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Media and Young Children's Learning Author(s): Heather L. Kirkorian, Ellen A. Wartella, Daniel R. Anderson Source: The Future of Children, Vol. 18, No. 1, Children and Electronic Media (Spring, 2008), pp. 39-61 Published by: Princeton University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20053119 Accessed: 12/09/2009 13:34 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=princetonu. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We work with the scholarly community to preserve their work and the materials they rely upon, and to build a common research platform that promotes the discovery and use of these resources. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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Media

and Young L. Kirkorian,

Heather

Children's

Ellen A. Wartella,

Learning R. Anderson

and Daniel

Summary on media, particularly television, have long been criticized for their potential impact One area for concern is how media influences cognitive development exposure early summa and academic achievement. Heather Kirkorian, Ellen Wartella, and Daniel Anderson

Electronic children.

rize the relevant and minimizing

research

and provide the negative effects.

suggestions

for maximizing

the positive

effects

of media

is the seemingly unique effect of television on children under age two. that well-designed, televi educational Although clearly demonstrates age-appropriate, sion can be beneficial to children of age, studies on infants and toddlers suggest that preschool

One

focus of the authors research

these young children may better understand and learn from real-life experiences some research from video. Moreover, suggests that exposure to television during years of life may be associated

with

poorer

cognitive

than they do the first few

development.

the importance of content in mediat respect to children over two, the authors emphasize on to age ing the effect of television cognitive skills and academic achievement. Early exposure an is around educational curriculum associated with appropriate programs designed cognitive

With

and academic particular,

enhancement,

is associated

with

whereas poorer

exposure cognitive

to pure entertainment, and violent content in lower and academic achievement. development

authors point out that producers and parents can take steps to maximize the positive effects and minimize the negative effects. They note that research on children's television can inform for producers of children's media to enhance viewing guidelines learning. Parents

The

of media

can select well-designed, to maximize the positive

programs and view age-appropriate effects of educational media.

the programs

with

their children

aim is to inform educators, parents, and others who work with policymakers, children the about of media, particularly children, and television, on preschool young impact can to costs. maximize what society do the benefits and minimize the The

authors'

www.futureofchildren.org research associate at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst. Ellen Wartella is a professor, Heather Kirkorian is a postdoctoral Daniel Anderson is a professor at the University of executive vice chancellor, and provost at the University of California-Riverside. Massachusetts-Amherst. VOL. 18

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Heather L. Kirkorian, Ellen A. WarteUa, and Daniel R Anderson

in first appeared rooms in the the nation's living middle of the twentieth century,

Since

television

recurrent

have voiced

observers

its impact on view children. In recent years, ers, particularly to other electronic concern has extended this concern

over

including computers researchers game consoles. Although still have much to learn, they have provided electronic information on the links between

video

television, and children's especially is skills. The message learning and cognitive clear: most (if not all) media effects must be

media,

in media content. With light of to what children watch respect development, is at least as important as, and probably more watch. important than, how much they

considered

Until the 1980s, social

close academic subsequent for both media with some suggestions and and parents for enhancing producers effects of beneficial the potentially extending electronic

watched

In this article we

television.

research with

review media

on

skills and academic

cognitive in young children. We

over whether

children

younger to electronic

than two should be exposed the apparent media, emphasizing of infants and toddlers

deficit

learn better

video

inwhich

from real-life

they than

experiences Next we look at research from video. do they on media effects in three areas: associations between

media

use and cognitive

attention; experimental particularly for direct learning from educational 40

particularly

age.

THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN

as Active

Children Until

the 1980s,

Users

Media

social science

researchers

of how viewers had only implicit theory television. Analysts regarded televi watched sion viewing, particularly by young children, an

and under the being cognitively passive features control of salient attention-eliciting

as

such as fast movement

of the medium sound effects.

Jerome

and

Singer formalized that the "busyness"

of this theory, proposing leads to a sensory bombardment television a series of orienting responses that produces that interferes with cognition and reflection. cannot process television and therefore cannot learn from it.1

content Others

begin by children are active arguing that by age three, media users. We then discuss important that highlight aspects of child development the debate

are of preschool

those who

Aletha

emphasis achievement

in children,

similar views, arguing that proposed as Sesame Street such provided programs educational.2 be could that truly nothing

an implicit theory of how

an

use

media

As a result, children

had only

researchers

viewers

use and

and

screen media,

science

early media achievement. We

between

and associations

Huston

a somewhat

and John Wright proposed different theory of attention

positing that the features of television that drive children's attention may as a child ages. they Specifically, change salient claimed that in infancy, perceptually and features of television such as movement to television,

sound effects

age and are less influ

drive attention. With

however, experience, enced by perceptual pay greater attention such as dialogue

children salience

and are able to

to informative

features

and narrative.3

evidence

and the same time, Daniel Anderson a Elizabeth Lorch created complementary model of children's attention to television,

media;

drawing

skills,

Around

on evidence

that television

viewing

is

Media and Young Children's Learning

Table 1. Selected

Popular Television

Programs

for Young Children

and DVD Series

Network

TV programs

Description

Barney & Friends

Evoking a preschool setting, Barney the dinosaur teaches songs and dances to young children. The show focuses heavily on pro-social themes of sharing, empathizing, helping others, and cooperating.

