time influence on seqIPN........................... 41 4.4 PROPERTIES OF BACTERIAL-CELLULOSE-REINFORCED DMA HYDROGEL .......... 49

5

CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................. 56

6

FUTURE WORK................................................................................................ 58

7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................ 59

8

REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 61

Purpose of study

1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Hydrogels as novel soft material have been studied for bio-application for over fifty years. The good biocompatibility of hydrogels emanates from their higher water content (over 70%), but it is also a limitation to the mechanical properties so as the applications. Hereby, establishing a database relating initial materials, fabrication factors and methods to swelling and mechanical properties of hydrogels has been the main purpose of this study.

Preparing and assessing well-defined novel hydrogels have been the main part of the study in which thiol and allyl bi-functionalized poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) (Mn = 3 kDa to 8k Da) were used to form hydrogels with the complementary trifunctional crosslinkers via UV-initiated thiol-ene coupling chemistry. To improve while control the mechanical properties of PEG hydrogels, sequential interpenetrating networks (seqIPN) were introduced by diffusing secondary PEG network into dense (2k Da) to loose (8k Da) crosslinked single networks. To further assess the properties of seqIPN, the influence of secondary-network diffusion time in dense (2k Da) and loose (8k Da) network hydrogels was studied. Swelling and tensile tests were conducted to evaluate the swelling and mechanical properties of PEG hydrogels. Furthermore, PEGs decorated with disperse red 13 were used to investigate the diffusion rate by UV/Vis spectroscopy.

An alternative seqIPN approach was further developed based on fiber reinforced hydrogels. N, N-dimethylacrylamide (DMA) was used as monomer and combined with poly(ethylene glycol)diacrylate crosslinker to fabricate hydrogels within the bacterial cellulose (BC) aerogels via UV-initiated free radical polymerization (BC-DMA). Compression and rheology tests were conducted to assess the mechanical properties of BC-DMA hydrogels.

1

Introduction

2 INTRODUCTION 2.1

HYDROGELS

Hydrogels are hydrophilic three-dimensional (3D) networks that are chemically crosslinked or physically entangled with excellent water swelling capacity.1 On a molecular level, water in a hydrogel is either bonding to polar hydrophilic groups as ‘bond water’ or is filling the space between the network chains, pores or voids as ‘free water’.2 As a kind of rapidly developing new material, many scientific reports have been published since 1870s with focus on the preparation, characterization and applications of hydrogels.2 Hydrogels are characterized as soft material with high water content, which is similar to soft tissue, so they have good biocompatible properties and have been exploited in many fields such as food additives, pharmaceuticals, cell culture3 and biomedical implants.4 For example, polyethylene glycol based hydrogels with water content over 90% are used for wound healing and N, N-dimethylacrylamide based hydrogels are used for commercial soft contact lens (Figure 1).

Figure 1. A commercial soft contact lens contains N, N-dimethylacrylamide based hydrogel.

2

Introduction

2.2

HYDROGEL CROSSLINKING CHEMISTRY 2.2.1

Thiol-ene coupling chemistry

Thiol-ene coupling (TEC) chemistry is an organic reaction between a thiol and an alkene (Figure 2), which was discovered in 1905.5 The advantages of TEC are high efficiency, high yielding in the presence of oxygen, tolerance of various solvents and functional groups.5 In recent years, researchers have considered the TEC reaction to be a "click" reaction.6 This reaction has been extensively applied in coating,7 nano-printing,8 adhesive technology9 and in dendrimer chemistry or other well-defined structure syntheses.10 The TEC addition reaction is typically facilitated by UV irradiation and proceeds through a thiyl radical species. When TEC utilized in polymer chemistry, the polymerization follows a free radical, step-growth mechanism.11

Figure 2. Scheme of thiol-ene coupling reaction. R and R’ contains thiol and allyl groups respectively.

2.2.1 Functionalized poly(ethylene glycol) Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is a common hydrophilic polymer and characterized as a soft biocompatible material.3,12,13 The U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved PEG usage in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetics industries.14 PEG is a commercial product made from ethylene oxide with water and ethylene glycol or ethylene glycol oligomers. PEGs can be functionalized as telechelic polymers for hydrogels preparation.1518

Figure 3 shows the chemical structure of PEG and the PEG bi-functionalized by thiol,

3

Introduction

allyl and methacrylate groups, which were used for TEC hydrogels preparation in this work.

Figure 3. Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and thiol, allyl, methacrylate functionalized PEG.

2.2.1 Free radical polymerization Free radical polymerization (FRP) is a conventional route to prepare hydrogels.19-21 N, Ndimethylacrylamide (DMA), which has been studied for biomedical applications,22-24 is a liquid chemical used as monomer to co-polymerize with crosslinkers into a hydrogel. Figure 4 shows the chemical structure of a DMA monomer, a homo-polymer of DMA and a network of DMA after copolymerization with acrylate or methacrylate multifunctional crosslinkers to form a polymer network. The advantages of FRP are easy preparation, fast curing and can be performed in an aqueous solution.

4

Introduction

Figure 4. N, N-dimethyl acrylamide (DMA), PolyDMA and a DMA network.

2.3

HYDROGEL NETWORKS

Network is the basic structure of a hydrogel, which is covalently crosslinked or physically entangled. The network components of hydrogels can be either synthetic or natural, as long as they absorb and maintain large quantities of water.25

2.3.1

Single network

In the main parts of this work, telechelic polymers based on PEG were used to fabricate TEC networks. The molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc) is the number average molecular weight between the crosslinking junctions and is a key component correlated to diffusion properties of a network.26 The length in between the crosslinking junctions is mesh size (ξ).27 Figure 5 (a) illustrates an ideal network formed by bi-functional PEG and complementary tri-functional crosslinkers via TEC, mesh size (ξ) or Mc of this network is controlled by the polymer chain length.

5

Introduction

Figure 5. (a) TEC network formed by tri-functional crosslinker and bi-functional polymer. (b) FRP network formed by monomers and bi-functional crosslinker.

Another hydrogel network used in this thesis is FRP network, which is formed by monomers and bi-functional crosslinkers. Figure 5 (b) illustrates the FRP network that has a random mesh size or Mc because of the different reactivity between the monomer homopolymerization and the monomer and crosslinker copolymerization; besides, the polymerization can be terminated by different termination mechanisms.28

2.3.2

Interpenetrating polymer networks (IPN)

An interpenetrating polymer networks (IPN) is a system containing multiple physically interlaced inseparable networks without covalent bonding between them.29 IPN methodology is an approach to improve hydrogel mechanical properties.30-32 IPNs can be classified according to two schemes: their synthesis, simultaneous IPN or sequential IPN (seqIPN), or their structure, full IPN33 and semiIPN.34 Simultaneous IPN is prepared by forming polymer networks independently in one system via non-interfering reaction mechanisms,35 which is not included in this work. The seqIPN is prepared by forming the secondary network after the primary network formation by diffusion.36-38

A seqIPN

hydrogel can be prepared by diffusing either polymer precursors or monomers with crosslinker into a primary network, thereby crosslinking a secondary network within the primary network. The semiIPN is prepared by diffusing a linear polymer into the primary

6

Introduction network without crosslinking.39,40 Figure 6 shows full seqIPN formation, by TEC and FRP, use UV curing and semiIPN formation use linear polymer. In all cases the components of the secondary network are diffused into the primary network.

Figure 6. Full IPN and Semi IPN formation via sequential diffusion process.

2.3.1 Bacterial cellulose (BC) Bacterial cellulose (BC) hydrogel is one of the most common natural cellulose which is produced by acetic bacterium "Acetobacter xylinum".41,42 BC was first discovered in 1886,43-45 it has been intensively studied since 1947 and has ever since attracted scientists’ attention.46 Although cellulose is insoluble in water and most organic solvents,47 the long and refined nanoscale fibers of BC can form a physically entangled network and contains around 98% water.48 Different from polymeric hydrogels, the hydrogen bonding between water molecules and BC are mostly on the fiber surface, large amounts of free water are filling the voids in between BC fibers, so the water in a cellulose hydrogel can be squeezed

7

Introduction out easily. The advantages of BC hydrogel are not only green and sustainable49 with high average molecular weight and crystallinity,50 but also are high dimensional stability after converting the BC hydrogel into the respective aerogels.51,52 Figure 7 (a) and (b) is a photograph of the raw BC hydrogels and the freeze-dried BC aerogels respectively. Figure 8 (c) demonstrates the FE-SEM picture of a BC network. Figure 7 (d) illustrates a scheme of the hierarchical structure of a BC cellulose fiber, from the basic glucose chain to the crystalline micro fibril and cellulose fiber.53,54

Figure 7. (a) Raw BC hydrogels, (b) freeze-dried BC aerogel, (c) FE-SEM picture of cross section from BC aerogel, (d) scheme of BC fibrils structure: glucose chains, micro fibrils, and cellulose fibers.

