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Proceedings Mayor Mon Repos Palace Art Hotel Corfu, Greece

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5th Corfu Symposium on Managing and Marketing Places

16th – 19th April 2018

Call for Papers 6th Corfu Symposium on Managing & Marketing Places 6th – 9th May 2019 Connecting places Places are connected to each other, either geographically, technologically, socially or politically. Places also connect people to each other and to other places. Places are formed and managed through both real and virtual partnerships and networks. The theme of the 6th Corfu Symposium on Managing & Marketing Places is to explore these connections between places and the people who use and inhabit them. Submissions of 1000 word abstracts to the Symposium are welcome on issues including, but not limited to: • Real and virtual partnerships, networks and connections within places and between places • Grass-roots participatory place making initiatives • Smart places and virtual worlds • City (and other) regions, and supra-national networks • Physical or virtual places that connect people to each other • Individual places that are connected to each other geographically, technologically, socially, or politically • Places that are connected to art, literature, popular media, culture and heritage, or that are connected to particular industries, geographies, topographies, or activities • Places that have consciously, deliberately, or inadvertently disconnected from others • Places that have consciously, deliberately, or inadvertently disconnected from former or historical place narratives Each abstract should end with a summary paragraph explicitly identifying how the paper addresses the Symposium theme and the impact of the main theoretical or practical issues raised in the research on places, on the people who use them, or on those who manage them. Organised by the Institute of Place Management this Symposium is an annual event dedicated to developing the theory and practice of place management and marketing held on the beautiful Greek island of Corfu. Unique amongst academic conferences, the Corfu Symposium on Managing & Marketing Places offers scholars the opportunity to engage directly with place making, management and marketing issues - as the Symposium includes local businesses, policy makers and other stakeholders eager to implement cutting-edge research that can make a positive difference to Corfu. Each year the Symposium includes a full social programme of activities including trips to local speciality craft and food producers, and visits to sites of interest around the island. IMPORTANT DATES • Submission of 1000 word abstract 17th December 2018 to [email protected] • Decision on acceptance 4th February 2019 • Final deadline for Registration 25th March 2019 Further information, including past Symposium Proceedings can be found on our website http://www.placemanagement.org/corfu-symposium/



Welcome to the Symposium I would like to extend a very warm welcome to all delegates attending this 5 th Corfu Symposium on Managing & Marketing Places. The theme of the 2018 symposium ‘Changing places: Visions of utopia or dystopia?’ explores the utopian or dystopian visions associated with the place practices we study, promote or enact. SMART growth, inclusive growth, degrowth, devolution, revitalisation, placemaking, place branding and destination marketing: A list of common place practices or ambitions. But what future do these bring to the towns, cities, regions or nations in which they are adopted? Time will be devoted to collectively discuss and debate the potential impact on places tomorrow from the work we do today. Organised by the Institute of Place Management (IPM) this Symposium is unique amongst academic conferences. The Corfu Symposium on Managing & Marketing Places offers scholars the opportunity to engage directly with place making, management and marketing issues - as the Symposium includes local businesses, policy makers and other stakeholders eager to implement cutting-edge research that can make a positive difference to Corfu. The IPM’s links with the Journal of Place Management and Development, with its focus on communicating with academics, practitioners, policy makers and local government, is also a driving factor behind the balance between academic and practitioner input into this event. I would also like thank the Symposium Team, everyone who has contributed to this event, our sponsor, official partner, and especially to you, our delegates, for participating. I do hope you enjoy your stay on this beautiful Ionian Island. Σας Ευχαριστώ Πολύ

Dr Heather Skinner, Symposium Chair



About our Keynote Speakers Professor Cathy Parker Cathy Parker is Professor of Retail and Marketing

Enterprise

at

Manchester

Metropolitan University Business School. Cathy is Chair of the Institute of Place Management, and Editor-in-Chief of the Journal

of

Place

Management

and

Development.

Professor Peter Varley Peter Varley is Professor in the Faculty of Social Sciences at Western Norway University of Applied Sciences. His research interests include Critical Tourist Studies, Leisure and Health, Outdoor Recreation, and Gastronomy.

Professor TC Melewar TC Melewar is Professor of Marketing and Strategy, and Head of Dept – Marketing Branding & Tourism at Middlesex University London, UK. Prior to joining Middlesex in August 2013, he was Professor at Brunel University and Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW) in Switzerland.



Programme Overview Day 1 – Monday 16th April 09:00 - 10:00

Registration

10:00 - 11:00

Welcome and opening addresses

11:00 - 12:00

Keynote address: Odysseus Hospitality Mr Vasilis Kavvadias

12:00 - 13:00

Session 1: Tourism Utopias / Dystopias

13:00 - 14:00

Lunch - Mayor Mon Repos Palace Art Hotel

14:00 - 15:30


15:30 - 16:00

Coffee

16:00 - 18:00

Session 3: Destination Case Studies

19:30

Dinner - Mayor Mon Repos Palace Art Hotel

Day 2 – Tuesday 17th April 09:00 -10:30

Session 4: Culture and Heritage

10:30 -11:00

Coffee

11:00 -12:00

Keynote address: Disgust and Delight – Place Gastronomy Professor Peter Varley

12:00

Coach departs Symposium Hotel for our visit to the North of the island. We will make a short stop at Paleokastritsa before heading to Arillas to visit Corfu Beer.

13:30

We will have lunch at the brewery, followed by a presentation about the Corfu Beer brands and the new Corfood initiative, a tour of the brewery and a beer tasting.

15:30 - 17:00

Session 5: Utopian Associations of Food, Drink, and Places

17:00

Coach departs Corfu Beer to return to the Symposium Hotel via the scenic North East coast.

19:45

Meet in the hotel lobby to walk across the road for dinner at Nautilus Café (opposite the Symposium Hotel).



Day 3 – Wednesday 18th April 09:00 -10:30

Session 6: Places, Power and Stakeholders

10:30 -11:00

Coffee

11:00 -12:00

Keynote address: Utopias, Dystopias, and Place Management Professor Cathy Parker

12:00

Coach departs Symposium Hotel for our visit to the South of the island via the Achilleion Palace.

14:00

Lunch at Archontiko Restaurant.

15:00 - 16:00

Session 7: Interactive Special Session Performativity of Digital and Social Media and Place

16:00

Coach departs Archontiko for our next stop to taste The Governor olive oil at the Dafnis family’s 15th Century oil mill.

17:00

Coach departs to return to the Symposium Hotel.

18:30 – 20:30

Session 8: Open Business Forum – Faliraki Conference Centre

Delegates may choose to join us at our Open Business Forum undertaken in cooperation with the Corfu Municipality and Green Corfu. Or delegates may take the opportunity of enjoying some free time exploring Corfu Old Town, a UNESCO World Heritage Centre (dinner is not included but there are plenty of cafes, tavernas and restaurants in the town).

Day 4 – Thursday 19th April 09:00 -11:00

Session 9: Places, Brands and Image

11:00 -11:15

Coffee

11:15 -12:15

Keynote address: Professor TC Melewar

12:15 -13:45

Session 10: Cities

13:45 -14:30


14:30 -16:30

Session 11: Utopian and Dystopian Narratives and Experiences

16:30 – 16:45

Coffee

16:45 -18:00

Session 12: Interactive Special Session Introducing the IPM / JPMD / Writing for Publication Closing Plenary

19:00

Coach departs for our Gala Dinner at Ambelonas Vineyard.



Programme in Detail Day 1 – Monday 16th April 09:00 -10:00

Registration

10:00 - 11:00

Welcome and opening addresses: Mr Konstantinos Nikolouzos Mayor: Corfu Municipality Dr Heather Skinner Symposium Chair Utopias, Dystopias, Heidegger, and Homer: Considering the essence of Greek Island Destinations

11:00 -12:00

Keynote address: Odysseus Hospitality – Corfu’s Strategic Tourism Plan Mr Vasilis Kavvadias, Vice-Mayor for Tourism, Corfu Municipality

12:00 -13:00


Changing Places: On the use of Utopia and the role of a Place Alarm System Tore Omholt BI-Norwegian Business School, Norway Welcome to Dubrovnik: Overtourism Dystopias and Socialist Utopias Aggelos Panayiotopoulos University of Brighton, UK Carlo Pisano Università degli Studi di Firenze, Italy Ivan Jurić University of Split, Croatia 13:00 - 14:00

Lunch

14:00 -15:30


Brave New Year's world: as a children's utopia develops places Natalia Belyakova Higher School of Economy, St. Petersburg, Russia Trash, Waste and Tourism: Cultural Interactions and Social Considerations Amos S. Ron Ashkelon Academic College, Israel Destination branding: the case of special interest tourism Andrej Zigon Zavod Aliansa, Slovenia M. Konecnik Ruzzier University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, 15:30 – 16:00

Coffee



Day 1 continued 16:00 -18:00

Session 3: Destination Case Studies

Supporting local shopping provisioning through the creation of a sense of place: The role of weak and strong ties in networks Dr Costas Theodoridis Manchester Metropolitan University, UK Dr Javier Lloveras Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

Distilling the Essence of the Brand of the Fens Charles Dennis Middlesex University, UK Eleftherios Alamanos Newcastle University, UK Dimitrios Stylidis Middlesex University, UK Johan van Rekom Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Chanaka Jayawardhena Hull University, UK TC Melewar Middlesex University, UK Assessing the applicability of the international place branding theories to the Egyptian context: Sharm El Sheikh as a case study Amna Mashhour Independent Researcher, Egypt Amr El Halafawy Cairo University, Egypt Yugonostalgia: In search of a retrospective place brand. The case of Balkan Campers. Jenny Kanellopoulou University of Salford, UK Nikos Ntounis Manchester Metropolitan University, UK 19:30

Dinner - Symposium Hotel



Day 2 – Tuesday 17th April 09:00 -10:30

Session 4: Culture and Heritage

An Investigation of Modernist Utopias on Tourism and Postmodern Critique of Modernist Tourism Practices Ruhet Genç Turkish German University, Turkey Marketing the Underground – The Calcification of Creativity? Jan Brown Liverpool John Moores University, UK Enhancing place through participatory arts festivals Laura Ripoll González University of Tasmania, Australia Natalie De Vito University of Tasmania, Australia Maria Belén Yanotti University of Tasmania, Australia 10:30 -11:00

Coffee

11:00 -12:00

Keynote address: Disgust and Delight – Place Gastronomy Professor Peter Varley Western Norway University of Applied Sciences

12:00

Coach to the North and visits to Paleokastritsa and Corfu Beer

13:30

Lunch - Corfu Beer

15:30 -17:00

Session 5: Utopian Associations of Food, Drink, and Places

Beer Consumption and Perceptions of Utopic Authenticity TC Melewar Middlesex University, UK Heather Skinner Manchester Metropolitan University, UK Beyond the Bucolic Gaze from Afar: A Potential New Paradigm for Exporters in Food & Drink Branding Caroline Whitfield Scottish Rural Agricultural College, UK Consuming Place: Towards a regional logo for promoting Welsh food Robert Bowen Swansea University 20:00

Dinner - Nautilus Café



Day 3 – Wednesday 18th April 09:00 - 10:30

Session 6: Place, Power and Stakeholders

Discourse and power – Case study of discursive construction of stakeholder’s positions in regional place marketing collaboration Juha Halme University of Eastern Finland, Finland Residents’ co-creative potential in the context of place marketing Aleksandra Sazhina National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia The Impact of Place Involvement and Attachment on City Image and Resident Loyalty Eugene Jaffe Bar-Ilan University, Israel Shaked Gilboa Ruppin Academic Center, Israel 10:30 -11:00

Coffee

11:00 -12:00

Keynote address: Utopias, Dystopias, and Place Management Professor Cathy Parker, Institute of Place Management Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

12:00

Coach to the South and a visit to the Achilleion Palace.