PBS

Blue's Clues

viewers at home to help solve a mystery with his dog friend, A human host encourages Blue. The show is often repetitive and encourages interactivity by asking viewers to find clues and solve puzzles.

Nickelodeon

Bob the Builder

Bob the Builder and his construction crew face building, renovation, and repair chailenges. The series often focuses on identifying a problem and making a plan to solve the problem.

PBS

Dora the Explorer

Featuring a bilingual Latina girl as the lead, Dora and her friends go on quests and help others, encouraging viewers to help out through their own actions or by telling her what she needs to know. Inaddition to highlighting traditional educational content such as in English and color and shapes, Dora teaches language by repeating words and phrases Spanish.

PBS

Sesame

Combining puppetry, wide range of topics lution, music, dance,

Street

live action, and animation, this long-running series focuses on a conflict reso including the alphabet, numbers, emotion management, and healthy lifestyles.

Teletubbies

Centering on four colorful characters, the Teletubbies speak in a baby-like language and in their stomachs that show clips of learn through play. The Teletubbies have televisions real children from around the world. This program is targeted at toddlers.

Thomas & Friends

Based on a book series, Thomas the Tank Engine and his engine hard and be cooperative with each other.

The Wiggles

include songs Featuring a four-man singing group for children, episodes of The Wiggles children to sing songs and skits focused on solving a problem. The Wiggles encourages and move their bodies to music.

DVD series

Description

Baby Einstein

Series content covers wide range of topics including music, science. Targeted at children starting at one month.

Brainy Baby

Educational

Beginnings

series

PBS

Disney

art, language, poetry, and

Disney

highlighting range of subjects including alphabet, art, music, shapes, and right and left brain development. Targeted at children starting at

Features baby versions of the Muppets from Sesame Street. The focus is on encouraging interactions between child and caregivers. Targeted at children starting at six months.

on active cognition. They argued that in children at least as young as two attention content. in is large part by program guided children pay more For example, preschool based

attention

learn to work

PBS

Producer

foreign languages, nine months. Sesame

friends

PBS

to those clips than to make them incom

Brainy Baby Company

Sesame

Workshop

tion.6 Finally, to understand typical programs such as cuts, that use standard video montage in a variety pans, and zooms, children engage activities while viewing.7 of inferential

to normal video

that have been

edited

for example by using foreign prehensible, the dubs of the video clips or randomizing order of shots within the clips.4 Moreover, children pay more attention to preschool-age even than to commercials children's programs are more densely packed though commercials learn strate with formal features.5 Children television by using their gies for watching of formal features to guide atten knowledge

Considerations

Developmental Although television

children

are active viewers

of

age, research suggests by preschool that this may not be true of infants and tod research dlers. In this section we summarize to, comprehension of, and learn two. ing from video by children under

on attention

Attention Until

to Electronic

recently,

research VOL.

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Heather L. Kirkorian, Ellen A. WarteUa, and Daniel R. Anderson

did not focus on infants and toddlers. studies two

that children

reported paid little attention

Early younger than

to television, perhaps little television was produced for them.8 The early 1990s, however, saw a virtual in the of television explosion production

because

Research

that

suggests

children do not comprehend

media

over whether

years.

pay close attention increase in infant

products has led to debate infants and toddlers should be

(See table 1 for exposed to electronic media. a some of description popular media products for young children.) the underlying mechanisms driving to video appear to be the same in adults and infants as young as three months, some research has found differences in the

Although attention

ways in which younger and older viewers watch video.10 For produced professionally one observed example, patterns of eye study movements

in

one-year-olds,

four-year-olds,

and adults while and found

Sesame Street they watched between systematic differences

infants and older viewers.

Infants' visual

and twenty-four months watched eighteen, normal and distorted segments o? Teletubbies, a viewers in this age for program designed THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN

speech. older

and twenty-four months) looked for longer periods at the normal video segment than at the distorted segments, children and twelve did (six months) younger not appear to discriminate between the two. These findings suggest that children under and eighteen months may not understand, in the same way

television

children.

as

In

to

of Video Perception One area of cognitive influenc development to learn children's from television ing ability

is

the perception of video itself. Some research suggests that children do not begin to discrim inate between

television

and real-life

events

until

the early preschool years. For example, Jaglom and Howard Gardner reported of three children from qualitative observations

Leona

age two to five. They noted that at age two, the children that the television recognized world was

contained

within

the television

set

but not until

or four they reached age three did they realize that the television world could not affect them?that, for example, television characters The

authors

could not enter concluded

their bedrooms.

that sometime

be

tween ages two and three, children develop of the representational understanding

an

nature

of video.13

fixa

tions, for example, were more variable and less sensitive to in content.11 In an changes other experiment, children aged six, twelve,

42

experiment children (eighteen

produce backwards found that although

particular, they may be dialogue and may fail to inte across successive shots grate comprehension in filmic montage.

toddlers, that infants and toddlers

directed

to

The

inattentive

for infants and designed and some research now suggests

to these videos.9 The

reversed

do older

and videos

programs

were

thus learn from,

the symbolic nature of television until they reach the preschool

one distorted video, shots were range.12 In in the other, utterances randomly ordered;