8

Introduction

2.3.2

Cellulose-reinforced hydrogels

Cellulose whiskers have been used as reinforcement to improve the mechanical properties of hydrogels.55,56 Different from the cellulose whiskers, BC aerogel with the long fiber and large voids in between the fibers is a suitable scaffold to improve the mechanical properties of the brittle FRP hydrogels.

2.4

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEL 2.4.1

Swelling properties

A crosslinked polymer hydrogels swell but not dissolve when water or a solvent enters it. The swelling properties, which usually use degree of swelling to define hydrogels, depend on many factors such as network density, solvent nature, polymer solvent interaction parameter.1 The properties of water swelling of PEG hydrogels and PEG diffusion in PEG networks were studied in this work.

Because water acts as a plasticizer in a hydrophilic polymer network system, the swelling process of the hydrogel can be considered under rubbery state and can be described by the free energy of mixing ΔGmix from the polymer and solvent interaction and the elastic free energy ΔGelastic from the crosslinked network:57 ΔGsystem = ΔGmix + ΔGelastic At the beginning of swelling, the ΔGmix 0, ΔGmix + ΔGelastic < 0, so the swelling is favoured and the solvent diffuses into the network. During the processing of swelling, the ΔGmix and ΔGelastic both increased until │ΔGmix │ =│ΔGelastic │ and ΔGsystem = ΔGmix + ΔGelastic = 0, so that the driving force for swelling is gone: equilibrium swelling is reached and swelling stops.

9

Introduction

2.4.2

Mechanical properties

Mechanical tests were conducted to assess the hydrogel properties. To establish a library of mechanical properties of hydrogels is to gather the information of the hydrogel network and to determine the range of application. 58

Tensile properties were the mainly studied mechanical properties of PEG based hydrogels in this work. Figure 8 displays a photo of a hydrogel sample in a tensile testing machine. The hydrogel samples are cut into a dumbbell shape prior to assessment.

Figure 8. Tensile test of a hydrogel sample in an Instron tensile testing machine.

The compression and rheology properties were used to assess the mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced hydrogels in this work. Rheology is the study of the flow of matter, measurements being prepared by shearing the sample, as shown in Figure 9.

10

Introduction

Figure 9. Rheology measurements on a hydrogel sample.

2.5

APPLICATIONS

The hydrogels prepared in this work covered a large range of mechanical properties, from a soft hydrogel such as PEG to a hard hydrogel such as BC-DMA. Because of the high water content and biocompatibility of hydrogels, many applications are related to biomedical usage.59,60

Drug delivery is a method of administering a pharmaceutical compound to achieve a therapeutic effect in or at a certain location in the human body.61,62 Materials used as drug delivery systems need to have controlled properties, such as absorption and release profile and no toxicity.63 PEG hydrogels in this work can be used as biodegradable drug delivery systems, because of the biodegradable ester bond in the structure, the well-controlled structure and properties;64 most importantly, PEG is a FDA approved polymer for use inside the human body.65 Because of the low toxicity of its precursors66 and crosslinkers, PEG can be used to form a hydrogel in situ via TEC. The seqIPN PEG hydrogels can also change the mechanical properties to suit the applications. Figure 10 pictures a diagram of a degradable PEG hydrogel as a drug-delivery system.

11

Introduction

Figure 10. Diagram of a drug-delivery system uses a biodegradable PEG hydrogel carrying drugs and releasing at certain location.

Tissue engineering involves improving or replacing biological functions of the human body with artificial materials.67,68 Tissue engineering requires certain mechanical and structural properties for proper functioning for the repair or replacement of portions of the human body.69 For example, a hydrogel for artificial cartilage needs to have a compression stress of 0.5 to 10 MPa.70 It needs to be biocompatible and to have interconnected macropores for cell culture.71 Bacterial-cellulose-reinforced DMA hydrogels could be good candidates for this application.

12

Experimental

3 EXPERIMENTAL 3.1

MATERIALS

PEG (Mn: 2 kDa, 3 kDa, 6 kDa, 8 kDa), trimethylolpropane tris(3mercaptopropionate)

(TMP-tris-thiol),

2,2-dimethoxy-1,2-diphenylethan-1-one

(IRGACURE 651) and tris[2-(3-mercaptopropionyloxy) ethyl] isocyanurate (TMI), disperse red 13, 3-mercaptopropionic acid, 99% (MPA), p-toluene sulfonic acid (PTSA),

dicyclohexylcarbodiimide

2,4,6(1H,3H,5H)-triazine

(TTT),

(DCC),

1,3,5-triallyl-1,3,5-triazine-

tris[2-(acryloyloxy)ethyl]

isocyanurate13,4-

dimethylaminopyridine, D-glucose, sodium hydroxide, N,N-dimethylacrylamide (DMA), alpha-ketoglutaric acid, polyethylene glycol diacrylate (Mn=700 Da) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Chloroform, toluene-4-sulfonic acid monohydrate, dichloromethane (DCM), diethyl ether, 2-(4-hydroxyphenylazo) benzoic acid (HABA) were purchased from Fisher Scientific Merck. Ethanol (EtOH, 96% and 100%) was purchased from VWR. Succinic anhydride, sodium hydrogen sulfate (NaHSO4),

4-dimethylaminopyridine

(DMAP),

toluene-4-sulfonic

acid

monohydrate, diethylether, methanol (MeOH), tetrahydrofuran (THF), toluene and deuterated chloroform (CDCl3) were purchased from Fisher Scientific Merck. All the

chemicals

were

used

as

received.

4-(dimethylamino)pyridinium 72

4-

toluenesulfonate (DPTS) was prepared as reported elsewhere. The synthesis of 4(2-(allyloxy)ethoxy)-4-oxobutanoic acid is described in a previous publication.73

13

Experimental

3.2

INSTRUMENTATION

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectra were recorded with a Bruker Avance 400 MHz instrument using CDCl3 as solvent. The solvent signal was used as internal standard. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM) pictures were collected from a Hitachi S-4800 scanning electron microscope operated at 1 to 1.5 kV. MALDI-TOF MS spectra (MALDI-TOF) were conducted on a Bruker UltraFlex MALDI-TOF MS with SCOUT-MTP Ion Source (Bruker Daltonics, Bremen) equipped with a N2 laser (337 nm), a gridless ion source and reflector design FT-Raman spectra were acquired for all samples using a Perkin-Elmer Spectrum 2000 NIR FT-Raman instrument. Each spectrum was based on 128 scans using 800 mW laser powers. The conversion of thiols (2573–2568 cm-1) or vinyl acrylate (1635 cm-1), allyl (1640-1643 cm-1) was determined using the carbonyl bond (17601763 cm-1) as an internal reference. UV curing was performed using a Blak-Ray xx-15BlB UV bench lamp for PEG hydrogels, where the wavelength of the lamp was 365 nm and the intensity of the UV radiation was 28.5 mW/cm2. Fushion UV cure system model F300 equipped with Fusion electrodeless bulbs standard type BF9 (Lamp power 300 W/inch, 1800 W total) was used for cuing DMA and BC-DMA hydrogels. Tensile and compression tests were conducted with a universal testing machine Instron 5944 with an advanced non-contacting video extensometer (Instron Korea LLC.) at 23°C and 50% relative humidity using a cross-head speed of 100 mm/min. For tensile tests, the swollen hydrogels were cut into a dumbbell shape to prevent unwanted fracture close to the clamping region and to avoid grip slippage. Compression tests on water swollen hydrogels were performed at 50% relative humidity and 23°C, using the Miniature materials tester Minimat 2000 with load cells of 20 N and 200 N. Rheology tests were performed in TA AR2000 rheometer. An 8 mm sample holder disk is used for all the samples.

14

Experimental

UV/Vis absorption spectrum was determined by SHIMADZU UV-2550 UV/Vis spectroscopy. The PEG and PEG-red mixture solution concentration was set to 50 wt% in EtOH. PEG-red-2k (0.05 wt%) and PEG-red-8k (0.01 wt%) as marked concentration was determined by software UVprobe 2.34.

3.3

FABRICATION OF PEG HYDROGELS WITH TRIAZINEBASED CROSSLINKER

To study the formation of the hydrogels using TEC chemistry, PEGs were functionalized with thiol (PEG-SH) and allyl (PEG-Al) to prepared TEC hydrogels with the complementary tri-functional triazine based crosslinkers. All the hydrogels were prepared in 3 to 6 replicas with a thiol to allyl molar ratio set to 1:1 with 3 wt% initiator (Irgacure 651). Solvents and solid content were varied to study the efficient of TEC in different reaction conditions. Figure 11 presents the scheme of PEG hydrogels fabrication; Table 1 details the sample codes for the single network hydrogels.