14:00

Lunch at Archontiko Restaurant.

15:00 - 16:00

Session 7: Interactive Special Session Performativity of Digital and Social Media and Place Chair: Brendan Keegan, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

18:30 - 20:30

Session 8: Open Business Forum Research Dissemination & Impact on local issues This event will take place at the Faliraki Conference Centre in Corfu Town. Coach transport will take us there from the Symposium hotel. No return transport provided because we will be closer to the centre of town for delegates who wish to explore.

Delegates may choose to join us at our Open Business Forum undertaken in cooperation with the Corfu Municipality and Green Corfu. Or delegates may take the opportunity of enjoying some free time exploring Corfu Old Town, a UNESCO World Heritage Centre (dinner is not included but there are plenty of cafes, tavernas and restaurants in the town).



Day 4 – Thursday 19th April 09:00 – 11:00

Session 9: Places, Brands and Image

Place Branding: Bibliometric Analysis of the Literature and Emerging Research Trends Iuliia Mykhailiuk University of Agder, Norway An exploratory study of educational tourism in Nottingham Becca Walker Nottingham Trent University, UK Groups’ Place Image: Attributes and Relationships Xiaoye Liu Communication University of China, China Chunying Wen Communication University of China, China Yingying Wu Communication University of China, China Branding Villages through Historical and Cultural Heritage Hong Fan Tsinghua University. China 11:00 -11:15

Coffee

11:15 -12:15

Keynote address: Ranking, Reputation and Research (3Rs): Voyage, Vista and Viewpoint (3Vs) Professor TC Melewar The Business School, Middlesex University London, UK

12:15 - 13:45

Session 10: Cities

Hard facts for the vision of a young and innovative city: Empirical analysis of students’ living preferences Stefanie Wesselmann University of Applied Sciences, Osnabrück, Germany Re-placing Topias: Chinese tourists in Austria, Hallstatt Johanna Teubert Karlshochschule International University, Germany Desmond Wee Karlshochschule International University, Germany City Brand Innovation and Its Measurement: An Empirical Study on Chinese Cities Yanping Liu Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China 13:45 -14:30




Day 4 continued 14:30 - 16:30

Session 11: Utopian and Dystopian Narratives and Experiences

User-Generated Place Brand Identity: An Articulation of Place Brand Identity from Social Media Platforms Viriya Taecharungroj Mahidol University International College, Thailand Marketing Heaven & Hell: Botanic Garden’ Cause-Related Narratives Nicholas Catahan Edge Hill University, UK (Un)making places: Dystopic/utopic places, time, and atmospheric ruptures Chloe Steadman Manchester Metropolitan University, UK Gareth Roberts Manchester Metropolitan University, UK Embodied Heritage Experiences of a Dystopic Event: ‘Living the History’ of the Titanic in Cobh Maria Lichrou University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland Aggelos Panayiotopoulos University of Brighton Lisa O’Malley University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland Maurice Patterson University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland 16:30 16:45 - 18:00

Coffee Session 12: Interactive Special Session Introducing the IPM / JPMD / Writing for Publication Closing Remarks

19:00

Depart for Gala Dinner at Ambelonas Vineyard Best Paper Presentation



Chair’s Opening Address


16th – 19th April 2018 Utopias, Dystopias, Heidegger, and Homer: Considering the essence of Greek Island destinations Dr Heather Skinner Institute of Place Management, Manchester Metropolitan University [email protected] Abstract This paper presents a critical consideration of utopias and dystopias in the context of Greek Island tourism destinations, with insights from Homer’s Odyssey, underpinned by the concept of places as lived environments, where human beings dwell in meaningful environments (Norberg-Schulz, 1980). From a Heideggerian existentialist perspective, Norberg-Schulz (1980) presented a phenomenology of architecture, providing useful conceptualisations of both the natural and built environment in terms of the genius loci, the ‘spirit of place’. Place is then the term used for sum of all the ‘concrete things’ that determine an ‘environmental character’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1980:6). While place structure (its character and spatial dimensions) may change over time, it is argued that its genius loci remains relatively stable. Yet while this is what characterises one place’s identity from another, the whole concept of place identity is seen to be ‘elusive and paradoxical’ (Kalandides, 2012). Rendering what a place is to a name reduces its complexity, and does not necessarily reflect the way elements of that place have changed or remained the same over time. As Kalandides (2012) points out, ‘place is always the same and different, unique and multiple, distinct and interchangeable’. Yet that the essence of one place differs from another motivates tourists to travel, to escape from the everyday, to experience places that are different from those they usually inhabit (Williams & Lew, 2015). Simpson (2016) conceptualises ‘tourist utopias’ as ‘enclave spaces of exception within larger states’. Utopias are ‘perfect worlds and ideal societies’ offering ‘pure escapism’ far removed from reality (Podoshen et al., 2015:316). Dystopias are then perceived as the opposite of utopias. In art and literature, dystopias often present a warning of a society that could come about if mankind does not mend its ways and reduce conflict, war, and inequality, where some inhabitants are ‘excluded from the new society’, and where ‘a new era of extreme violence and extreme solutions act as answers to the “problems” of prior society’ (Podoshen et al., 2015:316). Outside of a specific focus on Dark Tourism dystopias have received limited attention in the tourism literature (Podoshen et al., 2015).


16th – 19th April 2018 Offshore places can also be considered as spaces of exception, and often different taxes or other laws apply in island destination tourist utopias (Simpson, 2016). Stratford (2003:495) also believes that islands can be ‘paradisiacal, utopian and dystopian, tourist meccas’. She argues that such bounded places as islands are well-placed to ‘contribute to our knowledge about the world and ourselves … enhance how we understand the world and the self, place and identity’. The Greek National Tourism Organisation notes that ‘Greek sovereign land includes 6,000 islands and islets scattered in the Aegean and Ionian Seas’, not only is this ‘a truly unique phenomenon for the European continent’, but ‘the islands are the main characteristic of Greece’s morphology and an integral part of the country’s culture and tradition’ (http://www.visitgreece.gr/en/greek_islands). The author Homer mythologised the Ionian islands in The Odyssey, telling of the adventures and travels of Odysseus, King of the Ionian island of Ithaca. The Ionian island of Corfu was Homer’s mythical land of ‘Scheria, the land of the Phaeacians where Odysseus was shipwrecked and recounted his adventures’ (Hopkins, 1977:22-23). However, Corfu, like many other idyllic, paradisiacal, utopian Greek island destinations, now suffers from many dystopian problems including a decline in tourist numbers, a decline in tourist spend, ‘a growth in all-inclusive tourism product offerings; a decreasing tourist season in many resorts; and an over-reliance on tour operators with low rental fees paid by operators to accommodation providers’ (Skinner, 2017). Corfu’s ‘party resort’ of Kavos is often portrayed as highly dystopian, with young, mostly British, tourists engaging in risky sex, drug, and alcohol-related behaviours, while in the winter months many of the island’s local residents have to cope with limited income and very few open facilities in resort areas (Williams Burnett & Fallon, 2017; Williams Burnett et al., 2016). As the global economic crisis has hit many Greek communities hard (Artelaris, 2017; Smith, 2017), in the 2017 ‘summer of overtourism’, the Greek island of Santorini has attracted almost 2 million tourists, ‘but locals say it has hit saturation point’ and the island’s infrastructure can no longer cope with such success (Smith, 2017).



Accommodation owners across Greece are taking matters into their own hands and renting out their properties to tourists via platforms such as Airbnb, however, not all declare this taxable income, and estimates suggest Greek hotels could be losing up to 525 million Euros a year from the ‘sharing economy’ (Greek Travel Pages, 2017). The islands of Lesvos, Chios, Samos, Agathonisi, Leros, Kalymnos, Kos, Symi and Rhodes saw a large influx of refugees from Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria. Almost half of the 100,000 refugees entering Greece from January 2015 came into Europe via Lesvos (Leadbetter, 2016). Therefore, whereas certain places may be romanticised by some as utopian and idyllic, the reality may be perceived by others to be dystopian (Toker, 1996). Perhaps such tourist utopias ‘might better be construed as dystopian for the manner in which vast resources are deployed to benefit a few at the expense of many others, with often devastating social costs and environmental consequences’. Tourism in general can be seen to privilege ‘consumption over production, leisure over labour, and gratification over the daily grind’. What may be considered a tourist utopia may in fact be paradoxical, ‘both utopian and dystopian’, and therefore ‘perhaps best understood as heretopias’ (Simpson, 2016). Such is the ‘hidden logic of utopia’ whereby those pursuing their own utopian ideals may be creating dystopian environments for others (Isaac, 2015:330). Thus, the Santorini tourists cramming into the island’s tiny streets to experience the utopian beauty of the place may be creating dystopia for local residents, similarly the Kavos partygoers’ behaviours can have negative effects not only on local residents, but also on other tourists. Those who rent out their homes may be offering more authentic island experiences for tourists to local villages, and may be providing themselves much needed additional income, but it is having a negative effect on the hotel industry. Furthermore, tax evasion can be seen to also have an overall detrimental effect on Greek society in a time of on-going financial crisis. Some media reports focused on tourists who claimed their vacations were spoiled by the vast numbers of refugees on their utopian Greek island holiday destinations, but it must be questioned if these refugees pursuing a utopian dream, or simply fleeing dystopian environments.



This paper therefore concludes by posing, rather than answering, a number of questions: •

Does every utopia turn into a dystopia (as argued by Isaac, 2015)?

•

Should enclavic spaces of exception such as All-Inclusive resorts be framed as utopian or as dystopian?

•

Can the genius loci of these idyllic utopian places indeed remain stable even when they experience large influxes of refugees, or tourists, who may also behave badly, when there is not always enough income for residents to pay basic utilities or feed their families over the winter months?