In a similar vein,

John Flavell and several a series of conducted colleagues experiments with children to investigate the preschool-age distinction real objects they made between on video. and those represented Younger children were less likely to answer correctly


uses of on regarding the objects For example, three- and four-year old children saw a video image of a bowl of

learn from commercially years and younger television programs. Experiments produced on found learning from video have repeatedly

popcorn and were asked fall out of the bowl when

that infants and toddlers

questions television.

if the popcorn the television

would set

was

turned upside down. The four-year-olds that televised recognized images represent real objects while three-year-olds failed to

learn better

from

real-life

than from video. This experiences video deficit disappears by about age three, when learning from video becomes so-called

robust.18

discriminate

between televised images and real objects, claiming that the popcorn would fall out of the bowl if the television was down.14

turned upside Other

research

to discriminate

focusing between

Support for the video deficit hypothesis comes from several lines of research. Studies of language learning have demonstrated that children aged two and older can learn vocab

on children's

ability

televised

programs has generally demonstrated younger than five cannot con

ulary from television.19 Unlike infants and toddlers however,

and commercials

learn from video. One

that children

children

sistently make that distinction.15 Even when young children correctly label programs and commercials, they may still think that the is part of or connected

commercial

to the

program.16 Moreover, although children may be able to identify commercials based on cues perceptual by age five, their ability to intent and inherent recognize the persuasive bias in advertising does not appear to develop until age seven or eight.17 this research

suggests that children nature the comprehend symbolic of television until they reach the preschool

Together do not

and learn years; evidence of comprehending at from television younger ages than ing ismeager. And itmay about two-and-a-half take several more

years before children are able to make more specific discriminations with

respect

to program

from Electronic Media Learning infant-directed media Many products explicit claims about their educational

make

value; titles such as Baby Einstein, keep their claims implicit. But analysts know little about the extent to which children two others, with

younger than two learned vocabu than lary better from real-life experiences from equivalent video presentations.20 Other

research demonstrates experimental are less effective television models ones

in preserving

phonemes Additional

that than live

of foreign in infants.21

discrimination sounds)

(speech

support for the video deficit comes from studies examining

hypothesis infants' and toddlers'

to imitate ability specific as an such adult actions actions, demonstrating with a puppet. In an experiment comparing toddlers' imitation of live and mediated (that is, videotaped)

models,

Rachel

Barr and

Harlene

Hayne reported that twelve-, fifteen-, were more to and eighteen-month-olds likely a behavior after viewing unmediated, perform live models than after viewing either the video

model

or no model.

the oldest

age group likely perform the behavior after seeing the video model than the control group after seeing no modeled behavior.22 A more

was more

content.

older children, are less to likely found that experiment

Only

to

recent experiment made similar findings for at children twenty-four and thirty months.23 It is clear that, unlike preschool-age behaviors

seen

infants and toddlers, children can readily imitate on

video.24

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Heather L. Kirkorian, Ellen A. Wartella, and Daniel R. Anderson

Another

line of research

and toddlers'

ability

relevant

to infants'

to transfer from video

it can be overcome though an interactive relationship. Researchers by have not yet demonstrated any learning, or even

toddlers

to

involves object-retrieval real-world problems the child either tasks. In these experiments, room sees a toy hidden in an through adjacent or watches awindow the toy being hidden on television. In a study of children aged two Georgine Troseth and reported that both age groups Judy DeLoache were able to find the toy on every trial when and two-and-a-half,

One baby videos. a series effect of the evaluated study to foster of baby videos designed parent-child interactions. Compared with parents who a series (Baby Einstein), watched comparison lack of it, from commercial

recent

videos from the Sesame parents who watched more series showed engaged Beginnings interactions with their twelve- to twenty-one

the hiding event was seen through a window but less often when the event was watched

month-old

on television,

videos

the younger particularly for An Kelly Schmitt and Daniel

participants.25 derson reported

similar findings with overall at chance levels (25 percent) for

performance children aged two and about 50 percent for in the television children aged two-and-a-half

task but nearly perfect at both ages for the did well on both window task. Three-year-olds tasks.26 Marie

Schmidt, Alisha Crawley-Davis, to minimize and Daniel Anderson attempted cues and simplify the influence of perceptual In the first, a the task in two experiments. a cutout on was sticker hidden underneath a felt-board

that had the same dimensions

as the television

screen.

In the second,

an

experimenter simply told the child, either live or on closed-circuit television, where the was hidden. Performance of two-year object olds in both tasks was still at chance levels in the television conditions.27 Georgine Troseth attributed this deficit to and Judy DeLoache a poor of symbolic representa understanding tions or to prior expectations about television as "unreal." Recent

work by Troseth shows that if toddlers have interactive experiences

for example, they con television?if, verse with an via closed-circuit experimenter video?the video deficit in the object-retrieval can task be overcome.28

the if they had coviewed on occasions.29 Al multiple

children

at home

is as yet no evidence that babies though there learn anything from baby videos, apparently can.

parents

coviewing

no research To our knowledge ined computer and interactive

has yet exam game use in

although these products for children as developed

infants and toddlers, are now young

being as six months

of age and some parents and toddlers use infants that their

report these media

on a recent sur regularly. Based Kaiser vey of parents, the Family Foundation that 61 percent of children under estimated (television, videos, age two use screen media on a 43 percent of and DVDs) typical day infants and toddlers watch television every re a relative dearth of empirical day.30 Given search on infants and toddlers and a dispute screen even over whether they comprehend media, will

for the remainder

focus on educational

preschoolers

of this article we media

and older children.