15

Experimental

Figure 11. Schematic of PEG hydrogel networks formation. Thiol-ene hydrogel prepared by P-Al: allyl-functionalized PEG; P-SH: thiol functionalized PEG; P-Ma: methacrylate hydrogel prepared by methacrylate functionalized PEG.

16

Experimental

Table 1. Single-network PEG hydrogels based on triazine crosslinker. Sample code

Mn of PEG (Da)

Functional group

Solvent used in hydrogels formation

UVirradiation Time (minutes) Methanol (M) 15

M-P3-SH-15-1

3000

Thiol (SH)

M-P3-SH-30-1

3000

Thiol

Methanol

15

56

E-P3-SH-15-1

3000

Thiol

Ethanol (E)

15

56

E-P3-SH-30-1

3000

Thiol

Ethanol

15

56

M/W-P3-SH15-1

3000

Thiol

15

56

T-P3-Al-1

3000

Allyl (Al)

Methanol/water (W) (50:50 wt%) THF

1

56

T-P3-MA-1

3000

Methacrylate

THF

1

56

T-P3-SH-1

3000

Thiol

THF

1

56

E-P3-Al-1

3000

Allyl

Ethanol

1

56

E/B-P3-Al-1

3000

Allyl

1

56

E/B-P3-Al-15

3000

Allyl

15

56

E-P3-SH-1

3000

Thiol

Ethanol/butyl acetate (B) (50:50 wt%) Ethanol/butyl acetate (B) (50:50 wt%) Ethanol

1

56

E-P3-SH-15

3000

Thiol

Ethanol

15

56

E-P6-SH-1

6000

Thiol

Ethanol

1

56

E-P6-SH-15

6000

Thiol

Ethanol

15

56

E-P6-SH-30

6000

Thiol

Ethanol

30

56

E-P8-SH-1

8000

Thiol

Ethanol

1

56

E-P8-SH-15

8000

Thiol

Ethanol

15

56

E-P8-SH-30

8000

Thiol

Ethanol

30

56

17

Solid content (wt%) 56

Experimental

3.4

FABRICATION OF SEQUENTIAL-IPN HYDROGELS WITH TMP-BASED CROSSLINKER 3.4.1

Preparation of single-network TEC hydrogels

Four molecular weights PEGs (2 kDa, 3 kDa, 6 kDa and 8 kDa), equimolar ratio (1:1) with crosslinker TMP-tris-thiol and Irgacure 651 (3 wt%) were dissolve in ethanol (EtOH) (50 wt% solid content) respectively to prepare single-network hydrogels. Using TMP based crosslinker TMP-tris-thiol instead of triazine based crosslinker was because the better solubility in EtOH for the hydrogel preparation process. Each mixture was vortexed to homogeneous and poured into a Teflon mold (thickness: 0.10 cm, width: 1.0 cm) and was covered with a glass slide to prevent EtOH evaporation. The mixture solution was allowed to gel for 5 minutes under UV exposure (365 nm, 28.5 mW/cm intensity, Blak-Ray xx-15BlB UV bench lamp) at room temperature. A small part of the cured hydrogel was cut and dried overnight for gel fraction tests. The rest of the hydrogels were immersed in deionized water for 5 hours and immersed in ethanol (100%) for 3 hours to remove residues. The cleaned hydrogels were dried in air overnight and then placed in a vacuum oven at 40 °C for 1 hour. The single-network hydrogel sample code is S2 prepared from PEG-Al, Mn = 2 kDa (PEG-Al-2k); hydrogel S3 prepared from PEG-Al, Mn = 3 kDa; hydrogel S6 prepared from PEG-Al, Mn = 6 kDa; and hydrogel S8 prepared from PEG-Al, Mn = 8 kDa, all hydrogels were prepare in 6 to 10 replicas, the S8 hydrogels were prepared in at least 12 replicas.

3.4.2

Preparation of chain length influenced seqIPN TEC hydrogels

The dried single-network hydrogels, S2, S3, S6 and S8, were used as primary network to prepare seqIPN hydrogels. All the primary networks were immersed in ethanol solutions containing (50 wt% solid content) PEG-Al precursors, crosslinker TMP-tris-thiol and initiator (3 wt%), the molar ratio of thiol to allyl was set to 1:1.

18

Experimental

The precursors in solutions were allowed to diffuse into the primary networks for 2 hours at 40 °C. The excess of solution on the surface of primary network hydrogels was removed with tissue paper and was placed in a Teflon mold covered by a glass slide to prevent solvent evaporation. The secondary networks were allowed to crosslink for 5 minutes under UV exposure (365nm, 28.5 mW/cm). The crosslinked seqIPN hydrogels were dried in air overnight and then placed in a vacuum oven at 40 °C for 1 hour. Figure 12 shows the scheme of seqIPN hydrogel preparation.

Figure 12. Preparation of seqIPN, using allyl functionalized PEG (Mn= 2k, 3k, 6k, 8k Da).

19

Experimental

3.4.3

Preparation of diffusion time influenced seqIPN and assessment of the diffuse rate

Dense and loose single network, 2 kDa (S2) and 8 kDa (S8); hydrogels were used to assess the diffusion time influence on mechanical properties of seqIPN hydrogels. S2 and S8 hydrogels were immerged in the ethanol solution of PEG-Al precursors (2 kDa and 8 kDa) with crosslinker TMP-tris-thiol and initiator (50 wt% solid content) in an oven at 40°C for 2h, 4h, 20h and 44 hours diffusion time. The secondary networks were allowed to cure for 5 minutes under UV exposure (365 nm, 28.5 mW/cm2). All seqIPNs were prepared in 12 replicas with a thiol to allyl molar ratio set to 1:1 with 3 wt% initiator to assess the properties at totally four diffusion times. The cured seqIPN hydrogels with four different diffusion times were dried in air overnight and then placed in a vacuum oven at 40°C for 1 hour respectively.

PEG 2kDa and 8 kDa were dissolved in EtOH to prepare 54.5 mg/mL and 138 mg/l PEG solution with PEG-red-2k (0.05 wt%) and PEG-red-8k (0.01 wt%) respectively. S2 and S8 hydrogels were immersed in a 1 mL PEG-red-2k and PEGred-8k solution respectively. A total of 24 pieces of samples were placed in an oven at 40 ° C, the remaining solutions were used to analyse the PEG diffusion after 2, 4, 20, 25, 28 and 44 hours by UV/Vis absorption spectroscopy.

The scheme of diffusion time dependence seqIPN and semiIPN preparation is demonstrated in Figure 13.

20

Experimental

Figure 13. Preparation of diffusion time dependent IPNs and semi IPN hydrogel from 2 kDa and 8 kDa PEG.

3.5

PROPERTY ASSESSMENT OF PEG HYDROGELS 3.5.1

Gel fraction determination by leaching test

Leaching tests were conducted to identify any unreacted starting materials and to determine the gel fraction. The hydrogels were dried in the vacuum oven to remove the solvent directly after curing, totally three replicas of each hydrogel sample (thickness: 0.10 cm, length: 1.0 cm, width: 1.0 cm) were weighed (dry weight M) and immersed in chloroform, one in deuterated chloroform for NMR analysis. All

21

Experimental

samples were swelled for 5 hours with three cycles of solvent exchange. The leached hydrogels were dried overnight in air and placed in a 40°C vacuum oven for half hour to remove water and the dried weight was measured as M’. The leachate in deuterated chloroform was analyzed by NMR to determine remaining functional groups. The gel fraction of the hydrogel was calculated by the following: Gel fraction = M’/M ×100%

(1)

where M is the mass of the dry hydrogels after cure and M' is the mass of the dry hydrogels after leaching.

3.5.2

Swelling test

Three or four replicas of each dried hydrogel were swollen in deionized water at room temperature for 3 days to achieve equilibrium swelling. The degree of swelling of hydrogels were measured after 5 min, 10 min, 20 min, 0,5 h, 1,5 h, 1 day, 2 days and 3 days.

Totally three replicas were measured, the standard

deviations were marked with error bars in the swelling profile charts. The degree of swelling was calculated as the following: Degree of swelling = [(Wet weight – Dry weight) / Dry weight] ×100% (2)

The water content of hydrogels were calculated after the equilibrium swelling by

Water content = (Wet weight / Dry weight) ×100% (3)

The molecular weight between cross-links (Mc), effective crosslinking density (ρ), and mesh size (ξ) were estimated according to the equilibrium swelling result.74 The water-induced volume-swelling ratio75 of hydrogel was calculated as:

22

Experimental

(4)

where v2,r is the volume fraction of polymer in the relaxed gel (hydrogels after cure, before dry) and v2,s is the volume fraction polymer of swollen gel. These variables are related to weight fractions by:

,

(5)

[

and

where

]

[

(6)

] (7)

is the weight swelling ratio of hydrogels after equilibrium swelling,

the weight of equilibrium swollen gel, of gel after curing, 3

(1.12 g/cm ),

is the weight of dry gel,

is

is the weight

is the weight ratio after curing. The PEG density is denoted is the density of water (1.00 g/cm3), and

is the density

3

of solvent used in hydrogel cure process (EtOH: 0.79 g/cm , EtOH/butyl acetate: 0.93 g/cm3).76

3.5.3

Structure evaluation

The structure evaluation is based on swelling and tensile tests result, the average molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc) and mesh size (ξ) of PEG hydrogel were calculated. Chain lengths between cross-links of PEG networks were assumed to follow Gaussian distribution and the equilibrium swelling theory of Flory for crosslinked polymers.