References Artelaris, P. (2017), ‘Geographies of crisis in Greece: A social well-being approach’, Geoforum, 84, pp. 59-69. Greek Travel Pages (2017), ‘Greek Hotels Losing Millions from the “Sharing Economy”’ [Internet] http://news.gtp.gr/2017/09/19/greek-hotels-losing-millions-sharingeconomy/?utm_source=GTP+headlines+list&utm_campaign=6b927ea6a1gtp_headlines&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_742e571d31-6b927ea6a1-64839457 [Accessed 10th December 2017] Hopkins, M. (1977), Corfu, London: B T Batsford Ltd Isaac, R.K., (2015), ‘Every utopia turns into dystopia’, Tourism Management, 51, pp. 329-330. Kalandides, A. (2012), ‘Place Branding and Place Identity. An Integrated Approach’, Tafter Journal, 43, [Internet] http://www.tafterjournal.it/2012/01/03/place-branding-andplace-identity-an-integrated-approach/ [Accessed 29th December 2017]. Leadbetter, C. (2016), ‘Which Greek islands are affected by the refugee crisis?’, The Telegraph, [Internet] http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/greece/articles/greek-islandsaffected-by-refugee-crisis/ [Accessed 10th December 2017]. Norberg-Schulz, C. (1980), Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture, New York: Rizzoli Podoshen, J.S., Venkatesh, V., Wallin, J., Andrzejewski, S.A. and Jin, Z. (2015), ‘Dystopian dark tourism: An exploratory examination’, Tourism Management, 51, pp. 316-328.


16th – 19th April 2018 Simpson, T. (2016), ‘Tourist utopias: biopolitics and the genealogy of the post-world tourist city’, Current Issues in Tourism, 19(1), https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2015.1005579 Skinner, H. (2017) “Ήλιος, θάλασσα, άμμος και σεξ: προβλήματα με το ελληνικό μοντέλο μαζικού τουρισμού” (‘Sun, Sea, Sand and Sex: Problems with the mass tourism model’) Γεωγραφίες (Geographies), ΤΕΥΧΟΣ 30, ΧΕΙΜΩΝΑΣ 2017 (No. 30, Winter 2017), ΑΦΙΕΡΩΜΑ: ΤΑΥΤΟΤΗΤΑ, ΜΑΡΚΕΤΙΓΚ ΚΑΙ BRANDING ΤΟΠΩΝ (special issue on Identity, Marketing & Branding of places) Smith, H. (2017), ‘Santorini's popularity soars but locals say it has hit saturation point’, The Guardian, [Internet] https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/28/santorinipopularity-soars-but-locals-say-it-has-hit-saturation-point [Accessed 10th December 2017] Stratford, E. (2003), ‘Editorial: Flows and Boundaries: small island discourses and the challenge of sustainability, community and local environments’, Local Environment, 8(5), pp. 495-499. Toker, L. (1996), ‘“Hard Times” and a Critique of Utopia: A Typological Study’, Narrative, 4(3), pp. 218-234. Williams, S. and Lew, A.A. (2015), Tourism Geography: Critical Understandings of Place, Space and Experience (3rd Ed), Abingdon: Routledge Williams-Burnett, N. and Fallon, J. (2017), ‘What really happens in Kavos’, Journal of Place Management and Development, 10(2), pp.183-195. Williams-Burnett, N., Skinner, H. and Fallon, J. (2016), ‘Reality Television Portrayals of Tourists Behaving Badly’, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, first published online 20th December 2016, DOI 10.1080/10548408.2016.1261757



Session 1 Tourism Utopias / Dystopias


16th – 19th April 2018 Changing Places: On the use of Utopia and the role of a Place Alarm System Tore Omholt BI-Norwegian Business School, Norway [email protected] Abstract Social systems will continually experience contradictions and conflicts, as a result of social changes and evolutionary trends. Consequently, a social system has to learn how to deal with contradictions and conflicts, not only to eliminate the current ones, but also to identify and produce contradictions and conflicts to function as a basis for alarm, which as early as possible can warn about future problems and challenges for place development. In the following, we will call a system based on contradictions and conflicts for alarm purposes a place alarm system. A common feature of such systems is their use of visions and utopias in various forms. Utopia normally indicates any ideal community or state; an ideally perfect social and political system, usually with the implication that such is impossible of realization. Hence, the concept in this form is rather useless for analyzing place practices, and there is need for a more substantive theoretical framework.

Towards a theoretical framework of place alarm systems We will base our discussion of utopian oriented place practices on social systems theory (Luhmann, 1995), focusing on the resulting contradictions and conflicts as part of what may be called a place alarm system. Contradictions, meaning practices based on opposing or different operating principles (Giddens, 1979), normally destabilizes a system, causing dilemmas and conflicts. One must guard, however, against the widespread error of thinking that destabilization as such is dysfunctional. Complex systems require a high degree of instability to enable on-going reactions to themselves and changes in their environment, and they must continually reproduce this instability. Conflicts are social systems because they limit the scope for variation and alternative action (Luhmann, 2013), and signals a need to regain additional options and introduce them into the planning process.



To illustrate this kind of thinking, we first present a model, which demonstrates the functioning of a place alarm system, related to the production of utopia. We then apply the model to analyze a strategic plan for city development.

Creating utopia as a basis for alarm A previous research program (Omholt, 2013) has shown that the existence of conflict in place communications normally leads to structural insecurities. Dealing with such insecurities depends on how we include the temporal dimension in our analyses and work out contradictions. On the one hand, when we bring broader temporal horizons into consideration, more intentions and practices may contradict one another. In other words, we experience that contradictions increase when we consider the future from the perspective of the present, as when we consider visions or utopias; the present future multiplies contradictions.

By contrast, viewing the future from the present (future present) opens up the possibility of deferring something and doing it later, creating a future vision based on goal-directed planning (Omholt, 2009). One temporal perspective increases the insecurities of current place practices, the other relieves it or at least reduces the tension (Luhmann, 1995: 378).

These two possibilities of reflexive and utopian temporal modalization are not given as alternatives, but mutually imply each other. The purely technological perspective based on future present, dealing with contradictions sequentially, is in itself a utopia. Conversely, every utopian view of the future appeals to the need for action. We illustrate this in figure 1.

Model application: Analyzing a strategic plan for city development As an example of developing a place alarm system based on utopian visions and procedures, we will analyze and discuss the strategic plan for development of the city of Oslo for the period 2020-2040 (Oslo Kommune, 2017). Oslo is to become a greener city, warmer, more creative with room for everybody, including a population increase of 200.000 without extending city borders, and zero pollution. Key elements of the strategy, includes the elimination of private cars from the city center, a strategy of urban concentration, and daily transport requirements to be based on walking, bicycling or the use of public transport. Figure 2 illustrates this process.



FIGURE 1 Temporal modalization Creating the future based on the present situation

FUTURE Vision Utopia

PRESENT SITUATION

Alarms which indicate latent contradictions and need for increased variety



FIGURE 2 The city planning process as an alarm system GOAL-DIRECTED PLANNING High density development Collective transport District senter development

CITY UTOPIA Pollution free city center No private cars A greener city An inclusive city A creative city

PRESENT SITUATION Expected population increase Traffic congestion Air pollution

ALARM SIGNALS Unsustainable population growth Misguiding transport plans Standardized district development

The alarms signal an increase in conflicts and contradictions not considered or ignored in the planning process: -

Based on extrapolation of previous trends, the plan expects an increase in the city population of 200.000 in the period, mainly resulting from immigration. Whether this is sustainable, is not discussed. The plan represents a singular emphasis on a monocentric plan for regional development, without considering a more polycentric and flexible regional structure in any detail.



-

The plan will require substantial development of housing, requiring the elimination of low-rise family houses with private gardens. Construction of new housing will be left to private property developers, resulting in high-rent elevator-apartments which few can afford, at least not new city inhabitants with immigrant background living on welfare. This is a policy, which will result in place standardization and less district variety (Jacobs, 1961), and which has caused strong protests in several districts.

-

The vision of a greener city calls for the elimination of private cars from the city center. Transport in the future shall be based on collective transport, bicycle or at foot. At least 25 % of all trips is expected to be based on bicycle, which clearly represent a rather utopian thought. The idea shows a complete ignorance of expected future car usage being based on electric cars with no pollution.

Utopia as a basis for sustainable, comprehensive planning with democratic participation One may look at this kind of political utopia as impossible for realization, but this ignores the function of a place alarm system: to create enough contradictions and conflicts to aid city evolution and deal with current and future problems. The problem, however, is that we are witnessing an urban planning process, which lacks the necessary requisite variety (Ashby, 1956, Weick, 1969). There is little or no reference to place development principles for promoting place variety (Florida, 2017): -

Building flexibility and temporality into multi-functional centre (Millington et al, 2015).

-

Promoting functional differentiation and innovation based on exploiting functional interdependencies and local competencies (Omholt, 2015).

-

Securing democratic participation based mutual pre-planning goal-setting and opportunity to deal with alternatives to misguiding utopias.

The present planning regime, which may be characterized as fast-forward urbanism (Cuff and Sherman, 2011), does not promote variety and vitality in city life.



References Aschby, W.R. (1956). An introduction to cybernetics. New York: Wiley. Cuff, D. and Sherman, R. (2011), Fast-forward urbanism. Rethinking architecture’s engagement with the city. Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press. Florida, R. (2017), The new urban crisis. London: Oneworld Publications. Giddens, A. (1979), Central problems in social theory. Action, structure and contradiction in social analysis. Berkeley, CAL.: University of California Press. Jacobs, J. (1961), The death and life of great American cities. New York, NY: Vintage Books. Luhmann, N. (1995), Social systems. Stanford, CAL.: Stanford University Press. Luhmann, N. (2013), Introduction to systems theory, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Millington, S., Ntounis, N., Parker, C. and Quin, S. (2015) Multifunctional centres: a sustainable role for town and city centres. Manchester, UK: Institute of Place Management. Omholt, T. (2009), Samarbeid i sentrum. Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo. Omholt, T. (2013), “Developing a collective capacity for place management”, Journal of Place Management and Development, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 29-42. Omholt, T. (2015), "Developing a theoretical framework to analyze an urban culinary culture and explain restaurant cluster developments", Journal of Place Management and Development, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 233-253. Oslo Kommune (2017). Kommuneplan for Oslo, Høringsutkast april 2017. Byrådet. Weick, K.E. (1969). The social psychology of organizing. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.


16th – 19th April 2018 Welcome to Dubrovnik: Overtourism Dystopias and Socialist Utopias1

Aggelos Panayiotopoulos University of Brighton [email protected]

Carlo Pisano Università degli Studi di Firenze

Ivan Jurić Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Geodesy at University of Split

Abstract "Oh, you beautiful, oh you dear, oh you sweet freedom… all the silver, all the gold, all human lives, ca not pay for your pure beauty…" Ivan Gundulić Since Turner and Ash’s (1975) Golden Hordes, tourism scholars have been concerned with the impacts of tourism on places. Today, a movement of residents has emerged at places like Barcelona expressing an anti-tourist attitude and an opposition to tourism (Goodwin, 2017). With places competing for cheap no-frills flights, marina developments and cruise ships, and sharing economy ventures, such as AirBNB, there is an increasing engagement in tourism dominated activities and large numbers of tourists in the streets of towns and cities such as Barcelona, Berlin, Venice, Dubrovnik and elsewhere. This paper explores the case of Dubrovnik’s overtourism dystopia and turns to the utopian socialist resorts in a quest for a radical paradigm.