urgently needed, influence media

however,

for designed is Research

to determine

how

infants and toddlers.

with

the bulk of the research supports Overall, a video deficit for learning by infants and 44


Media

Effects

on Attention

and

Other Cognitive Skills their other charges, critics have Among often accused television of being a negative influence on the development of children's cognitive

skills. Much

of the debate

about

the


effect

concerns the cognition of attention. The most common

of television

development

on

has been that frequent changes in hypothesis scenes and content disrupt young children's to sustain attention.31 One ability reanalysis of 1980s collected data longitudinal during the found a small correlation between early at ages one and three years and subsequent symptoms of attention at age seven.32 from stud problems Findings ies since then have been mixed.33 television

exposure

sures of whereas those who self-regulation, showed higher viewed the prosocial programs levels of task persistence, rule obedience, and of delay relative to baseline mea sures and to children in the neutral viewing

tolerance

It is important to note that the three categories of programs likely differed not in content but with respect to formal only condition.

factor in the link be possible mediating tween early television viewing and attention skills is program content. Most correlational studies do not measure to which impossible

content

the types of programs it exposed, making to draw any conclusions regarding

children

effects.

are

a recent

However,

(animation

versus

live-action) and pace. It is difficult within the context of this to isolate the links be study tween

One

such as format

features

content

and self-regulatory skills, but as clearly indicate that television

the findings a medium does not have an indiscriminate

on attentional skills. In fact, negative effect have found that televi several experiments sion can teach specific attention skills and strategies.36

corre

that content is an study suggested of the relation between important mediator lational

exposure subsequent

to television attentional

early exposure entertainment associated

before

to violent

age three and

problems. Specifically, and non-educational

was programming positively with later symptoms of attention

television but exposure to educational was not related to attentional problems.34 deficit

television

Educational

those designed programs, around a curriculum with to communicate specific goal academic or social skills, teach their intended

early study of the effects of television on behavior in experimentally preschoolers varied the type of content children viewed.

a

lessons.

One

who were

The

study compared preschoolers to (Mister Rog exposed prosocial programs ers' Neighborhood), neutral films, and violent cartoons

Superman).35 Children were observed first for a baseline period of then for a four-week television three weeks, two weeks viewing period, and finally for from this after the viewing period. Findings television study suggest that the link between (Batman,

skills isme viewing and children's attentional diated by content. Children who viewed the in mea violent cartoons showed decreases

Many allegations regarding the effect of on children's attention skills focus television on the fast pace of programs such as Sesame Street.37 The only study to experimentally vary the pace of a television program ob served preschoolers during tasks of perse verance after the children either viewed an edited

version

of Sesame

of either particularly particularly books with differences

Street,

composed

segments or read segments,

fast-paced

slow-paced

or

found no group or distractibility either reading or

parents. Analysts in measures of

impulsiveness

following VOL. 18

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Heather L. Kirkorian, Ellen A. Wartella, and Daniel R Anderson

television

viewing.38 This finding suggests that is no immediate link between program

there

and attentional

pacing

skills. Nonetheless,

from Educational

Learning Educational

around

most

tion in

educational

preschoolers.

of computer use and video games have been more optimistic, with the relevant research seeming to support a link between both and cognition. The research generally

Discussions

focuses

on

tion. One

skills other

cognitive study, for instance,

experiment the effects

conducted

no on differences study found between-group of spatial skill, it found pre-test measures scores for the significantly higher post-test spatial video game group than for the control

media

results have been

reported

the research might

suggests that electronic have an effect on attention skills.

especially when viewed by children than younger age two, may have a negative on attention effect development, though the is over evidence weak. Concern relatively television exposure before age two has been

Television,

echoed

in research

on

cognitive development more Content appears to be an generally.41 and specific television important mediator, content

has been

Studies

of interactive media

linked to attention

skills.

have found

that

video game play may enhance spatial cogni tion, but research is lacking on other cognitive skills, particularly attention development. 46


or social skills,

lessons. But because

research

of assessing the effectiveness curricula is proprietary or not

in archival

published evaluations

sources, most

program the by general public. of this research

go unseen reviews Nevertheless, demonstrate

the effectiveness,

term and long-term,

both

short

of curriculum-based

an

fifth graders to investigate on of video game experience

were spatial skills in children. Subjects an group randomly assigned to experimental that played a spatial game, such as navigating a marble or a along tracks through space, a control group that played computerized word game that was not the spatial. Although

Overall,

academic

than atten

with

group.39 Similar by others.40

those programs, a curriculum with a specific

designed to communicate goal teach their intended

research manipulating program longitudinal content is needed to investi experimentally on atten the causal effect of television gate

Media

television

Preschoolers

view

who

Sesame

Street have higher levels of school readiness than those who do not.

for children in areas as diverse programming as science, and social literacy, mathematics, skills.42 Academics have also published research

evaluating

the effectiveness

of

educational programs. We present examples of both correlational and experimental evaluative studies.

is a television program focusing on social and skills cognitive problem-solving a in In two-year program preschoolers. evaluation, Jennings Bryant and others