23

Experimental

3.5.3.1

Determination of the average molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc,S) and mesh size (ξ) from swelling profile

The Mc,S was calculated with the following equation where ‘S’ indicates swelling77

–

̅

( (

) ( )(

)

(

)

(8)

) –

where Mn is the number-average molecular weight of the polymer, 3

78

volume of polymer (0.84 cm /g for PEG),

̅ is the specific

V1 is molar volume of solvent (18

3

cm /mol for water) χ is the polymer solvent interaction parameter (0.43 for PEG water)76 and is assumed constant in this work. 3.5.3.2

Determination of the average molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc,T) and mesh size (ξ) from the tensile modulus

Due to the isotropic homogeneous crosslinking of PEG hydrogels, the shear modulus G can be calculated from the tensile Young’s modulus E according to79:

(9)

where v is Poisson's ratio. When the hydrogel material is fully swollen, its mechanical behavior is similar to that of an incompressible rubber-like material. Hence, the Poisson ratio of the hydrogels was assumed to be 0.5 in this work.80 Mc,T, where ‘T’ indicates tensile stiffness,77 was calculated from the equation:

̅̅̅̅̅

(10)

where C2,r is the mass concentration of polymer in solution before crosslinking (0.9 kg/l in ethanol, 0.86 kg/l in ethanol/butyl acetate mixture),

24

is the gas constant

Experimental

(8.31 kPa l/mol K), and T’ is the temperature 298 K at which the tensile testing was carried. The crosslinking density ρc was determined 81 by:

(11)

̅

The mesh size ξ was then determined as the root-mean-square of the end-to-end distance of the polymer chain in the unperturbed state is ̅

̅

(12)

where l is the average bond length (0.146 nm), 82

polymer (typically 4.0 for PEG)

is the characteristic ratio of the

and n is the number of repeating units in the

crosslink: ̅̅̅̅

where

(13)

is the molecular weight of the repeating unit (44 for PEG). The mesh size

ξ can then be expressed as82

̅

(14)

With the above expressions, structural evaluation of the molecular network can be estimated by tensile measurements and swelling.

25

Experimental

3.6

FABRICATION OF BACTERIAL-CELLULOSEREINFORCED HYDROGELS 3.6.1

Preparation of BC aerogels

The bacterial cellulose (BC) was obtained by cultivating the bacterium Acetobacter in a pre-culture HS medium. This cultivating medium was prepared by precultivating Acetobacter aceti strain in the Hestrin–Schramm (HS) medium 27 for 7 days at 27 °C. This pre-culture medium (5 mL) was used to inoculate 30 mL of fresh HS medium for bacterium cultivation. The BC hydrogels were harvested after 7 days of culture at 27 °C under static conditions. They were treated with 0.1 M NaOH at 80°C for 3 h and washed with de-ionized water. This process was repeated 3 times and the BC hydrogels were finally washed with de-ionized water for several days until neutrality was reached. After the purified BC has been obtained, scissors was used to cut the bacterial cellulose into 1x1x1 cm cubic shape and they were then freeze-dried for 2 days to prepare the BC aerogels.

3.6.2

Fabrication of DMA and BC-DMA hydrogel

N, N-dimethyl acrylamide (DMA) hydrogel was prepared by FRP in aqueous solution with polyethylene glycol diacrylate (Mn= 700 Da, PEGDA) as crosslinker and 2-oxo-ketoglutaric acid (5 wt%) as a UV initiator. The DMA monomer (10, 40 and 70 wt%) and crosslinker PEGDA (2 or 4 mol%) were cured in aqueous solution under 10 minutes UV irradiation (Lamp powder 300 W/inch). Figure 14 presents a diagram of DMA and its network chemical structure.

26

Experimental

Figure 14. PolyDMA network formation via UV-initiated FRP.

The BC aerogels were used as templates for the preparation of fiber reinforced DMA hydrogels. All BC aerogels were immersed in deionized aqueous solutions containing 10, 40, 70 wt% DMA, respectively and initiator (5 wt%). The molar ratio of DMA to PEGDA was set to 4 mol% for 10, 70 wt% DMA solution and 2 mol% to 40 wt% DMA solution. The solutions were allowed to diffuse into the BC aerogels for one week at room temperature. Any excess of solutions on the surface of the hydrogels were thereafter dried with a piece of tissue paper and the gels were carefully placed into a Teflon mold with a glass slide on top to prevent solvent evaporation. The DMA networks were allowed to crosslink with PEGDA for 10 minutes under Fusion UV irradiation belt with a total dose of 500 mJ/cm2, three replicas of each samples were prepared for further analysis. One of three cured BCDMA replicas for each sample was subsequently freeze-dried for FT-Raman analysis and gel fraction assess. The other 2 replicas were immersed in water for one week to ensure the removal of any unreacted precursors and reaction residues, water was changed several time each day. The purified hydrogels were dried in air for 2 days and then placed in a vacuum oven at 40°C overnight. illustrates the diagram of BC-DMA hydrogel formation.

27

Figure 15

Experimental

Figure 15. Scheme of BC-DMA hydrogel networks formation.

3.1

PROPERTY ASSESSMENT OF DMA AND BC-DMA HYDROGEL

To obtain the gel fraction of DMA network a leaching study was conducted. One replica of 3 samples freeze-dried BC-MDA hydrogel with mass (M) weighed (170 to 230 mg) including any unreacted starting materials was immersed in 200 mL of deionized water. The deionized water was exchanged every day for one week. All swollen hydrogels were air dried for 2 days and placed at 50°C in a vacuum oven overnight. The fully leached and dried sample mass M’ was recorded. The gel fraction (crosslinking efficiency) of all samples was acquired from mass before and after leaching using the formula below: Gel fraction = (M’/M) ×100% (15)

Content of the DMA network within the BC-DMA hydrogel was calculated from the mass increase after leaching the samples from any unreacted precursors. In this

28

Experimental

case, the dried BC aerogel mass is marked as MBC, the dried BC-DMA mass is marked as MBC-DMA, enabling the calculation of the secondary-network content: DMA network content = [(MBC-DMA – MBC) / MBC-DMA] × 100% (16)

Water content of the swollen DMA and BC-DMA hydrogels were collected on three replicas. The hydrogel samples were dried in air for 2 days and further dried at 50°C in vacuum oven overnight. The drying procedure was completed upon reaching constant mass loss values. Then after the samples were immersed in deionized water for one week and the wet weight of each sample was recorded, the water content was calculated from the formula:

Water content = (Wet weight / Dry weight) ×100% (17)

29

Results and Discussion

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1

POLYMER PRECURSORS

PEGs were functionalized with thiol (3 kDa to 8 kDa) (PEG-SH), allyl (3 kDa) (PEG-Al), and methacrylate PEG (3 kDa). PEG based precursors were used to study the effect of chain length, location of functional groups of PEGs, solvents, solid content of TEC hydrogels. PEG-Al (2 kDa to 8 kDa) was prepared to study the effect of chain length on single and seqIPN hydrogels. PEG-Al (2 kDa and 8 kDa) was prepared to study the effect of diffusion time of seqIPN hydrogels. Additionally, PEGs (2 kDa and 8 kDa) were decorated with disperse red 13 to probe the diffusion rate of PEGs in single-network hydrogels. 1H NMR and

13

C NMR and MALDI-TOF were used to confirm the fully

functionalization of PEG precursors. FT-Raman revealed the S-H stretching peak at 2571 cm-1 and C=C stretching at 1645cm-1. The UV/Vis absorption spectrum of disperse red 13 evidenced a characteristic absorption peak at 503 nm.