1

This paper is inspired by the work we carried out at the Overbooking the City: An International Urban Design workshop, which took place in Dubrovnik between the 20-26th of August 2017, of which Carlo Pisano and Ivan Jurić were mentors, and Aggelos Panayiotopoulos a participant. We would like to acknowledge the other participants Mirna Udovcic, Ivana Gramatikova, And Hana ElShiaty for a great week of stimulating exchange of ideas and insights.



Dubrovnik has a long and complex history, as an autonomous region where commerce, diplomacy, espionage, and literary work flourished. Dubrovnik has been known as the city of poets, writers, painters and scientists. The history of tourism in Dubrovnik is also long, and stems from before the First World War.

Extensive investment in tourist infrastructure between the two World Wars, which produced much of the accommodation used today marked Dubrovnik’s economic shift. During this period there was a shift to tourism and other tertiary sector businesses related to tourism, namely transport and trade (Benić Penava & Matušić, 2012). This influenced the reskilling of workers with a focus on hospitality and tourism, which laid the foundations for the development of tourism as monoculture.

The dominance of tourism is reinforced by Development institutions (UNWTO), the tourism industry (WTTC), and tourism academics, who spread the “good news” about tourism development’s positive economic impacts, the significance of the sector and the importance of tourism as a ‘job creator’ and ‘foreign exchange generator’, which reflects a growth fetish despite sustainability and other concerns (Friggins-Desbiolles, 2017).

Locally, from 2000 onwards, the stability in Kosovo lead to the further development of mass tourism in Dubrovnik. This, however, rather than following the principles of a socialist collective hybrid use of the infrastructure by residents and tourists alike lead to segregation and fragmentation of the city. Tourist areas developed rapidly and tourists, en mass, occupied areas previously used by residents, leading to these areas becoming unaffordable for the local population. As tourism dominated the economic life of the city the division became sharper. Tourists on one hand, tourism workers on the other.

Dubrovnik saw a massive increase in tourist numbers from 2014 to date. In 2015, the Municipality projected visitor numbers for Dubrovnik (4m by 2025). Today, daily visits from cruise ships alone reach 6000 visitors. UNESCO wants to limit the number of visitors in the city to 8000 people at one time (including residents). Today’s paradox is that tourism risks destroying the very thing that visitors come to see. Tourism, being the main driver of the economy means that Dubrovnik has to deal with this paradox.



The global tourism flows and trends can powerfully affect the development and everyday life at the local level. The contemporary model of tourism development has created islands of urbanism in Dubrovnik, with great fragmentation and segregation. In an attempt to look at tourism in a more holistic, inclusive, and sustainable way we were inspired by the exYugoslavian, socialist resort. In order to do so, we explored the (economic, social, and spatial) characteristics of Socialist Tourism spaces.

Socialist spaces differ in the way they use resources, planning, and ownership. In terms of resources, the focus was on collective interests, as opposed to private interests. As such, tourists and residents alike were using the resorts. That was possible through integrated planning, making the resorts leisurescapes for inclusion, part of the social(ist) life of the city, rather than an exclusive space for the tourists. Also, tourism was used in order to trigger other economic activities rather than a reliance and dependency on monoculture. Finally, the workers were shareholders of the resort they worked for, and the residents knew which resort development their public money goes towards.

In regard to the physical/architectural characteristics the importance lied with applying the aforementioned principles in space. There is no wall/fence to segregate the resort, hence making it part of the image of public space. Mixing hosts with tourists reduces boundaries between the local and temporary inhabitants of the resorts. This way, tourist facilities become part of the collective perception of public space.

The socialist resort maintained coastal distance, while at the same time they allowed access to the beach for everyone, regardless whether they were hosts or not. Furthermore, multifunctionality of the resort was essential. Rather than developing a monocultural dependency on tourism, the resorts were used by the public all year round to host events etc. (a practice that still takes place today). For this to be possible, the resorts were built with continuity of open public space in mind, where people could move freely in space –from the residential areas to the shops and restaurants, to the park, to the beach- and they had full open access to all facilities. The development of the resorts incorporated a gradient of spaces, from intimate to private to semi-public to public, which allowed a harmonious coexistence of all activities.


16th – 19th April 2018 Dubrovnik’s tourism development today has focused on the old city, and the related tourist infrastructure. This focus led to the lack of continuity of public space, making it a city with only one destination.

In order to propose interventions for the city of Dubrovnik we attempted to apply the principles of socialist resort into the city. Our proposal aimed to provide connectivity by developing an urban armature that creates a connection between the old city, the rest of the city and the resorts, by utilizing and upgrading existing infrastructure; mapping out spaces that have potential for development on this axis (entrance, port, business centre). Finally, in order to develop spaces for shared use, both by tourists and locals alike, we introduced public spaces in the more private/local zone, while at the same time we are reclaiming tourist spaces for local use. As part of this year’s conference reflection, we draw lessons from the principles and practices of the socialist resorts towards a radical tourism development agenda.

References Benić Penava, M., & Matušić, Đ. (2012). Development of accommodation facilities in the Dubrovnik District between the two World Wars: starting point for the development of modern tourism. Acta Turistica, 24(1), 61-85. Goodwin, H. (2017) The Challenge of Overtourism. Responsible Tourism Partnership Working Paper 4. Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2017). Sustainable tourism: Sustaining tourism or something more? Tourism Management Perspectives. Turner, L. & Ash, J. (1975). The Golden Hordes: International Tourism and the Pleasure Periphery. London: Constable.



Session 2 Tourism Utopias / Dystopias


16th – 19th April 2018 Brave New Year's world: as a children's utopia develops places Natalia Belyakova Higher School of Economy, St. Petersburg, Russia PhD, IPM Fellow [email protected]

Abstract The residence of the New Year's wizard combines two concepts: a child's view of the world (utopia of a fairy tale) and an ideal image of the territory (utopia of the place). Residences of New Year's wizards are one of the oldest theme parks in the world. Since the 1930s, they have made a long evolution from seasonal commercial pop-up to yearround points of tourist attraction, forming around themselves the local community as well.

The russian experience in the development of New Year's residences, which dates back to the 2000s, was initially closely linked with the goals of place development and giving additional qualities to the place. The first point is differentiation in the eyes of potential (mainly internal) tourists, but not only. The russian residences aspire to the role of a notable social institution, becoming part of the local community, the custodian and exponent of the local diversity. This is the specific feature of russian New Year's residences. Their intention is more than just making profit in terms of economy.

Another significant feature of the russian practices of New Year marketing is the coexistence of several national fathers of frosts. Besides the all-Russian (chief) Father Frost with residence in the Vologda region, in Russia are active at least fifteen fairy-tale characters. In Europe the unification of national fathers of frosts to the canonical image of Santa Claus was carried out during the second half of the 20th century; now there is a reverse process of revival of the national "New Year identity". In Russia the marketing "packaging" of local fathers of frost initially based on their representation as the custodians of the ethnic code of the place. The New Year's wizards translate the external image (style, attributes) and the intangible (folklore) heritage of the residents. It is absolutely not necessary that the nationality should be a "titular" de facto.



On the contrary, the projects where the father frost symbolizes and support the reducing ethnic diversity are on the top. For example, in the Republic of Karelia there are just two New Year's characters – Father Frost Talvie Ukko and "Young frost" Pakkaine. Both of them present the ethnic values of the Karelians, although representatives of this ethnos now constitute less than 10% of the total region’s population.

Despite the ethnicity of the image, all residents of the region, regardless of their nationality, consider local father of frost as their "own". For example, Udmurtian Tol Babay is a landmark character for all residents of the Udmurt Republic, not just for ethnic Udmurts. The locals’ adherence to the certain character is depend on his physical geographical location – his residence.

Many regions have already felt the benefits of anthropomorphic marketing. In addition to the obvious tourist attraction due to the creation of a unique tourist product, the residence is capable of generating new job places, forming an independent infrastructure, supporting street retail in towns around, etc. It gives a new quality of place vitality. The residence with the local business’ cluster that is formed around work as an attractor for the development of at least two locations. The residence of the fathers of frosts usually consists of two branches: a separate wizard’s house at a distance of 2-50 km from the regional center and its pop-up in the nearest city. Thus, the formation of a new point of place attraction "from scratch" is going with the development and giving new qualities to the existing local centers. Some residences are built as greenfield projects, and then "come" to the city. The sequence could be another: the residence could be created on the basis of the city museum and gradually grew up to an independent project outside the city. After 3-5 years a country residence can reach the level when it needs the hotel on the territory, etc. In high season it remains a donor for nearby cities – visitors stop there in hotels and consume other tourist products.

A visit to a father frost becomes an occasion for a deeper acquaintance with the place and thus provides additional demand for existing objects of tourist interest. The New Year’ wizard is an active teaser stimulated visitors’ interest to the place.



It is noteworthy that often this interest starts dominate, and "classical" sights go to the background. However, there is a growing tourist flow at all. So, traditionally known as the birthplace of lace, the Vologda region with the founding there the residence of Father Frost for 10 years of its existence began to be perceived as the "homeland of Father Frost". At the same time the new place brand refreshes the demand for the long-established image of the "lacy capital". Today many families visit Father Frost’s residence and then stay at Vologda for some days, visiting workshops of the lace factory. So industrial tourism has gained new popularity thanks to the "fairytale" cluster of the Vologda region.

Between the national fathers of frost, taking into account all their collaboration (joint activities, visits to the residence, etc.), there is a certain competition. It could be considered its increase in the future. It is noteworthy that in Russia this "internal" competition develops in parallel with the "external" competition (Santa Claus vs. Father Frost), but domestic one much more vividly expressed.

This item was reflected by media. The rating of the residences of the national fathers of frosts (compiled on data of their attendance) almost completely coincides with the rating of the wizards’ mention in the media.

The first competition point reveals the same claim for the national wizard of several regions. For example, Tatarstan, Bashkortostan and Sverdlovsk Region are simultaneously claiming Tatar Father Frost Kysh Babai. Tatars live in each of these regions; so the tourist offices pretend to develop their own Kysh Babai’s residence. The basis of the conflict is the impossibility of legal protection of the folkloric character’s name as the brand of the certain location.

The second direction of competition roots in growing popularity of the residence. Gradually, the influence of the local wizard could extends to the nearest regions forcing them to compete for the tourist flow - especially in the high winter season. The residence of Kysh Babay in Tatarstan attracts a significant number of guests outside the region and it claims to be an alternative to the main Father Frost’s residence in Vologda region.



Russian regions develop New Year anthropomorphic marketing in two directions: as a tourist product (cultural, children's, ethnic tourism); as an element of social education of residents (translation of national traditions). Residencies do not consciously seek to digitize their attractions, broadcasting "eternal" values and consciously betting on retro. Personal service and personal communication make a carefully designed "wondrous world" attractive for adults. "New sincerity" of the territory has a pronounced glocal character: in an effort to attract tourists, residents are reviving (do not give up) their core values.