Blue's Clues

who were regular preschoolers of the show and preschoolers who not because the program did not air in

followed viewers were

their town of residence. children

The

two groups of of prob

did not differ on measures

lem solving and flexible at the start of thinking the study. At the end of the two-year observa tion period, however, regular viewers of Blue's Clues outperformed their non-viewing peers in

many

measures

and systematic

and were

more

in their problem

successful

solutions.


the problems required careful a trait and planning, frequently modeled in the an described In program.43 experimen tal study, were ran children preschool-age to watch one domly assigned episode o? Blue's Solving

or the same

Clues,

showed better

of the

comprehension in the show, specific information presented and children who watched the program five times showed better than comprehension saw it

those who Clues on

once. Moreover, Blue's only scored higher than non-viewers

viewers

tasks different

problem-solving

tions, such as increases

from those

in the program, particularly the program repeatedly44 these studies demonstrate immedi

directly presented when they viewed

ment,

also are plausible.47

Other

forms of electronic

been

used

ated with

Street or Dora domain

research

these websites.

entering school. One such program is Sesame Street, which has been by far the most studied children's program, probably because of s commitment to research, Workshop the program's longevity and popularity, and its long history of both criticism and praise.

Sesame

research

demonstrates

between

early exposure Street and school readiness.45 That control

alysts statistically factors known to affect

a

positive to Sesame

is, after an for a range of other school readiness, they

find that preschoolers who view Sesame Street have higher levels of school readiness than those who evidence

do not. Nationally, there is some for an increase in school readiness

among preschoolers

in recent years.46 One for this trend may be

plausible explanation increased early exposure to television, particu larly educational programs for young children,

are associ

shows such as Sesame

television

the Explorer, is available

no though public on the effect of

Researchers

have conducted

on the use of educational

studies

For

home.

software

one experiment example, in the effectiveness gains

significant cational software when

To summarize,

programs designed for young focus on a variety of academic and social skills to help prepare children for

children

some

instance,

produced, professionally Internet websites for preschoolers

Some

television

For

also have

curriculum-based

by other

association

enroll

preschool

media

for education.

Together ate and potentially long-lasting effects of Blue's Clues on skills, problem-solving for viewers the of especially program. regular

Correlational

in

or one

five times,

episode a different of episode program. Not surpris children who viewed the Blue's Clues ingly,

program

as yet evidence is insufficient to draw though solid conclusions. Although media may have to the trend, many other contributed explana

to use the software

reported of edu

children were as well

at home

school.48 Similar benefits

at

allowed

as in

have been

reported

researchers.49

it is clear that children

learn from educational

media.

can

Television

pro grams designed with a specific goal to teach academic or social skills can be effective with potentially long-lasting effects. Although scarce, research on interactive media soft ware

suggests similar results. We turn now to a discussion of associations between overall

media

use

measures

in

and subsequent early childhood of overall achievement.

Early Media Use and Academic Achievement common criticisms of chil Among the most use ac is that it dren's media displaces other tivities believed to be more beneficial such as outdoor

and leisure play, homework, reading. television however, viewing has Historically, media largely displaced other entertainment such as comic books, radio, and cinema.50 For the most appear

part, television more to displace VOL. 18

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case of except perhaps in the and youth with extraordinarily high

able activities, children television children

exposure

or of early school-age in first and to read, typically

learning grade.51 Potential

effects displacement interactive media are less

second

of relatively new, clear because users can access multiple media a computer, using simultaneously, platforms television.52 for example, while watching studies of the effect of television

Many on

achievement

academic

tions between and

exposure

examine

some measure some

of achievement.53

a

rates of television viewing were associ higher achievement.55 Other ated with decreasing a similar pattern.56 have found studies in the association important factor television viewing and academic between

measure

studies can findings of correlational be difficult to interpret. Itmay be that televi sion viewing lowers academic achievement,

Moreover,

but it is equally plausible that academically children are more drawn to televi challenged sion as a leisure-time

activity. Moreover, that has not been accounted

may be the age of the viewer. amount of television exposure

achievement The

correla

tions are often negative, indicating greater achievement with lower exposure to television, but the associations are also often quite small.

third variable

was positively day), television viewing but associated with academic achievement,

hours

One

of television

contemporaneous

(one to two

is, in moderation

That

curvilinear.

viewing

correla

In these studies,

total viewing time age correlation between a was and academic achievement only -.05, More accurately described, tiny association. the relation was what social scientists call

some

and explain both television exposure In the case of television view achievement.

optimal as a function of may vary with age, possibly the types of programs viewed at different Few studies have directly investigated ages.57 the association television

between

viewing

achievement

and

in infants and toddlers.

In one

study, however, viewing before age related to later academic three was negatively whereas achievement viewing at three years related to subse and beyond was positively quent

achievement.58

for may

ing, for example, children from lower-income homes tend to watch more television and also to score lower on measures

of academic

than do their higher-income In this example, both televi counterparts.54 sion exposure and academic achievement may

achievement

be the result of family income. In fact, when studies take into account other correlational to find important factors, they often fail signifi cant associations between television exposure in children. and academic achievement

Detailed

analyses

of the relation

between

exposure and academic achieve suggest that this relation is not straight

television ment

For example, a meta-analysis of aver the that studies twenty-three reported

forward.