4.2

PEG HYDROGELS AND PROPERTY ASSESSMENT

All PEG hydrogels were prepared with a ratio of PEG functional group to crosslinker functional group of 1:1 with 3wt% UV-initiator. The UV crosslinking of the three systems was initially conducted in THF (56 wt%). The FT-Raman spectroscopy was used to assess the conversion for P3-Al, P3-SH, and P3-MA after 1 minute UV-irradiation time. As shown in Figure 16(I) there is no trace of the thiol stretching peak at 2570 cm-1 for the PEG-SH hydrogel and no trace of allyl C=C stretching peak at 1645 cm-1 from PEG-Al hydrogel, Figure 16 (II) and not for PEG-Ma hydrogel at 1645 cm-1, Figure 16 (III). The

30


gel fraction tests of hydrogels were performed by leaching in chloroform. Hydrogels prepared in ethanol reveals over 92% gel fraction, which is much higher than hydrogels prepared in THF, 68% and 72% (T-P3-Al-1, T-P3-SH-1), presented in Table 2. The P3MA hydrogel (T-P3-Ma-1) was brittle and it broke into small pieces during leaching process, therefore it was not possible to assess the gel fraction.

Figure 16, FT-Raman spectra of I A, P3-Al, B, PEG-Al with trithiol-triazine, C, Cured Hydrogel T-P3-Al; II A, P3-SH, B, PEG-Thiol with triallyl-triazine, C, Cured Hydrogel TP3-SH; III A, P3-Ma, B, PEG-Methacrylate with triacrylate-triazine, C, Cured hydrogel TP3-Ma.

31


Table 2. Gel fraction of hydrogels prepared by TEC and FRP. Abbreviation: T: tetrahydrofuran, E: ethanol, E/B: ethanol/ butyl acetate (50:50 wt%), 1: UV irradiation time: 1 minute; 15: UV irradiation time: 15 minutes; 30: UV irradiation time: 30 minutes. Sample T-P3- T-P3- T-P3- E-P3- E/B-P3- E/B-P3- E-P3- E-P3- E-P6- E-P6- E-P8- E-P8- E-P8code

Al-1 SH-1 Ma-1 Al-1

Al-1

Al-15

92

97

SH-1 SH-15 SH-1 SH-15 SH-1 SH-15 SH-30

Gel fraction

68

72

-

95

99

99

99

99

99

99

99

(%)

4.2.1

Influence of solvent and functional group location on hydrogels mechanical properties

The influence of solvent and solvent content using during polymerization on the hydrogel network formation was studied. Table 3 presents the properties of hydrogels prepared with 56 wt% solid content. The hydrogel (E/B-P3-Al-1) prepared in EtOH/ butyl acetate exhibits a tensile modulus of 444, which is much higher than the hydrogels prepared in THF (T-P3-Al-1, 0.15 kPa). For hydrogels, PEG-Al system hydrogels E-P3-Al-1 revealed higher mechanical properties compare to the same chain length PEG-SH hydrogels E-P3SH-1, which were assessed in this work. Because thiol-ene reaction has one side reaction that is thiyl-thiyl radical coupling into disulfide, which was revealed to have more influence of PEG-SH based hydrogels than PEG-Al based hydrogels. The disulfide formation between PEG-SH based hydrogel E-P3-SH-1 (tensile moduli 139 kPa) decreased the network density and demonstrated lower mechanical properties compare to PEG-Al hydrogel E-P3-Al-1 (tensile moduli 311 kPa).

32

Results and Discussion Table 3. Tensile modulus (E), stress-at-break (σB), strain-at-break (εB) of hydrogels prepared from PEG-Al, and PEG-SH and PEG-Ma in different solvents with 56 wt% solids content. E

σB

εB

(kPa)

(kPa)

(%)

T-P3-Al-1

0.15

-

-

THF

T-P3-SH-1

23

30

81

THF

T-P3-MA-1

388

111

35

THF

E/B-P3-Al-1

444

411

171

E/B-P3-Al-15

214

199

135

E-P3-Al-1

311

281

152

EtOH

E-P3-SH-1

139

127

127

EtOH

E-P3-SH-15

104

89

126

EtOH

Sample code

Solvent

EtOH / butyl acetate (50:50 wt%) EtOH / butyl acetate (50:50 wt%)

Abbreviation: 1: UV irradiation time: 1 minute, 15: UV irradiation time: 15 minutes.

4.2.2

Influence of UV-irradiation cure time and PEG chain length on hydrogel properties

After 1 or 15 minutes of UV irradiation, properties of PEG-SH hydrogels (3 kDa, 6 kDa, 8 kDa) are detailed in Table 4. Gel fraction is 99% for all hydrogels, which is evidence of a high conversion of the TEC network for both 1 and 15 minutes UV-irradiation cure time. For longer chain length PEG-SH, longer cure time needed for better mechanical properties, for hydrogel E-P3-SH-1 (PEG-SH, 3 kDa), after 1 minute cure time, the tensile moduli is 139 kPa, after 15 minutes cure time (E-P3-SH-5), tensile moduli decreased to 104 kPa. For 6 kDa hydrogel E-P6-SH-15, after 1 minutes cure time, the tensile moduli is 2 kPa, after 15 minutes, the tensile moduli is 20 kPa. The tensile modulus decreased from 139 kPa to 3 kPa, when the chain length of PEG-SH increased from 3 kDa to 8 kDa (E-P3-SH1 to E-P8-SH-30).

33

Results and Discussion Table 4. Gel fraction (Gf), tensile modulus (E), stress-at-break (σB), strain-at-break (εB) of PEG-SH hydrogels with 3k, 6k, 8k molecular weight and different UV irradiation times (1, 15, 30 minutes). UV-irradiation time

Gf

E

σB

εB

(minute)

(%)

(kPa)

(kPa)

(%)

E-P3-SH-1

1

99

139

127

127

E-P3-SH-15

15

99

104

89

126

E-P6-SH-1

1

99

2

9

171

E-P6-SH-15

15

99

20

15

95

E-P8-SH-1

1

99

3

-

Over 200

E-P6-SH-30

30

99

17

20

153

E-P8-SH-15

15

99

2

4

169

E-P8-SH-30

30

99

3

6

177

Hydrogel sample code

4.2.3

PEG-Al and PEG-SH hydrogel structure evaluation

The structural properties of a selection of hydrogel systems were evaluated using swelling and tensile tests on the fully cured PEG-Al, PEG-SH (3 kDa and 6 kDa) hydrogels. As can be seen in Table 5, the average molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc) for 3 kDa system hydrogels prepared by PEG-Al is 1179 g/mol, which is a bit lower than PEG-SH, ca. 1438 g/mol. For PEG-SH system, 6 kDa hydrogel E-P6-SH-15 Mc (2512 g/mol) is ca. 2 times higher than 3 kDa system. The volume-swelling ratio (from 2.7 to 8.6) and the mesh size (4.8 to 11.7 nm) increased with increasing PEG chain length, from 3 kDa to 6 kDa, the crosslinking density decreased from 10 to 4.1.

34


Table 5. The average molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc), volume-swelling ratio (Q), crosslinking density (ρc), and mesh size (ξ) of PEG allyl and PEG thiol hydrogels. Indices ‘S’ and ‘T’ denote whether the property was determined from swelling or from tensile tests, respectively. ρc,S

ρc,T

ξS

ξT

(×10-4)

(×10-4)

(nm)

(nm)

2.7

10

8.7

4.8

5.1

1420

5.7

5.6

5.6

6.7

6.7

2934

8.6

4.1

4.7

11.7

11.7

Hydrogel

Mc,S

Mc,T

sample code

(g/mol)

(g/mol)

E-P3-Al-1

1179

1367

E-P3-SH-1

1438

E-P6-SH-15

2512

4.3

Q

SEQUENTIAL-IPN HYDROGELS PERPARATION AND PROPERTIES

The seqIPNs were introduced to the PEG hydrogel systems by diffusing secondary networks into the crosslinked primary network. To prepare robust TEC PEG hydrogels, PEG-Al system was used to crosslink with tri-thiol functionalized crosslinker (TMP-tirSH) for seqIPN hydrogel fabrication. Although the other TEC side reaction that is head to head coupling of the carbon centred radicals from allyl could happen in PEG-Al system, because of the auto-inhibition of the allylic compounds, this side reaction is much less likely to happen during network formation.83

4.3.1

Single-network hydrogels and assessment of their properties

Single-network hydrogels as primary hydrogel were prepared by PEG-Al (Mn= 2, 3, 6, 8 kDa) with TMP-tir-Allyl crosslinker in EtOH. The solids content of the precursor solution was 50 wt% with 3 wt% UV-initiator and the molar ratio of functional groups were set to 1:1. Figure 17 shows the FT-Raman spectra for PEG-Al (8 kDa) and the single-network hydrogels S2, S3, S6 and S8. There is no trace of the C=C vibrations of allyl group at 1640

35

Results and Discussion cm-1 in the cured hydrogel. Also in Table 6 evinces that the gel fraction reached 97% in all single-network hydrogels, which correspond to the full TEC conversion.

Figure 17. FT-Raman spectra of 8 kDa PEG-Al and single-network hydrogel 2, 3, 6 and 8 kDa (S2, S3, S6 and S8).