Thanks to this, the residences of the New Year's wizards have a positive history of installation in the social and cultural practices of the places. Supported and/or initiated by the local tourist business or municipality, residences tend to move to a year-round mode of operation and take on not only the function of serving tourist flow, but also the role of social facilitation. Participation in charitable initiatives, contacts with stakeholders, representation of the place at the all-russian level, involvement in the current activities of local urban and rural communities - all these steps fathers of frost making throughout the year. It makes them a unique element of the social palette of the region. They unites strata (age, professional, etc.), represents the place outside and link it with other regions of Russia. The official all-russian Father Frost represent Russia abroad.

At the global level "fairytale" diplomacy is one of the elements of a "soft" force: it translates the ideas of values which are universal for all children of the world. At the local level the diversity of the magical landscape gives to the place the desired uniqueness, enables it to manifest itself. And this is not a utopia, but one of the real ways of glocal development of places.


16th – 19th April 2018 Trash, Waste and Tourism: Cultural Interactions and Social Considerations Amos S. Ron Ashkelon Academic College, Israel [email protected]

Abstract

The links between waste, trash and tourism have yet to be researched in depth and systematically, as it is clear to all that this is an important topic, given the increasing volume and impact of tourists and tourism. Indeed, one way that we can elaborate on this issue is by introducing 'Trash Studies'.

a. Trash studies This is an emerging interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary field of knowledge: Cultural geographers relate to the topic as 'Geographies of Waste' (Florin–Constantin, 2012; Moore, 2012) and 'Geographies of Trash' (Ghosn & Jazairy, 2014), while sociologists and anthropologists have analyzed the topic under titles such as 'Rubbish Power’ (O'Brian, 1999), 'The Social Science of Garbage' (Zimring & Rathje, 2012), 'Overconsumption' (Lukas, 2012a), 'Garbage in Modern Thought' (Lukas, 2012b), and more. In addition, scholars in the field of Place Management refer to littering as a form of incivility (Medway et al., 2016) that affects place marketing (Parker et al., 2015). Finally – and luckily – archeologists love trash, because it advances their understanding of the past (Ramsay, 2010).

b. Trash studies and tourism Researches with an emphasis on tourism are quite rare, and include a few sources that emphasize the environmental context, in general (Weaver, 2001), beach litter (Ballancea & Turpieb, 2000; Hussey, 1989; Kavallinis & Pizam, 1994; Santosa et al., 2005), Nepal (Shah et al., 2000), and volunteer tourism (Zahara & McIntosh, 2007).



One of the meeting points between tourism and trash studies involves ritual litter at pilgrimage sites (Alipour et al., 2017; Blain & Wallis, 2004; Houlbrook, 2015; Joshi, 2014; Maddrell et al., 2015: 177; Timothy, 2011: 161-163). Ritual litter can be defined as the leftover material accumulated during the performance of a religious ritual, such as candle wax, bones, blood and unused part from slaughtered sacrificed animals.

Wallis and Blain (2003, in Houlbrook, 2015: 174) distinguish between ritual litter and sacred litter. The latter refers to objects purposely left at the sacred site, such as crystals and coins.

Conceptualizing Trash and Tourism Interactions As we can see, much of the relationship between tourism and litter is simplified and limited to the environmental level of reference, with the assertion that tourists like clean beaches; however, they are also responsible for the litter. My aim in this presentation is to suggest an initial conceptual infrastructure for prolific future research on the topic. Tourism generates waste both directly and indirectly. Waste is often directly produced in hotels, transport vehicles and at tourist sites; examples of the indirect creation of waste and trash involve abandoned tourist sites, touristified ghost towns (DeLyser, 2010), abandoned amusement parks (Wood, 2015), defunct theme parks (List of defunct amusement parks, n.d.), derelict Olympic villages (Essex & Chalkley, 2003), and the scrapping process of aircrafts and cruise ships that are no longer in use given their age or following an accident, such as the Titanic, the Costa Concordia cruise ship (Schröder-Hinrichs et al., 2012), and more.

But there are also cultural relationships between waste and tourism, where the tourist becomes the cultural consumer of litter. It is fair to assume that as a rule, the tourist recoils from trash and prefers 'clean spaces' to 'dirty spaces'; yet in religious and pilgrimage tourism contexts, there are also cases of expressed indifference towards the 'dirty space', since what is most important is the 'internal space' where the scope stretches between impurity and purity.

Based on memoirs and write-ups on Trip Advisor in relation to Christian pilgrimage to the Holy Land, one can see that other than the expected criticism of the 'dirty space', for the pilgrims there is also a link between spatial cleanliness and the degree of spirituality.


16th – 19th April 2018 Moreover, the pilgrims’ attitude towards the locals and more specifically, towards waste in public space, is culturally dependent.

For example, Hillary Kaell, in a piece called 'The Politics of Trash and Claims to the Land' (2010) conducted participant observation on American Evangelical pilgrims in the holy land, and observed that the differences in cleanliness of the public space is attributed by the pilgrims to the view that Jews have a higher status in god's 'divine plan' – being the Chosen People, and therefore, that their public spaces are tidier than Arab public spaces.

The Temple Mount Sifting Project, in Jerusalem, is another example. The Muslim religious authorities in Jerusalem carried out an infrastructure improvement project a few years ago, which involved clearing all the rubble from underneath the Temple Mount to a nearby valley. The National Parks Authority converted the heaps of rubble to a tourist site where tourists get a chance to sort through the rubble and find valuable remains (Galor, 2017). The invisible message is that for them (i.e. Muslims) it is useless rubble, but for us (Jews and gentile Judeophiles), this is a spiritual journey through time.

Conclusions: 'Trash Studies' and Placemaking In the context of placemaking it is usually assumed that litter is a form of incivility. However, we should also learn to relate to it in cultural and cross-cultural terms rather than in environmental terms only. In this lecture, I will attempt to identify what is ‘clean’ and what is ‘dirty’ in the eyes of the pilgrims, and to link the observations they make to common theological narratives of purity and impurity.

In the context of sacred space and sacred activities, such as pilgrimage, both placemaking theory and placemaking practice should develop the skills and sensitivities that are needed in multi-faith societies, which are becoming more prevalent.



References Alipour, H., Olya, H.G.T. and Forouzan, I. (2017) Environmental impacts of mass religious tourism: From residents' perspectives. Tourism Analysis, 22 (2), 167–183. Ballancea, P.R. and Turpieb, J.K. (2000) How much is a clean beach worth? The impact of litter on beach users in the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 96 (5), 210-213. Blain, J. and Wallis, R.J. (2004) Sacred sites, contested rites/rights: Contemporary pagan engagements with the past. Journal of material culture, 9 (3), 237-261. DeLyser, D. (2010) Authenticity on the ground: Engaging the past in a California ghost town. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 89 (4), 602-632. Essex, S. and Chalkley, B. (2003) Urban Transformation from Hosting the Olympic Games. University lecture on the Olympics. Barcelona: Centre d'Etudis Olimpics (UAB), Retrieved March 18, 2018 from http://olympicstudies.uab.es/lectures/web/pdf/essex.pdf Florin–Constantin, M. (2012) Geography of waste as a new approach in waste management study. Papers of "Dimitrie Cantemir" Geographical Seminar, 33, 39-46. Galor, K. (2017) Finding Jerusalem: Archaeology between Science and Ideology. Oakland: University of California Press, Retrieved March 18, 2018 from https://doi.org/10.1525/luminos.29 Ghosn, R. and Jazairy, E.H. (2014) Geographies of trash. Journal of Architectural Education, 8 (1), 68-81. Houlbrook, C. (2015) The penny’s dropped: Renegotiating the contemporary coin deposit. Journal of Material Culture, 20 (2), 173-189. Hussey, A. (1989) Tourism in a Balinese village. Geographical Review, 79 (3), 311-325. Joshi, M. (2014) Influence of Indian cultural heritage on world heritage. Scholedge International Journal of Multidisciplinary & Allied Studies, 1 (1), 20-29. Kaell, H. (2010) Walking Where Jesus Walked: American Christian Holy Land Pilgrimage in the Post-war Period (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Harvard University, Cambridge MA, USA. Kavallinis, I. and Pizam, A. (1994) The environmental impacts of tourism: Whose responsibility is it anyway? The case study of Mykonos. Journal of Travel Research, 33 (2), 26-32. List of defunct amusement parks (n.d.), Retrieved March 18, 2018, file:///C:/Users/Amos%20Ron/Downloads/List_of_defunct_amusement_parks.pdf

from

Lukas, S.A. (2012a) Overconsumption. In: Zimring, C.A. and Rathje, W.L. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of consumption and waste: The social science of garbage, Los Angeles: Sage, pp. 640-643.


16th – 19th April 2018 Lukas, S.A. (2012b) Garbage in Modern Thought. In: Zimring, C.A. and Rathje, W.L. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of consumption and waste: The social science of garbage, Los Angeles: Sage, pp. 300-303. Maddrell, A., Della Dora, V., Scafi, A. and Walton, H. (2015) Christian Pilgrimage, Landscape, and Heritage: Journeying to the Sacred. London: Routledge. Medway, D., Parker, C. and Roper, S. (2016) Litter, gender and brand: The anticipation of incivilities and perceptions of crime prevalence. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 45, 135-144. Moore, S.A. (2012) Garbage matters: Concepts in new geographies of waste. Progress in Human Geography, 36 (6) 780-799. O'Brian, M. (1999) Rubbish-Power: Towards a sociology of the rubbish society. In Hearn, J. and Roseneil, S. (Eds.) Consuming cultures: Power and resistance. New York: St. Martin's. pp. 262-277. Parker, C., Roper, S., and Medway, D. (2015) Back to basics in the marketing of place: The impact of litter upon place attitudes. Journal of Marketing Management, 31 (9-10), 1090-1112. Ramsay, J. (2010) Trade or trash: an examination of the archaeobotanical remains from the Byzantine harbour at Caesarea Maritima, Israel. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 39 (2), 376–382. Santosa, I.R., Friedricha, A.C., Wallner-Kersanachb, M. and Fillmannb, G. (2005) Influence of socio-economic characteristics of beach users on litter generation. Ocean & Coastal Management, 48 (9-10), 742–752. Shah, K., Gupta, V. and Boyd, C. (Eds.) (2000) Tourism, the poor and other stakeholders: Experience in Asia. London: Overseas Development Institute, Fair Trade in Tourism Project and Tourism Concern. Schröder-Hinrichs, J.U., Hollnagel, E. and Baldauf, M. (2012) From Titanic to Costa Concordia: A century of lessons not learned. Journal of Maritime Affairs, 11, 151–167. Timothy, D.J. (2011) Cultural Heritage and Tourism: An Introduction. Bristol: Channel View Publications. Weaver, D.B. (Ed). (2001) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism. Wallingford: CABI Publishing. Wood, J. (Ed.) (2016) The Amusement Park: History, Culture and the Heritage of Pleasure. London: Routledge. Zahara, A. and McIntosh, A.J. (2007) Volunteer tourism: Evidence of cathartic tourist experiences. Tourism Recreation Research, 32 (1), 115-119.