48


It is also important studies mentioned

to note

that most

of the

thus far did not distin

the types of content viewed. guish between a association of The lack straightforward television exposure and academic between may be at least partially medi ated by the content of the programs viewed. For instance, although one study reported achievement

a

with high generally curvilinear relation one est achievement for children watching viewers to two hours a day, these moderate were also more to report watching likely heavier whereas educational programming viewers were more ment

likely

to report entertain several more recent

viewing.59 Indeed, studies have found that achievement to early exposure specifically television programming.

to

is linked

educational


One

of the most

studies of this kind

extensive

educational program reported that viewing was at associated five age ming positively with high school grades in English, math, and science. Early exposure to educational programming a host of other

opposed information

linked with also positively factors such as leisure time

on the and thirty months of age depended content viewed. For example, early exposure to programs such as Blue's Clues and Dora was

linked with sub positively language sequent vocabulary and expressive was Teletubbies whereas negatively viewing on these measures.61 linked with performance its face, these findings contradict results from video indicating little language learning in children under two. It is possible, however,

On

that the findings are attributable not to learn to self-selection ing from programs but rather

language

have well-developing to watch different

skills prefer than their more

slowly develop nature of Given the correlational peers. ing to know for certain this study, it is impossible these findings. what produced programs

entertainment

and viewing

to educational)

was

such that children who

studies report longitudinal associations between academic

negative achievement

in extracurricular reading and involvement activities.60 In another longitudinal study, six the effect of television exposure between

the Explorer

some

content,

media.63

(as

Specific from

learned

spontaneously does not appear to viewing entertainment same cumulative have the long-term benefit as viewing

curriculum-based

educational

programming.

Educational

programs are associated positively with overall measures of and with

achievement

potentially long-lasting effects, while purely entertainment

content, violent

particularly is negatively

respect

associated

with

achievement.

academic With

content,

to interactive media

such as

are games and the Internet, findings mixed, almost entirely correlational (allowing and no conclusive cause-effect associations), video

educational programs Although watching social benefits, watching and have academic other types of content can have drastically different results. For instance, longitudinal a research has demonstrated correlational negative association between sure to violent video content

can

early expo and academic

achievement.62

Not

all non-educational

television

programs such as have explicitly negative violence, but research on the links between and general entertain academic achievement children ment content is less clear. Although content

can learn spontaneously

from entertainment

young children. Al a associa negative study reported though tion between video game use and academic

seldom

with

conducted

one

achievement a

in adolescents, between

association

others

report achievement

positive and computer and Internet use at home.64 these few studies may suggest that Though linked with video games are negatively and Inter whereas achievement computers linked with net are positively additional research is needed cally investigate

this potential

achievement, to systemati in difference

outcome.

VOL.

18

/ NO. 1 / SPRING

2008

49


To summarize,

when

portant confounding and parent education,

studies

control

for im

to children.

tial benefits

such as income

variables

they often fail to find linear relations between television

significant viewing and subsequent the association appears

In fact, achievement. to be curvilinear, with to a achievement at low levels increasing peak of television viewing (one to two hours a day), and then with heavier viewing. That declining

In this section we

a few important mediators briefly discuss the effectiveness of educational media.

of

Attention Children

cannot

messages

to which

Moreover,

viewers

learn from educational not pay attention. they do learn more from television

programs when they can pay sustained, un broken attention.65 Researchers have identi fied several means

of maximizing children's some to a program, to do having program content, others with formal fea

attention

To maximize resources

the cognitive available to children

with

tures such as camera

and sound techniques one way to increase atten is to maximize comprehen of the content, a topic we discuss in sibility

As noted, a tion to program

effects.

to process educational content, one study suggests that producers integrate narrative content

the

and educational as much as possible.

next

section.66

At least years, by the preschool formal features of media?those istics that can be described to content?to

reference said, the most

children

use

character

with minimal guide

attention.

be content

cuts between shots, camera example, are and sound effects to considered pans,

cational

be formal

with

appears important mediator of the programs viewed. Edu associated programs are positively

overall measures

of achievement

to

formal

and

with potentially long-lasting effects, while content, particularly purely entertainment is violent content, associated with negatively academic

content

systematically. Nonetheless, in the section, software with previous an educational can have a curriculum positive influence on learning.

noted

Production Techniques Maximize Educational of Electronic Media Producers

of children's

can do several 50

THE FUTURE

things

to Benefits

educational to maximize

OF CHILDREN

media the poten

differ

study found that in the extent to which

and suppress looks at the television. terminate,

are example, child voices likely to elicit looks from inattentive viewers whereas adult

male

voices

are

to suppress looks. likely The authors of the their study interpreted as learned associa findings demonstrating

to examine

and computers

features

One

For

achievement.

games effects

features.

they elicit, maintain, children's preschool

Age may also be an Too mediator. few studies have important been conducted with interactive media such as video

For

as

tions between of content.67 associate

formal Children,

features

and types for instance, often

child voices with

child-directed

and adult male voices with programming content for adults. The attention-directing effect of formal features may thus change with

consistent with age and experience, Huston and Wright's theory.68 Such theories some interest in generate understanding how infants and toddlers respond to formal


to date though the only such study that infants, toddlers, and older concluded to a few visual children responded similarly formal features.69 That is, the same features features,

to elicit and maintain

appear

in all

attention

young viewers from infancy at least through viewers of the preschool years. Although all ages respond to formal features, Huston that content and Wright's theory predicts becomes formal

important with age and increasingly less impor features consequently

tant except insofar as they are used to help the finding that process content. Moreover, attention

age two is driven does not necessar

in children

under

features partly by formal mean that video. It is they comprehend ily more children respond likely that such young to the saliency and unfamiliar automatically ity of formal

features.