Figure 18. (I), the tensile modulus and (II), degree of swelling of the single-network hydrogel.

36


As shown in Figure 18 (I), the tensile modulus decreased from 555 to 175 KPa with increasing PEG chain length from 2 kDa to 8 kDa, the water content of hydrogels increased from 79 to 90% as the corresponding degree of swelling increased from 377 to 871%, Figure 18 (II). Table 6 details the relevant structure properties of the hydrogels including the gel fraction based on the PEG-Al system and the average molecular weight between crosslinks. As can be seen, the mesh size increased while the crosslinking density decreased with increasing chain length of PEG precursors. Table 6. Gel fraction (Gf), tensile modulus (E), stress-at-break (σB), strain-at-break (εB), average molecular weight between crosslinks (Mc), mesh size (ξ), volume-swelling ratio (Q), crosslinking density (ρc) and mesh size (ξ) of single-network hydrogel. Indices ‘S’ and ‘T’ indicate values determined from swelling or tensile tests, respectively. Sample Gf code %

E (kPa)

σB εB (kPa) (%)

Q

Mc,S Mc,T ρc,S×10-4 ρc,T×10-4 ξS ξT (g/mol) (g/mol) (mol/mL) (mol/mL) (nm) (nm)

S2

95

555±18

226

65

2.3

766

902

15.5

13.2

3.7

4.0

S3

97

403±9

159

67

2.7

1141

1332

10.4

8.9

4.8

5.2

S6

97

279±22

153

75

3.7

2230

2515

5.3

4.7

7.4

7.9

S8

97

175±1

121

102 4.6

3104

3407

3.8

3.5

9.5

9.9

4.3.2

PEG chain length influence on seqIPN

PEG-Al system (Mn = 2, 3, 6, 8 kDa), PEG-Al-2k, PEG-Al-3k, PEG-Al-6k and PEG-Al8k were used to fabricate seqIPN hydrogels. All IPNs were prepared by diffusion of mixtures containing PEG precursors, crosslinker (1:1 molar ratio) and initiator (3 wt%) in EtOH (50 wt% solid content) for 2 hours at 40 °C, followed by 5 minutes of UV irradiation at 365 nm to reach a fully cured system.

37


Figure19. The FT-Raman spectra of PEG, crosslinker and dry hydrogels. a PEG-Al-8k, b PEG-Al-8k with thiol corsslinker, c single-network hydrogel S8 and d seqIPN hydrogel 88.

The FT-Raman spectra in Figure 19 show that the C=C vibrations of allyl group at 1640 cm-1 were not detected for the dried primary network S8 so as the seqIPN 8-8 hydrogels based on 8 kDa PEG-Al. Table 7 demonstrates that the secondary-network gel fraction (Gf II) was higher than 85%, which indicates that seqIPN hydrogels were successfully prepared by TEC chemistry. The secondary-network solid content decreased with the increasing chain length of the secondary-network precursor and decreasing primary network mesh size. The volume fraction of relaxed hydrogel (vr) and volume fraction of swollen hydrogel (vs) were used to calculate the volume-swelling ratio (Q) and apparent crosslinking density (ρc,a). The Q value is increased and the crosslinking density decreased with increasing secondary precursor chain length. These values indicate that the secondary PEG network structure is also well controlled by the TEC chemistry.

The seqIPN hydrogel swelling kinetic were studied by measuring the degree of swelling with time. Figure 20 depicts the degree of swelling as a function of time for the IPN hydrogels based on different PEG chain length. The general trend for all IPNs is a reduced swelling degree with the introduction of secondary networks based on shorter PEG chains.

38


Figure 20. Degree of swelling of seqIPN based on S8 hydrogel (a) based on S6 hydrogel (b) based on S3 hydrogel (c) based on S2 hydrogel (d).

39

2000

3000

6000

8000

2000

3000

6000

2000

3000

2000

8000

8000

8000

8000

6000

6000

6000

3000

3000

2000

8-2

8-3

8-6

8-8

40

6-2

6-3

6-6

3-2

3-3

2-2

97

97

97

94

94

94

97

97

97

97

94

97

93

91

92

95

85

92

94

95

27

28

26

22

32

39

21

25

32

34

80 76

315 ± 8

80

89

87

84

390±12

397±9

646±23

661±12

528±37

89

89

792 ± 4 810±13

87

86

744±34

584±31

σB (kPa)

εB (%) vr

65 ±9 0.6

889±50 292±26 38±5 0.7

588±40 264±77 58±11 0.6

595±30 283±20 62±37 0.7

352±23 174±31 69±19 0.6

313±37 106±19 44±10 0.6

381±85 116±33 36 ±5 0.6

206±16 132±17 85±15 0.6

192±21 98 ±4

217±46 72 ±18 41 ±9 0.6

365±60 127±20 54 ±2 0.6

SeqIPN Primary Secondary Gf Gf II Swelling Water E sample network network I II network (%) content (kPa) code (Da) (Da) (%) (%) solid (%) content (%)

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

vs

3.0

3.2

3.7

5.0

4.8

4.2

5.9

5.9

5.7

4.5

7.8

5.8

5.5

4.0

3.5

4.1

2.4

2.4

2.6

4.3

Q ρc,a×10-4 (mol/ml)

Table 7. SeqIPNs hydrogels primary network gel fraction (Gf I), secondary gel fraction (Gf II), the secondary (II) network mass content and the degree of swelling, tensile modulus (E), stress at break (σB), strain at break (εB), volume fraction of relaxed hydrogel (vr), volume fraction of swollen hydrogel (vs), volume swelling ratio (Q), apparent crosslinking density (ρc,a). *The apparent crosslinking density is different from the crosslinking density calculated from Mc.



Figure 21 renders the overall plot of the tensile modulus and water content data for the PEG chain influence on the seqIPN hydrogels.

Figure 21. The overall plot displaying the range of tensile modulus (top) and the water content (bottom) of primary and seqIPNs hydrogels.

4.3.3

Secondary-network diffusion time influence on seqIPN

Single-network hydrogels S8 and S2 were used as primary networks to prepare seqIPNs for diffusion-time studies. The secondary-network precursors PEG-Al-2k and PEG-Al-8k were allowed to diffuse into primary network hydrogels for 2, 4, 20 and 44 hours. Neither the FT-Raman spectra in Figure 22 evidence that the allyl group at 1640 cm-1 was detected for the dried primary network S8 nor the 2 kDa PEG-Al based IPN 8-2.

41


Figure 22. The FT-Raman spectra of PEG-Al-2k and diffusing time dependent IPN hydrogels use S8 as primary network and PEG-Al-2k as secondary-network precursor (82). The diffusion time of secondary-network precursor is shown in the brackets.

42


Figure 23. The secondary-network content and tensile modulus of IPN hydrogels (a) 8-2, (b) 8-8 and degree of swelling of 8-2 (c) and 8-8 at different diffusion time.

In Table 8, the TEC reaction enabled efficient secondary network build up with excellent gel fraction values of the secondary network (Gf II) of 84% and higher.

For the loosely crosslinked S8 system, in the case of the PEG 2 kDa secondary network, Figure 23 (a), the percentage of solid content increased from 34% after 2 hours diffusion (8-2:2) when compared to the maximum obtained level of 64% after 44 hours (8-2:44). Remarkably, in Table 8, the tensile modulus was found to increase ca. 4 folds when comparing the fully saturated IPN hydrogel (8-2:44) of 758 kPa with the primary network S8 (175 kPa) and 2 folds in comparison to the unsaturated seqIPN (8-2:2; 365 kPa). These results were further corroborated as can be seen in Table 8 by 3 folds enhanced stress-at-

43

Results and Discussion break (σB = 320 kPa) and 2 folds of strain-at-break values (εB = 106%) for seqIPN 8-2:44 and in relationship to 8-2:2.

Figure 23 (b), the diffusion of 8 kDa secondary-network precursors in S8 scaffolds reached a maximum solid content of 38% after 44 hours of diffusion (8-8:44). These results demonstrated a 60% lower solid content of 8 kDa secondary network when compared to the 2 kDa secondary network. Nonetheless, with the increasing solid content within the seqIPN 8-2, from 18% to 38% (2 to 44 hours of diffusion), the tensile modules increased from 206 kPa to 324 kPa (8-2:2 to 8-2:44).

Figure 23 (c) displays the degree of swelling of 8-2 systems supressed by increasing content of denser secondary network (2 kDa) in 8-2 system, which was the result of increasing diffusion time. Figure 24 (c) shows that with the same crosslinking density of primary and secondary network, the increasing secondary solid content still increased the crosslinking density and decreased the degree of swelling.

44


Figure 24. The secondary-network content and tensile modulus of seqIPN hydrogels (a) 22, (b) 2-8 and degree of swelling of 2-2 (c) and 2-8 at different diffusion time.