Destination branding: the case of special interest tourism Andrej Zigon Zavod Aliansa, Slovenia [email protected]

M. Konecnik Ruzzier University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Abstract Due to the growing competition among tourist destinations, Morgan, Pritchard and Piggott (2002), argue that the need for destinations to create a strong brand based on the unique identity is more critical than ever as it is essential for the identification and differentiation of a destination from competitors (Sheng-Hshiung, Chang-Hua, & Yu-Ting, 2016). Destination branding receives considerable attention in academic and mainstream literature (García, Gómez, & Molina, 2012; Kavaratzis and Hatch, 2013, Warnaby, 2009) as well as in practice (Ashworth, Kavaratzis, Warnaby, 2015; Wheeler, Frost, & Weiler, 2011). However, Ashworth (2011) or de Noronhaa, Coca-Stefaniak and Morrisonc, (2017), argue that there is a considerable gap in the understanding of destination branding and brand identity among professionals responsible for the management of destinations. In addition, destination branding has almost been exclusively investigated from the perspective of geographically defined places (for example Barnes, Mattsson, & Sørensen, 2014), especially at the city and country levels (Zenker, & Jacobsen, 2015), while almost no attention has been given to the branding practices in relation to niche, highly specialized destinations based on the special interest tourism product (Adeyinka-Ojoa, & Nair, 2017). The reasons to conduct the study in the setting of mountain biking destinations are multi-fold. First, mountain biking is a high spend activity (King, 2010), a fast-growing and moneygenerating tourism niche (Moualrde & Weaver, 2016). It is an increasingly popular recreational activity worldwide (Koemle, & Morawetz, 2016), one of the most important segments of bicycling (The Outdoor Foundation, 2016), as well as one of the most popular outdoor and adventure activities (Koepke, 2005; Taylor, 2010; Tourism Intelligence Scotland, 2013; Parks Canada, 2010).



It is a strong travel motive (Tourism British Columbia, 2010) that encourages the development of mountain biking tourism (Parks Canada, 2010; Taylor, 2013; Prideaux, 2009). As a consequence, the number of tourist destinations offering visitors a complete mountain biking experience has increased in the last decade (Brown, 2017; Lofft et al., 2008). Secondly, mountain biking destinations are not perceived as geographically defined places, but are, in accordance to the modern definition of destination, based on a certain tourism product – in our case on mountain biking. A third, destination branding is, due to the increasing competition and standardization of purpose-built infrastructure (Fisch, 2013), also becoming increasingly important for mountain biking destinations. Fourth, mountain biking not only attract tourists, but provides also social, economic and environmental benefits for the local community (Lofft et al., 2008). In addition, riding facilities attract new residents, with above the average income and education, looking to combine work and mountain biking.

Article begins by an in-depth examination of the existing theory in the field of destination brand identity and mountain biking tourism. Different concepts of brand identity were defined and compared, using qualitative literature review (Burmann & Zeplin, 2005). Focus was given to the identity model of Konecnik Ruzzier and de Chernatony (2013). Identity is a relatively new concept in the field of destination branding. Mountain biking destinations are based on serious leisure pursuit and have certain distinguishing characteristics such as for example unique ethos. Therefore, the existing models for destination brand identity development may need to be further improved in order to suit the segment of mountain biking. Since there is no in-depth research in this field of activity, we have carried out in-depth interviews with 24 representatives of the leading mountain biking destinations and renowned experts in mountain biking tourism. Collected data were interpreted by using content analysis mythology. In accordance with this methodology, we have systematically analysed the collected data by following steps proposed by Glaser in Strauss (1999), while developing categories and themes directly from the answers. In the first stage we have categorized the answers while the coding has been carried out in the second stage. In order to recognize the patterns and connections between categories, we have studied data in each category and additionally support the findings by analysing literature.



The survey revealed that the majority of mountain biking destinations, including those most established and successful, are not yet aware of the importance of brands and their strengths or they do not have the needed knowledge to create and maintain them. Divergence between a theoretical basis and the reality in the field of branding in mountain biking destinations is quite big. Most mountain biking destinations develop brands in an organic manner without strategic approach, which usually prevents them to reach a long-term success. That is why it is vital for destinations to implement a strategic approach based on models for brand identity development, which will help them to define and achieve their long-term goals in a systematic and strategic manner. Therefore, we have developed guidelines for the development and maintenance of mountain biking destination brands, which are based on existing theoretical knowledge, insights gained from the survey and specific characteristics and needs of mountain bikers. Destinations that develop mountain biking tourism should gain a deep insight into main target groups and take their characteristics and needs into account while developing brand identity. To truly understand the needs of mountain bikers, destination management should not only rely on the market researches but should get actively involved in mountain biking. In order to develop a successful brand in the long term, destinations must ensure that the stakeholders identify themselves with brand and encourage them to include a brand in all their activities. Additionally, destinations must also ensure a formal and objective system for the measurement of goals, achievements, perceived image, quality and loyalty.

References 1. Adeyinka-Ojo, S.F., Nair, V., & Khoo-Lattimore, C. (2015). Exploring the critical success factors of developing a brand for rural tourism destination. Advanced Science Letters. 21 (6), 1894-1897. 2. Ashworth, G.J. (2011). Should we brand places? Journal of town and city management. 1(3), 248-252. 3. Barnes, S., Mattsson, J. & Sørensen, F. (2014). Destination brand experience and visitor behavior: Testing a scale in the tourism context. Annals of Tourism Research. 48. 121– 139. 4. Brown, K.M. The role of belonging and affective economies in managing outdoor recreation: Mountain biking and the disengagement tipping point, Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 15 (1), 35-46. 5. Burmann, C., & Zeplin, S. (2005). Building brand commitment: A behavioural approach to internal brand management. Journal of brand management, 12(4), 279-300. 6. Konecnik Ruzzier, M., & de Chernatony, L. (2013). Developing and applying a place brand identity model: The case of Slovenia. Journal of Business Research, 66(1), 45–5



7. de Noronha, I., Coca-Stefaniak, J.A., Morrison, A.M. (2017). Confused branding? An exploratory study of place branding practices among place management professionals. Cities, 66(1), 91-98. 8. Fisch, J. (2013). The McDonalds of Trail Building: Standardizing Mountain Bike Trails. Available at http://www.singletracks.com/blog/mtb-trails/the-mcdonalds-of-trailbuilding-standardizing-mountain-bike trails/?utm_campaign=site&utm_source=blogtab&utm_medium=bodytitle [Accessed 10th March 2017] 9. Garcia, J. A., Gomez, M., & Molina, A. (2012). A destination - branding model: An emperical analysis based on stakeholders. Tourism Management, 33(3), 646–661. 10. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1999). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. California: Sociology Press. 11. Kavaratzis, M.& Hatch, M.(2013). The dynamics of place brands: An identity-based approach to place branding theory. Marketing Theory. 13(1). 69-86. 12. Kavaratzis, M., Warnaby, G., & Ashworth, G. (Eds.). (2014). Rethinking place branding: Comprehensive brand development for cities and regions. Springer. 13. Koepke, J. (2005). Exploring The Market Potential For Yukon Mountain Bike Tourism. Whitehorse: Cycling Association of Yukon. 14. Lofft, C., Hawkings, J., Brown, J., Rogers, S., Winter, C., Derksen, K., & Wray, P. (2008). Mountain Bike Tourism. Vancouver: Tourism British Columbia. 15. Moularde, J., & Weaver, A. (2016). Serious about leisure, serious about destinations: mountain bikers and destination attractiveness. Journal of Sport & Tourism. 16. Outdoor Industry Foundation. (2016). Outdoor recreation participation report 2016. Washington, DC: Outdoor Foundation. 17. Parks Canada (2010). Secondary Research – Mountain Biking Market Profiles, Final Report. Available at http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/docs/bib-lib/docs5/docs5c.aspx [Accessed 5th March 2017] 18. Prideaux, B. (2009). Resort Destinations Evolution, Management and Development. Oxford: Elsevier. 19. Sheng-Hshiung, T., Chang-Hua, Y. & Yu-Ting, Y. (2016): Destination brand identity: scale development and validation. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research. 20. Taylor, S. (2010) ‘Extending the Dream Machine’: Understanding people's participation in mountain biking. Annals of Leisure Research, 13(1-2), 259-281. 21. Tourism British Columbia. (2009). Cycling and Mountain Biking. Product Overview. Vancouver: Tourism British Columbia. 22. Tourism Intelligence Scotland. Mountain Biking Tourism in Scotland. Available at https://www.google.com/url?sa= t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&ved=0CEIQFjAA&url=http%3A%2 F%2Fwww.tourism-intelligence.co.uk%2Fintelligence-guides%2F07-mountainbiking&ei=bxjpUv-nB6OX4wTGjIH4CQ&usg=AFQjCNFQKyaB8cCQrjhI1MT5yt [Accessed 26th February 2017] 23. Wheeler, F., Frost, W., & Weiler, B. (2011). Destination brand identity, values, and community: A case study from rural Victoria, Australia. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 28(1), 13-26. 24. Zenker, S. and Jacobsen, B. P. (2015). Introduction to interregional place branding, in S. Zenker and B. P. Jacobsen (Eds.), Inter-Regional Place Branding: Best Practices, Challenges and Solutions (pp. 1-12), Heidelberg: Springer.



Session 3 Destination Case Studies


16th – 19th April 2018 Supporting local shopping provisioning through the creation of a sense of place: The role of weak and strong ties in networks Dr Costas Theodoridis Manchester Metropolitan University, Institute of Place Management [email protected]

Dr Javier Lloveras Manchester Metropolitan University, Institute of Place Management

Abstract

Background and context UK retail provision has been much criticised for becoming increasingly bland and homogeneous due to increasing concentration. The dominance of multiples and the demise of independents from shopping areas can, it is argued, replace an authentic sense of a ‘genius loci’ with a kind of drab placelessness (Relph, 1976; nef, 2004; Nef, 2005; Wallop, 2010). This trend affects not only town centres but also residential neighbourhoods: for example, between 2009 and 20162 Verdict (2014) reported a decline in the number of stores in neighbourhood locations by nearly 6 per cent, with an even steeper decrease in preceding years (Bennison and Schmidt, 2012).

Whilst the benefits of retail activity have been traditionally understood from a functional perspective (Dixon, 2005), it is apparent that the social benefits of retailing have received less attention in the literature (Carley et al., 2001). There are, however, some exceptions to this. For example, Baldock et al. (2004) have argued that independent retailers play a key role in maintaining the vitality of ‘secondary shopping’. Similarly, Preston highlights various benefits associated to retail which go beyond economic aspects:

2

2014-2016 are estimates



"At its root, shopping serves one crucial purpose: it defines communities. Your local shops are where you bump into friends, nip out to buy a toaster or pair of shoes, break up the routine of the day – a routine that is growing ever more tenuous as people spend their lives in front of a screen, stuck inside little office boxes or, increasingly, working from home. What happens when the shops die? Neighbourhoods lose reference points. Areas lose their identities. There's no throb of life to the place where you live. It becomes blank, anonymous, savourless." (Preston, 2011) Given these arguments, it is apparent that local SME retailers may act as part of the “social glue” that binds a community together through the creation of social capital (Putman, 2001), as well as making an integral contribution towards the development of a sense of place and a distinct identity (Fincher et al., 2016).