Comprehension as children Just

cannot understand

not pay they do content learn from

to which

cational message

cannot

attention,

an edu

they Shalom Fisch that they do not understand. what he called the capacity model proposed of television of children's comprehension on the limited

based

cognitive for process people have available at any given moment.70 Fisch ing information a a makes distinction between program's programs resources

narrative

content?its

tional content?its

story?and

informative

its educa

messages?

the potential competition and emphasizes the two types of content for the between cognitive

resources

needed

program. To maximize es available to children tional content,

Fisch

to process

the

the cognitive resourc to process educa

suggests that producers content and educational

integrate narrative as much as the educational possible, making a central part of the ongoing story. message For example, characters may have to solve a before advancing to the particular problem

next chapter in the story. In this way, narra content can capitalize on tive and educational resources same rather than compete for the of the presentation televi focused on educational Fisch's

them. Although capacity model

it can easily be applied particular, interactive media as well. educational,

to

sion in

Repetition can be such a power reason why media tool is that content can be ful educational

One

Literal repeti easily and cheaply repeated. tion of episodes can enhance comprehension and subsequent learning. We have already noted the experimental study comparing one who watched episode of preschoolers the Blue's Clues with those who watched on five consecutive once a day episode to the episode attention days. In that study, remained high and relatively constant over while com the course of five presentations same

for program prehension with repeated exposure

content

increased

to the episode. interacted with the also increasingly (in terms of audience participation)

Children content

was as the Similar repeated.71 episode benefits of literal repetition have been ed in other

studies.72 Moreover,

report the Blue's

found that transfer of experiment learning from the specific examples present ed in the program to different problems with

Clues

similar solutions program

increased

as a function

of

repetition.

Viewer

Characteristics

Some

studies of media

effects

suggest

that

a variety of viewer characteristics, including socioeconomic but not limited to intelligence, the effects of status, and gender, can mediate media on learning and academic achievement. To the extent that producers of children's me dia can take these characteristics

into account

and production, they during program design value. For example, educational enhance may VOL. 18

/ NO.

1 / SPRING

2008

51

Heather L Kirkorian, Ellen A. Wartella, and Daniel R. Anderson

several correlational

studies

suggest that the television viewing may be stronger

negative impact of heavy on academic achievement

for girls or for individuals with higher intel ligence.73 Other studies suggest that television effects on chil viewing may have differential dren from different

groups.

viewing is associated in children from achievement

Specifically, with higher

homes

lower-income in children

socioeconomic

television

and lower achievement

homes.74 A higher-income study that separately analyzed

association

types found

between

that the positive to educational

exposure programs at age five and later achievement was significantly stronger for boys while the negative association between violent content and later achievement The

was

stronger for girls. this finding in the

authors

context

interpreted of socialization. For

socialization emphasis educational

because

example,

of girls generally

places

more

on academics,

early exposure to may help boys become

programs more relatively prepared for school.75 Al though these studies are often correlational

for the express purpose rarely conducted of investigating individual differences such as race or

some gender, they highlight possible of the effects of media on children. mediators

Direct

of

Learning learning of specific

educational

information

is

media

from but a

certainly useful, most of not educational initiatives (if all) goal is to empower to children apply what they have learned to real-life problems. Thus children must

transfer

to the real world what

they learn from the media context (for a television program set in a fantasy example now know Researchers environment). relatively

little about

transfer of

young children, particularly with television and interactive media, evidence 52

suggests

learning respect

though that even preschoolers


transfer

from television

based

on transfer of

in children learning and analogical reasoning more can Fisch that transfer argues generally, be maximized not only by repeating the in the course of the educational messages but also by varying the contexts He suggests surrounding each presentation. that presenting the same lesson, such as a

specific problem-solving strategy, several times different using types of examples can a child's mental increase the flexibility of of that representation strategy, thus enhanc select and ing the child's ability to accurately in different it real-life situations.77 apply

Parent

Coviewing

in to some can

and Mediation

as media

can increase the producers so value of electronic media, parents and other caregivers can also play an important role in increasing the effectiveness Just educational

of educational example, educational

and

Transfer

to real-life prob of ideal conditions for

information

lems.76 In a discussion

episode

from

longitudinal different content

transfer video

media.