Similar diffusion behaviour was displayed for the 2 kDa secondary-network precursors within densely crosslinked S2 primary network, Figure 24 (a) and (b). In Table 8, seqIPN 2-2:2 (with 2 hours diffusion time) exhibited 27% secondary-network solid content and tensile moduli of 889 kPa. The maximum diffusion was reached after 44 hours and the fabricated seqIPN 2-2:44 revealed a secondary-network solid content of 49% and a water swelling capacity of 280%. The seqIPN 2-2:44 displayed the highest tensile modulus of all fabricated networks with a value of 1135 kPa, which can be compared with the primary network S2 of 555 kPa. Interestingly, the strain-at-break first decreased from 65% for S2

45


to 38% for the seqIPN 2-2:2 and then increased to 78% after 44 hours of diffusion (seqIPN 2-2:44).

For the 2-8 system, Figure 24 (b), is different from the other, since the secondary network is looser than the primary network. From 2 to 44 hours diffusion time, secondary-network content of seqIPN 2-8 increased from 8% and reached equilibrium to 22%. However, the tensile modulus increased from S2, 555 kPa to 829 kPa with 8% secondary network and dropped to 640 kPa with 22% secondary-network content.

The same suppression of degree of swelling is noticeable in Figure 24 (c) for seqIPN 2-2 system with increasing diffusion time and secondary-network content. For seqIPN 2-8, Figure 24 (d) the degree of swelling depicts decreased and increased with increased secondary-network content.

46

S8 8-2:2 8-2:4 8-2:20 8-2:44 8-8:2 8-8:4 8-8:20 8-8:44 S2 2-2:2 2-2:4 2-2:20 2-2:44 2-8:2 2-8:4 2-8:20 2-8:44

Sample code

Primary network (Da) 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

Gf I (%) 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97

Secondary network (Da) 2000 2000 2000 2000 8000 8000 8000 8000 2000 2000 2000 2000 8000 8000 8000 8000

Tdiffusion II network (Hour) solid content (%) 2 34 4 53 20 62 44 64 2 18 4 30 20 34 44 38 2 27 4 39 20 45 44 49 2 9 4 12 20 22 44 22 Gf II (%) 95 94 94 94 85 85 84 84 94 94 94 94 90 90 86 86 870±30 580±30 520±20 410±30 380±2 790±30 770±80 670±5 660±20 380±4 320±8 320±2 300±3 280±8 300±2 320±4 320±8 330±4

Swelling (%)

Water content (%) 90 86 84 82 79 89 88 86 86 79 76 75 75 74 77 78 82 82

σB (kPa) 97±15 95±33 120±20 276±22 320±62 130±17 130±2 130±3 260±5 226±1 292±26 410±12 445±50 410±19 374±14 274±10 226±16 226±17

E (kPa) 175±1 365±60 400±23 743±31 758±53 206±16 289±1 290±1 324±30 555±18 889±50 890±34 900±30 1135±23 829±5 655±18 659±11 640±10

102±5 54±2 99±47 106±9 106±12 85±15 87±11 102±11 110±4 65±5 38±5 73±5 76±1 78±1 83±6 83±1 81±15 81±4

εB (%)

Table 8. Summary of properties of single and SeqIPN hydrogels including gel fraction (Gf I), secondary network precursor diffusion time (Tdiffusion), secondary gel fraction (Gf II), secondary (II) network solid content (II%), the equilibrium degree of swelling, tensile modulus (E), stress at break (σB) and strain at break (εB ).


47


An overall plot of tensile modulus and water content is displayed in Figure 25.

Figure 25. The tensile modulus (top) and water content (bottom) of the seqIPNs with different secondary-network diffusion time.

The diffusion rate of secondary-network precursors PEG-red 2 kDa and 8 kDa in PEG hydrogels were traced by PEG-red (2 kDa and 8 kDa) and assessed by UV/Vis spectrometry. Figure 26 displays the concentration of the remaining PEG-red in EtOH for all semiIPNs, because of the single-network hydrogel absorption of the PEG-red, after 44 hours of diffusion the remaining PEG-red is less than the initial solution concentration, after 2 hours of diffusion, an increase in the concentration are shown in most solutions. For the PEG-red-8k, the equilibrium was reached after 20 hours of diffusion for the semi-2-8, after 28 hours the semi-8-8 also reached equilibrium.

48


Figure 26. PEG-red-2k and PEG-red-8k remaining concentration in EtOH versus diffusion time of semi-8-2, semi-8-8 and semi-2-2 and semi-2-8. UV/Vis absorption peak of PEGred at 503 nm.

4.4

PROPERTIES OF BACTERIAL-CELLULOSE-REINFORCED DMA HYDROGEL

Bacterial-cellulose (BC) aerogels were used as fiber reinforcement with DMA as monomer and PEGDA as crosslinker in the preparation of BC-DMA hydrogels. As can be seen in Figure 27 (a), SEM pictures reveal the fiber network of bacterial cellulose nanofibers. Figure 27 (b) demonstrates a cross-section of BC aerogel and evidences the ca. 2 nm of diameter and hundreds of micrometers in length of an individual nanofiber.

49


Figure 27. FE-SEM pictures of the freeze-dried BC microstructures (a) surface and (b) cross section.

DMA hydrogel were also prepared as reference via FRP in aqueous solution under Fushion UV cure system for 10 minutes. The hydrogels reached a water swelling equilibrium after one week of swelling and seven solvent exchanges to remove any unreacted residues. The FT-Raman spectra of cured DMA hydrogels are shown in Figure 28 (a). The C=C vibrations at 1615-1661 cm-1 from unreacted DMA monomer or PEGDA crosslinker were not detected in the dried hydrogels, supporting a high reaction conversion i.e. below the detection limit using FT-Raman. For the BC-DMA hydrogels, there is a small trace of the cellulose peaks from BC at 1157 - 1095 cm-1 in the FT-Raman spectra due to the small fraction of BC present in the sample.

50


Figure 28, (a) The FT-Raman spectra of DMA and PEGDA, dry DMA hydrogel P-1, P-2, P-3 and BC, dry BC-DMA hydrogel F-P-1, F-P-2 and F-P-3. (b) Photo of (I) swollen and (II) dried BC-DMA hydrogel F-P-1, F-P-2 and F-P-3.

The gel fraction, compression modulus and other properties are presented in Table 9. With the same crosslinker molar ratio (4 mol%) and the DMA monomer concentration increasing from 10% (P-1) to 70% (P-3), the water content decreased from 92% to 77%,

51


which indicates that P-3 has a higher crosslinking density than P-1. However, with the DMA monomer concentration increasing from 10% to 40% but crosslinker molar ratio decreasing from 4 mol% (P-1) to 2 mol% (P-2), the water content still decreased from 92% to 85%, which also gave evidence of the higher crosslinking density. These could due to the network formation of FRP is random, the initial monomer concentration exhibits more dominant effect of crosslinking density compared to crosslinker concentration.84 The higher initial DMA monomer concentrations showed the higher crosslinking density of the cured DMA hydrogels.85,86

Table 9. Sample code and properties of DMA hydrogels and BC-reinforced DMA hydrogels: gel fraction (Gf), concentration (wt%) of DMA monomer, crosslinker (PEGDA) molar ratio (mol%) to DMA, BC fiber content in DMA monomer and crosslinker aqueous solution (BCas), DMA network content, BC fiber content in swollen BC-DMA hydrogel (BCBC-DMA), equilibrium water content, and compression modulus (Ec). Sample

DMA

PEGDA

BCas

Gf

DMA-

BCBC-DMA

Water

Ec

code

(wt%)

(mol%)

(wt%)

(%)

network

(wt%)

content

(MPa)

content

(%)

(wt%) P-1

10

4

0

94

8

-

92

1.0

P-2

40

2

0

93

15

-

85

1.0

P-3

70

4

0

-

23

-

77

2.9

F-P-1

10

4

1

94

13

8

78

4.4

F-P-2

40

2

1

94

23

5

75

5.3

F-P-3

70

4

1

95

30

3

70

8.3

As presented in Table 9, although the initial BC fiber content is the same for all the samples (1%), the cured and swollen BC-DMA hydrogel fiber content is decreased from 8% to 3% with the DMA network content increased from 13% to 30%. Due to the limited expansion of swollen BC network, the higher crosslinking density and wt% of DMA network in BC-DMA hydrogel, the water content of BC-DMA hydrogels have been

52


suppressed ca. 10% compared with pure DMA hydrogels (92% to 77%) with the same polymer-crosslinking density. In Table 9, while the initial DMA wt% increased from 10 to 70 wt%, the compression modulus (Ec) of DMA hydrogels increased from 1 to 2.9 MPa without BC. The Ec of BCDMA increased from 4.4 to 8.3 MPa with the DMA wt% increased from 10 to 70 wt% (4 mol% PEGDA). Ec of BC-DMA hydrogel increased ca. 3 times compared with the DMA hydrogel with the same crosslinking density. However, increasing DMA from 10 to 40 wt% and decreasing PEGDA from 4 to 2 mol%, the BC-DMA exhibits an increase Ec from 4.4 to 5.3 MPa. Further presents the increasing initial DMA wt% will increase the crosslinking density even with less crosslinker mol%.