The factors enabling the development of a thriving local retail scene are complex and not well understood, particularly as far as their systemic dimension is concern (Kärrholm et al., 2014). Here, the term systemic denotes the resilience of the retail system that evolves when it falls in the disequilibrium state and bounce back to stability (Fernandes and Chamusca, 2014; Dolega and Celińska-Janowicz, 2015). In this regard, we contend that for local SMEs to be able to play this role to the full and provide an attractive means to differentiate the locale in which they are situated if the systemic factors placing them at a competitive disadvantage can be addressed. From a systematic perspective, the capacity of local SMEs to cooperate is a crucial source of competitive advantage, particularly as far as this cooperation enables the formation of coalitions, the sharing of key resources and information, or the ability to work together towards common goals. Issues surrounding the cooperation of local SME’s, however, remain largely unaddressed within the literature.



Theoretical framework: Weak and strong ties The present work seeks to examine how networking affects the competitive advantage of local SME retailers. For the purposes of this project, and in order to analyse the significance of the social networks that form the retail place, we draw upon literature in economic sociology. In particular, we looked at the Weak Ties theory (Granovetter, 1973). The “weak ties” theory takes into account the issues of trust and leadership (Granovetter, 1973:1374) that are quite apparent in the case of the specific neighbourhood. It also takes into account the issues of geographical immobility and lifelong relationships that also appear to be important in this specific place. Our work also builds on the findings of Jack’s (2005) work who has stressed that strong ties are instrumental for business activity but also to maintain, extend and enhance personal reputations which is another issue that appears strongly in our data. Jack (2005) also suggests that strong ties provide the mechanism to enact ‘weak’ ties, in the case of our research manifestating themselves as opportunistic groups of retailers or service providers in the neighbourhood. We, finally, propose that cohesive groups that are formed by strong ties are more efficient, which is consistent with the work of Entwiste et al (2007) even though our data suggests that weak ties create a more resilient and fluid environment.

Methodology A case study is used focusing on independent retailers co-located within a specific neighbourhood centre consisting of about 40 shops in a large UK city. Perceived by shoppers as a ‘destination', from a place marketing perspective, such a neighbourhood centre can be regarded as an individual holistic entity, providing a unique bundle of benefits (Warnaby and Davies, 1997). The study combines elements of a neighbourhood centre macro- and firm level micro-approach in order to examine links between the two in the formation of a shared understanding of SME retailer perspectives on place.



Three main sources of data were used to fulfil the objectives. These were 1.

A mapping exercise repeated three times over 18 months to establish the structure of

the retail community, and changes in it. 2.

Ten semi-structured interviews from which the basis of a ‘socio-gram’ of the retail

community was developed. These included exploring the width and depth of networking activity, key networking partner within each organisational partner and levels of trust; as well as identifying individual ‘network champions’ and ‘dragon firms’, thus linking the personal and firm level. The interviews also focussed on the dynamic process aspect of the networks and networking activity and their contributions to business strategy and to developing, maintaining and communicating a shared sense of locality. These were all transcribed and thematic analysis undertaken. 3.

Secondary data, including retail and community websites, promotional materials, and

the minutes of meetings of the local traders' organisation.

Acknowledgements This paper is based on initial work and research that was conducted by the Emeritus Professor David Bennison and (the late) Ruth Schmidt†.

References Baldock, J., Mason, E. and Wright, C. (2004) The Role and Vitality of Secondary Shopping – a New Direction. London. Bennison, D. and Schmidt, R. a. (2012) ‘An evaluation of the role of networks and networking in supporting vital and viable local shopping provision by creating and maintaining a sense of place.’ In EIRASS Recent Advances in Retailing & Consumer Services Science Conference. Vienna, Austria. Carley, M., Kirk, K., McIntosh, S. and Joseph Rowntree Foundation. (2001) Retailing, sustainability and neighbourhood regeneration. York Pub. Services. Dixon, T. (2005) ‘The role of retailing in urban regeneration.’ Local Economy, 20(2) pp. 168–182. Dolega, L. and Celińska-Janowicz, D. (2015) ‘Retail resilience: A theoretical framework for understanding town centre dynamics.’ Studia Regionalne i Lokalne. Wydawn. Naukowe Scholar, 16(60) pp. 8–31.



Entwisle, B., Faust, K., Rindfuss, R. R. and Kaneda, T. (2007) ‘Networks and Contexts: Variation in the Structure of Social Ties.’ American Journal of Sociology. The University of Chicago Press, 112(5) pp. 1495–1533. Fernandes, J. R. and Chamusca, P. (2014) ‘Urban policies, planning and retail resilience.’ Cities, 36 pp. 170–177. Fincher, R., Pardy, M. and Shaw, K. (2016) ‘Place-making or place-masking? The everyday political economy of “making place.”’ Planning Theory & Practice. Routledge, 17(4) pp. 516–536. Granovetter, M. S. (1973) ‘The Strength of Weak Ties.’ American Journal of Sociology. The University of Chicago Press pp. 1360–1380. Jack, S. L. (2005) ‘The Role, Use and Activation of Strong and Weak Network Ties: A Qualitative Analysis*.’ Journal of Management Studies. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 42(6) pp. 1233–1259. Kärrholm, M., Nylund, K. and Prieto de la Fuente, P. (2014) ‘Spatial resilience and urban planning: Addressing the interdependence of urban retail areas.’ Cities. Pergamon, 36, February, pp. 121–130. nef (2004) The loss of local identity on the nation’s high streets. Nef (2005) Clone Town Britain. Preston, P. (2011) ‘Why shops matter.’ The Guardian. [Online] 28th November, p. 29. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/nov/27/shopping-recessionecommerce-towns-communities. Relph, E. C. (1976) Place and placelessness. London: Pion. Verdict (2014) UK Neighbourhood Retailing. Wallop, H. (2010) ‘Cambridge the “worst clone town” in Britain - Telegraph.’ The Telegraph. [Accessed on 2nd July 2017] http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/8002237/Cambridgethe-worst-clone-town-in-Britain.html. Warnaby, G. and Davies, B. J. (1997) ‘Commentary: Cities as service factories? Using the servuction system for marketing cities as shopping destinations.’ International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. MCB UP Ltd, 25(6) pp. 204–210.



Distilling the Essence of the Brand of the Fens Charles Dennis The Business School, Middlesex University London, UK [email protected] Eleftherios Alamanos Newcastle University Business School, Newcastle, UK Dimitrios Stylidis The Business School, Middlesex University London, UK Johan van Rekom Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands Chanaka Jayawardhena Hull University Business School, Hull University, UK TC Melewar The Business School, Middlesex University London, UK This paper is dedicated to the late, much missed, Prof Johan van Rekom

Abstract The Fens are a naturally marshy region in eastern England. Most of the area was drained several centuries ago, resulting in a flat, damp, low-lying agricultural region. The Fens are a fertile arable region for grains and vegetables, containing around half of the grade 1 agricultural land in England.

Background to Fens Tourism “The Fens are an area of real distinctiveness; it is a manmade landscape ... a vista of colour, distance and immense skies” (Fens Tourism initiative, 2001). Previous consumer research indicates a perception of “Space, tranquillity, relaxed atmosphere, get-away-from-it-all” (Fens Tourism initiative, 2001), unique, beautiful, tranquil landscape and big skies (England Marketing, 2004). Despite the years of promotion and marketing led by Fens Tourism, the Fens has not developed to an entirely positive destination brand (Blue Sail, 2007) as consumers have heard of the Fens, however they cannot necessarily pinpoint its boundaries (Blue Sail, 2007).


16th – 19th April 2018 Boston and South Holland have 21 percent of the county of Lincolnshire’s population but only 11 percent of the economic impact of tourism. The 2006-2020 Regional Economic Strategy (RES) for the East Midlands, proposes to build ‘upon the region’s premier destination brands, iconic brands and important sub-brands that have national and international recognition (e.g. “The Fens”) (Scott Wilson Tourism & Leisure Team, 2007). Despite the official recognition of the importance of “The Fens” (sub)brand, of 34 visitor attractions in “The Fens”, it was reported that only four had attendances over 60,000 per year (Blue Sail, 2007). England Marketing (2004) reported that Spalding Flower Festival was the most popular destination for coach operators but the coach operators were unaware of other attractions. The same report stated that the main visitor attractions are: Boston Stump, Boston Marina, Baytree Garden Centre and Springfields Shopping Centre (England Marketing, 2004). Springfields Shopping Centre is a major attraction with approximately two million visitors per year and the associated Festival Gardens, which have around one million visitors per year. According to Brown (2007), the main activities for visitors to “The Fens” (in possibly approximate priority rank order of importance to the area) are: fishing, walking, horse riding, boating and cycling. This project concerns consumer research to explore the possibility of crystallising the brand image of “The Fens”.

Methods Cognitive causal mapping is a method that aims to elicit the perceived attributes believed to be core to a brand and make it unique as well as the causal relations between these attributes. A causal map also shows how other attributes flow from their core counterparts in order to a brand more authentic. These central attributes may be identified as unique for a specific brand. The study examines the attributes of a destination that form its essence in tourists’ ‘eyes’. This will facilitate the positioning of the proposed area as a tourist destination. Good insight into how visitors think about a destination is an important asset for marketing it. Given that people often already have elaborate images about places, destination managers have to link even more sensitively to consumers’ prior images than do brand managers of consumer brands. The causal map shows how and to what extent visitors perceive other attributes to flow from these core attributes. By consequence, these central attributes are identified as more unique for “The Fens”. In prior research, cognitive causal mapping has been performed using in-depth qualitative techniques (e.g. van Rekom et al., 2009; van Rekom et al., 2010). Hence, the usual disadvantages of qualitative studies apply.