can enhance

adults, for Coviewing the effectiveness of

programming by drawing at tention to the most important aspects of the and lessons presented program by extending in the program. Some studies suggest that a coviewing with parent or other adult may increase a child's learning from educational television, particularly when the coviewer ac tively mediates to the program

by explicitly drawing attention and by asking and answering some studies fail to find Although

questions.78 a benefit of adult coviewing our no evidence knowledge tive link between

or mediation,

to

a nega suggests such parent involvement

and learning from television. With respect to interactive media, are mixed. findings from educational software Although learning may be enhanced when an adult provides feedback or extends the lessons, it seems that children still need to be free to control the interactive

experience

themselves

to maintain


in the activity.79 Taken together, adult are most to coviewing and mediation likely have a positive effect on learning from educa tional media. interest

on electronic

most research Although focuses on use at home,

some

evaluating the classroom. create

Efforts

media are

initiatives

the use of educational

in

media

have been made

to

that integrate educa a set programs, and massive

school curricula

tional television of evaluations way.80 Ready ing initiative

of such initiatives to Learn, to enhance

a

is now under

public broadcast school readiness

television programs through educational for and online resources, offered workshops to extend how educators and showing parents lessons from television programs through practice and repetition. tion of Ready to Learn

positively academic

A five-year evalua found a modest but and the

the workshops positive link between time adults spent coviewing PBS programs lessons in and reading books that extended no the programs.81 Although analysts found that children's language and cogni evidence

associated

linked media

use with

and academic skill development most with achievement, thorough studies cognitive

strongly

suggesting

that content

is the most

factor in that relation. important mediating true for is particularly the finding Although television, it is likely to be important for interactive media evidence

as well. There

that children

from educational ate evidence

older

media,

that exposure

is strong than two learn

and there ismoder to educational

regarding the exposure to high educational media

findings

with

an

media

can take steps to maximize the effects of media and minimize

parents positive

ones. Research

negative

should guide the that foster learning

of programs production evidence and transfer. Moderate can also maximize

suggests that the benefits of

parents media by selecting age-appropriate, tional programs and coviewing with

educa their

children.

Our

review of media

effects

research

is based

on studies of young children of largely less age and older. Substantially preschool research is available on media exposure in

under

studies have

Research

associated

to capitalize on the important opportunity time that children older than two spend using and In fact, both producers these media.

Conclusions Many

in

quality, age-appropriate, offer producers of child-directed

media

benefited

ten years later. that early content,

also suggests entertainment

is negatively particular, and skills academic cognitive

with

achievement. benefits

even

achievement evidence

Moderate

from the coviewing, hold some promise. the findings nevertheless The apparent benefits of adult mediation may a new area for extending the lessons provide of educational media. tive abilities

is during the preschool years of linked with various measures

exposure to purely and media violence

in Schools

Media

Educational

television

children

younger

than two, and what

little

is strongly suggests that learning from be differ by infants and toddlers may ent than it is for older children. Children there

two suffer from a video deficit

such that

less from video than they learn substantially real-life experiences. from comparable nonetheless weak but Moreover, worrying evidence

suggests

a

negative association to television younger

than exposure age two and later cognitive development. Given the dramatic increase in media now between

for infants and toddlers, it has being produced to understand become particularly important the effect of media during the first few years of life. VOL.

18

/ NO.

1 / SPRING

2008

53


Taken

together, the research indicates that electronic media are powerful influences on the lives of children. With contemporary advances

in

that provide dimensional possibilities media will

54

such as larger screens technology in three images high definition, surround sound, and greater for interaction,

the power of for the foresee

likely only increase


able future. The

influences

good and for ill. Researchers to understand which aspects be reduced research

and which

is

can be both for are

beginning of media should

enhanced,

but further

however, the required. Ultimately, is whether has the question society ability and will to enhance the positive aspects of media and reduce

the negative.


Endnotes 1.

J.

L.

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Singer,

Function

and Limits edited

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A

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by

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N.J.:

in The Entertainment

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Lawrence

Erlbaum,

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2. J.Healy, Endangered Minds: Why Our Children Don't Think (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990). 3. A. C. Huston

and

and D.

by J. Bryant R. Anderson

R. Anderson

York: Academic

Press,

D.

pp. 1-31;

edited

R. Anderson

and

1983),

in Children's

Understanding

R. Anderson of TV

"The Effects

others,

edited

Comprehension,

and D.

by J. Bryant

and

of Formal

35-68.

pp.

or Reaction?"

Action

and Comprehension,

1983),

Inc.,

Functions

Informative

(New

Program

on Preschool Children's Visual Attention to Television," Child Development

Comprehensibility 151-57;

Inc.,

Press,

at Television:

"Looking

The

on Attention

Research

York: Academic

(New

on Attention

Research

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Processing of Television:

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and E. P. Lorch,

of Television:

S.

"Children's

Wright,

in Children's

Features,"

4. D.

C.

J.

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Pingree,

and Television

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Communication

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52 (1981):

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12

(1986): 239-56. 5.

K. L.

6.

T. A.

K. D. Woolf,

Schmitt,

and Adults

J.

R. Anderson,

C.

and A. C. Huston,

Wright,

the Viewers:

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and Commercials,"

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during

Campbell,

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Television

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(2003):

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Difficulty

of Children's Cognitive Processing of Televised Educational Messages," Journal of Experimental Child 43

Psychology

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311-27;

(1987):

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R.

D.

Smith,

R. Anderson,

D.

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S. R. Levin,

58 (1979): 453-563.

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and others,

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R. Barr

and

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others,

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Patterns

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10.

For

a review

son,

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H.

L. Kirkorian,

Age

by

in

Eye

Boston,

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Extended

R. V. Kail

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and others,

Pempek

in Children's

32, edited

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L.

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Jossey-Bass,

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9-30. VOL. 18

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B. Blosser News, 12

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32.

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Singer,

D. A. Christakis

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(see note

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Problems

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F

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