DMA hydrogels also contributed with improved shear modulus and changed the water absorption of BC hydrogels. Figure 29, (I) depicts the shear storage modulus G′ of BCDMA hydrogels and BC hydrogel. Shear modulus of BC without polymer network is close to 0 kPa but after curing the DMA network in the BC network, the G′ of the resulting IPN hydrogel P-F-3 increased up to ca. 350 kPa. The combination of DMA and BC fibers locked water in the voids of the BC aerogel, as shown in Figure 29 (II) a, with a finger force twisting the re-swollen BC hydrogel, water can be squeezed out. Water in swollen BC-DMA hydrogels (Figure 30 (II) b) on the other hand, can only be removed by evaporation and not by physical force.

53


Figure 29. I (a): the photo of BC hydrogel and (b): BC-DMA hydrogel under a finger shear force. II: the shear storage modulus G′ (kPa) of re-swollen BC hydrogel, BC-DMA hydrogels F-P-1, F-P-2 and F-P- 3. (ω: 0.1 to 20 Hz, γ: 1%)

The microstructures of BC and DMA interpenetrating networks were observed by FESEM. As can be seen in Figure 30, after DMA network cured in the BC aerogels, the composites of BC fibers and DMA networks show no trace of individual BC fiber compare to raw BC aerogel, Figure 27. The FE-SEM pictures reveal that there is no trace of phase separation between fiber and polymer networks of the BC-DMA hydrogels surface, Figure 30 (a), (b), (c), and cross section, Figure 30 (a’), (b’), (c’); also, the pore size of the hydrogels decreased from the loose crosslinked BC-DMA hydrogel F-P-1 (10 wt% DMA and 4 mol% PEGDA) to densely crosslinked BC-DMA hydrogel F-P-3 (70 wt% DMA and 4 mol% PEGDA).

54

55

section a’, b’ and c’.

PEGDA), F-P-2 (40 wt% DMA and 2 mol% PEGDA), and F-P-3 (70 wt% DMA and 4 mol% PEGDA): a, b, c and cross

Figure 30. FE-SEM pictures of BC-DMA hydrogel surface of BC-DMA hydrogel F-P-1 (10 wt% DMA and 4 mol%


Conclusions

5 CONCLUSIONS The purpose of this work was to relate and evaluate hydrogel fabrication parameters with swelling and mechanical properties.

PEG single and sequential interpenetrating polymer network (seqIPN) hydrogels were successfully prepared and characterized in this work via UV-initiated thiol-ene coupling (TEC) chemistry.

A library of PEG hydrogels was prepared using PEG-SH or the reversed PEG-Al precursors in combination with trifunctional crosslinkers. The UV-initiated TEC reaction proved to be robust for the formation of PEG hydrogels under benign experimental conditions. The type of solvent, solid content in solution, functional group and PEG chain length were found to have direct influence on mechanical properties of PEG hydrogels. Fabricated hydrogels based on PEG-Al displayed stronger mechanical properties than PEG-SH hydrogels.

Well-defined PEG seqIPN with controllable mechanical properties have also been prepared and assessed. Properties of a library of seqIPN hydrogel were compiled based on the information of secondary-network content, gel fraction, swelling kinetic, mechanical properties and structure evaluations. The seqIPN hydrogels based on the PEG-Al systems showed 84% and higher gel fraction. The mechanical properties of PEG hydrogel were increased to reach a tensile modulus over 1 MPa (2-2:44). The range of tensile modulus is extended from single network, range from 175 kPa to 555 kPa, from seqIPN 365 kPa to 1135 KPa. Water content of PEG hydrogels was supressed by seqIPN from single network, range 90% to 79% (degree of swelling 870% to 380%), to seqIPN 88% to 74% (degree of swelling 580% to 280%).

56

Conclusions

The diffusion rate of the disperse red 13 decorated linear PEG with short chain (2 kDa) and long chain (8 kDa) was evaluated in both a dense (2 kDa) and loose (8 kDa) PEG crosslinked network.

Finally, BC aerogels were employed as reinforced templates to yield BC-DMA hydrogels via traditional UV-initiated polymerization. The compression modulus of DMA hydrogel ranging from 1 MPa - 2.9 MPa increased to 4.4 MPa - 8.3 MPa upon introducing BC fibers. The water content was supressed by the BC network from DMA hydrogel from 92% to 77% in the pure DMA hydrogels to 78% to 70% in the BC-DMA hydrogels.

57

Future work

6 FUTURE WORK IPN is an effective way to manipulate mechanical properties of PEG hydrogels. Triple and multiple networks of PEG IPN will be the next interesting hydrogel to prepare by TEC. Combining polyDMA with PEG TEC hydrogels could achieve even higher mechanical properties.

Copper-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) could be another interesting process for preparing hydrogels. FRP with CuAAC in one system could prepare IPN in one pot.

In order to further explore the potential of TEC chemistry for well-defined hydrogel preparation, it will be interested to compare dendronized PEG with allyl groups with linear PEG-Al. The mechanical properties will be expected to improve a lot because of the much higher crosslinking density.

Dendronized PEG with thiol groups could crosslink without using crosslinker or dissolution in a solvent.

Nano-febrile cellulose (NFC) could be used to prepare fiber-reinforced hydrogels. The NFC could be TEMPO-oxidized and surface-treated with polymer to improve the compatibility with monomers. NFC solid concentrations can be tuned to fit the needs of the hydrogel applications.

58

Acknowledgements

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisors: Prof. Anders Hult is thanked for giving me the chance to be a PhD student at KTH. Prof. Lars Berglund is thanked for being my cosupervisor in the first 2 years. Associate prof. Michael Malkoch is thanked for teaching me from laboratory safety to writing paper and helping me to become a PhD.

All seniors in the department of fiber and polymer technology are thanked for their help.

Thanks to members of biocomposite group. Prof. E. Kristofer Gamstedt and associate prof. Qi Zhou are thanked for their helps.

The China Scholarship Council (CSC) and the Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology at KTH are acknowledged for financial support.

Prof. Ling Wang from Chengdu University of Technology is thanked for supporting my application of CSC scholarship during my master study.

Thanks to members of the coating group: special thanks to Marie, Yvonne for checking my writings and giving a lot of help when I just arrived in the group. Hui is thanked for working together with me for my papers and being a nice friend. Kim is thanked for a lot

59

Acknowledgements

of help in the lab. Jan is really thanked for supporting me with the materials to work for the paper. Oliver, Jonas and Kristina are thanked for helping me with the Swedish abstract writing. Mats K.G.J is thanked for checking my last paper and being ‘tomten’. Linda is thanked for being so nice and reviewing my thesis. Camilla is thanked for her nice talks and warm care. Alireza, Assya and Susanne are thanked for being good office-roommates. Stacy is thanked for her happy personality. Andreas Fall is thanked for helping me with the rheometer. Inger is greatly thanked for her help in the department. Big thanks to Eva, Anna, Emma L, Emma Ö, Bella, Hanna, Sara, Linn, Christian, Carl, Marcus, Martin, Mauro, Pontus, Carmen, Eric and Petra.

Special thanks to my uncle Jiebing Li and Aunt Yun Yang in Sweden for helping me in every aspect of my life. Yitong is thanked for her relax outlook on life. Jesper is thanked for all the fun art things and taping for my niece. Jingyu is thanked for her nice entertain in Japan and help me a lot in the wedding. Big thanks for Andong Liu, Aihua Pei, Yafang Yan, Yingzhi Zhu, Wenbin Yu, Xueyu Du, Hongli Zhu, Bi Ran, Lingquan Deng, Yujia Zhang, Jiayi Yang, Lin Li, Bo Yin, Liming, Zhiqiang Zheng, Chun Ying Shean, Andrew M., Raquel, Lage, Dany, Pedro and other friends in Sweden, I thank all of you for the happy moments.

感谢父亲杨竟达和母亲黄果对我的养育之恩。感谢爷爷杨金南对我的栽培和奶奶姜映南在生活上给我的照顾。感谢外公黄岳飞，外婆王文飞，小姨黄朵，堂哥杨泰宏、杨经宇，表姐梁晓莉，表哥黄毅对我的关心。

Till familjen, Anders Nilsson (Fluffy) tackas för att vara en omtänksam make; till Rositha, Leif, Bosse, Elvy, Birgit, Kerstin, Lasse, Ammi, Lisbeth, Michael, Jenny, Stefan, tackas!

60

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