16th – 19th April 2018 In this study, we investigate whether the advantages of cognitive causal mapping in eliciting the essence of a brand can be achieved using quantitative approaches in order to simplify the cognitive causal mapping methodological approach. Specifically, our study explores whether the cognitive causal mapping approach can be implemented via intercept and/or online surveys. Hence, we compare an online survey of a consumer panel to a questionnaire survey approach utilising an intercept sampling in the field. The first stage of the study was carried out at two major visitor destinations: Springfield Shopping Centre at Spalding in heart of the Fens; and in Lincoln city centre (a popular tourist destination just beyond the northern edge of the Fens). A qualitative pre-study with twenty respondents identified the core attributes of “The Fens” as a destination. These served as input for the questionnaire which assessed the relations among the attributes. Two layouts of the questionnaire were used in order to collect data in the first stage. The first layout closely followed the standard procedure for cognitive causal mapping (e.g. Ahn, 1998; van Rekom et al., 2010). This questionnaire design listed the 10 features in a circular order, with the questioning feature on top. The participants were asked to select the features which cause and prevent the feature on the top and draw an arrow ending to the feature on top from the remaining nine attributes. In order to keep the questionnaire to a manageable length for an intercept survey, the feature on the top was rotated in different versions of this layout of the questionnaire. The participants had also the option to tick a box at the bottom of the page which stated that none of the remaining features cause or respectively prevented the tenth. This layout was used 200 times, 100 times in Spalding and 100 times in Lincoln. In both layouts were the arrows from the “cause” question coded 1 and the arrows drawn on the “prevents” question coded -1. The total number of caused and respectively prevented attributes was summed up as the causal status of the particular attribute. The second layout attempted to simplify the procedure and extend the quantity of useful information gathered in each questionnaire. This questionnaire design listed the 10 attributes twice in random order in two columns on the left-hand side and on the right-hand side of a page. The participants were asked to draw an arrow from each of the attributes on the left-hand side to those attributes on the right-hand side of which they thought has caused and has respectively prevented the attribute on the left-hand side. This layout was also used in a total of 200 cases, 100 at each of the specific location in Spalding and Lincoln.


16th – 19th April 2018 The second data gathering stage evaluated whether the approach could be further simplified by utilising an online consumer panel. The second, simpler, version of the questionnaire was taken as a basis, modified so that it could be completed by answering standard questions rather than needing respondents to draw arrows as in the face-to-face version. A subset of an online panel was drawn from a commercial organisation experienced in academic questionnaire surveys (Qualtrics), selecting respondents who have visited the Fens but screening out those who live in the Fens. The place of origin of the respondents from the online panel matched those of visitors to the Fens who had been identified in the face-to-face stages as far as practicable. The total sample size of the online version of the survey was n = 125.

Findings The results from the first stage of the study illustrate that the main attributes of the Fens identified by the participants were bird watching, cathedrals, countryside, big skies, shopping, agriculture, relaxed, flatland, boring, friendly. Of these, the ones that are most characteristic of the Fens, i.e. indicating the Fens would not still be the Fens if the feature were absent are: agriculture, countryside, big skies and flatland.

The relations which achieved a statistically-significant net proportion of agreement were plotted on a cognitive causal map using Hierarchical Linear Modelling (Raudenbush and Bryk, 2002), estimating average regression coefficients for the population (Figure 1). The most significant causal relationships include: •

The Fens are not boring because they are friendly and have shopping and cathedrals

•

The Fens have big skies because they have countryside and flatland

•

The Fens are relaxed because they have countryside and big skies.

The analysis of the data from the second stage of the data collection is still ongoing aiming to elucidate whether there are statistical differences between the findings from the two methods. If confirmed that there are no such differences, this will be a significant contribution to the area of place management and branding as it will simplify the cognitive causal mapping methodological approach.


16th – 19th April 2018 Figure 1: The Fens cognitive causal mapping


16th – 19th April 2018 Assessing the applicability of the international place branding theories to the Egyptian context: Sharm El Sheikh as a case study Amna Mashhour Independent Researcher, Egypt [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Amr El Halafawy Cairo University, Egypt

Abstract At the time of the high competition between almost all places, each of them tries to do its best to create its own image and identity, and sell that image to the rest of the world seeking to reach a certain position between the rest of the competitors. Egypt as most of the developing countries didn’t benefit yet from place branding to create its own image and promote it to the world. Only few icons such as the pyramids, Cairo tower, etc. are used in forming the country’s image and promoting it. Unfortunately, by the time passing even this image deteriorates and gets lost according to many circumstances; social, political, economical, etc. However, there are a lot of attractive places that have good potentials to create a new perception that reflects the country’s history and diverse integrated cultures. Cities differ from each other that’s why the way of branding that works for a certain city may not be applicable to another one.

Most of the common place branding theories are implemented on developed places with utopian visions, which adopt holistic approaches; where there are usually stakeholders playing important roles under the umbrella of the strategy held by the government and managed by the governmental sectors. But on reality this is not the case in most of the developing places.


16th – 19th April 2018 It’s found that the developing places deal with the branding process in an unplanned chaotic way adopting a dystopian vision without intending to do so. There is lack of institutions or organizations that are meant to handle the process, that is the main reason there is no organized or integrated output for a branding strategy. Even if individual efforts are done they are not effective enough because such efforts are not organized in anyway.

Accordingly, Egypt has its own way of development, based on its economic and political situations, so the development plan faces many problems during the process. This leads to questioning if it’s better for the developing places to start working on development strategies and plans first, with branding in mind to achieve satisfying results.

Aim and methodology The main goal of this paper is to study the applicability of place branding on Sharm El Sheikh as an example of developing city, through developing criteria adopted in the research.

This research is a descriptive analysis divided into two parts. The first; theoretical approach where the data is collected from different resources such as websites, conferences proceedings, academic papers, journals, and books. This part included studying around seven different models for the most famous place branding theorists, like; Rainsto, Anholt, Cai, Kavaratzis, Trueman, Hankinson, and M. Abdelaal and R. Rihan. The second; applied field work where the researcher developed criteria for evaluating place brands based on studying the previously mentioned models.

The criteria was classified into two main sections; city assets, and city frame and reputation, where each section was fragmented into subdivisions that formulated it, as shown in the table below. The criteria was then applied on Sharm El Sheikh through a questionnaire that tested the applicability of the place branding aspects on the city, through focusing on only four aspects; social, urban, publicity, and reputation.



The case study Sharm El Sheikh is considered as a strong case study to analyze due to several aspects like the importance of its strategic geographical location, natural beauty, and great weather. However, although it has all the previous mentioned potentials it’s lacking the ways that qualify it to be counted as highly livable city.

Most of the international models that discuss the issue of branding a place talk from the perspective of utopian visions about cities that already have the base of livable places. In short, the main problem could be summarized that most of the developing cities or countries have special conditions regarding each case separately. As a significant example, Egypt could be counted as one of these countries where it has very special circumstances and integrated layers of multidisciplinary aspects.

Cities must deal with any changing conditions that face them to match the vision and values of their societies. Exactly as Sharm El Sheikh should deal with the changing situations locally and globally to cope with the flow.

Even though Sharm El Sheikh has very high potentials that enable it for being on the top of the list of the well branded places, it is still not achieving that status. Moreover, it also lacks many of the basics that enable it from being counted as good livable city, that’s why many of the international place branding models might not be applicable to it.


16th – 19th April 2018 That’s why this paper discusses the assumption that sometimes such cities may need first to work on development plans in parallel to the branding plans as mentioned above, or even the possibility of forming new theories that suit such unique types of places.

Expected outcomes At the end, the conclusions and the recommendations of the research are important to act as guidance for the governmental sectors to take effective steps towards putting Egypt on the competitive, and for the professionals as well to make further studies to come out with models that suit the Egyptian context. A starting point for those pursuits would be to validate the applicability of the international models on developing cities, shortly, to deal with the realistic measurable situation, which lies in the middle position between the utopian dreams and the dystopian visions.



Yugonostalgia: In search of a retrospective place brand. The case of Balkan Campers. Jenny Kanellopoulou University of Salford, UK [email protected] Nikos Ntounis Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

Abstract The paper seeks to address the relationship between the phenomenon of Yugonostalgia and the creation of a post-socialist, retrospective place brand for Yugoslavia. The paper reflects on the tourist gaze (Urry and Larsen, 2011) to appreciate the authenticity sought by the tourist, consumer of the ‘Yugonostalgic’ place brand, and asks whether this authenticity ever existed in the first place. Indeed, the term Yugonostalgia has surfaced relatively recently to describe the ‘longing’ from the part of former Yugoslavs for the perception or an alternative institutional memory of the unified Yugoslavia, mainly absent the war (Janover, 2000; Volčič, 2007). The Greek word nostalgia refers to the pain associated with remembrance, which in the case of Yugoslavia takes the form of pain for a past that should have been, but was not (Janover, 2000; Pauker, 2006). Additionally, Yugonostalgia can be seen as a form of post-socialist nostalgia, characterized by an affection of the former state and of the leadership charisma and qualities of Yugoslavia’s president Josip Broz Tito (a so-called Titostalgia) (Maksimović, 2017, p. 1068). As such, it has been studied in relation to building or re-building a national identity for Yugoslavia’s successor states, bearing political and social (Kolstø, 2014), cultural and psychological dimensions (Bošković, 2013; Lindstrom, 2005; Pauker, 2006). Yugonostalgia has been portrayed as a prospective nostalgia (Boym, 2001) that aims to become a powerful ideological tool of resistance, solidarity, and collective action between former Yugoslav states, thus showcasing its emancipatory and active potential (Petrović, 2013; Velikonja, 2011).



In relation to the meanings above, Yugonostalgia has also acquired a commodified character, entering a market-oriented capitalistic paradigm. A brand for Yugonostalgia is born, as commodified inter alia in the face of the touristic product. Nevertheless, the paradox of this specific brand cannot be overlooked, as it relates neither to the past of Yugoslavia per se nor to the present of its successor states. Yugonostalgia as a place brand relates either to the idealisation of the past or erases the elements that divide the post-socialist states (van Ham, 2008), thus creating the potential to restore “a sense of authenticity in a globalised system of consumer capitalism” (Gigova, 2013, p. 538) that is appealing to tourists and visitors. However, what these groups perceive as autochthonous authenticity (Leone, 2015) consists of paradoxical place associations, enmeshed in multiple (trans)local narratives that reveal contested processes and local particularities that permeate the place brand (Lichrou et al., 2010). It is worth examining therefore whether these internal meanings and dimensions align with the place brand as a product on offer and whether these are appreciated as such by the consuming tourist.

To achieve this, the paper examines the case of Balkan Campers, a Slovene-based retro campervan rental company, which promises “to take you on a ride of nostalgia, freedom and adventure” (Balkan Campers, 2017) in campervans named after seminal icons of former Yugoslavia. Identified as a relatively “slow” form of tourism mobilities (Wilson and Hannam, 2017), retro campervan travel inherently encompasses notions of old-fashionedness and nostalgia. As Balkan Campers invites tourists to embark upon their own canvassing of what Yugoslavia was and what nostalgia means, this aged automobile technology allows for the full materialisation of the sought-after brand. Either through the material consumption of places, cultural elements, and nature, or through the development of intangible associations, tourists are encouraged to create their own lived experiences (Hannam et al., 2006; Hannam, et al., 2014). This paper therefore argues that these experiences either reconfigure the place branding associations that constitute Yugonostalgia or reduce Yugonostalgia to the level of à la carte tourism.



Balkan Campers targets both ex-Yugoslavs and international tourists. By examining the perception and the appreciation of the place brand by both groups, any discrepancies come to light and the meaning of Yugonostalgia (alongside its value) is addressed: is there a place brand for Yugonostalgia from the tourists’ perspective? And if so, how is this materialised through the automobility and freedom that the campervan as a mode of tourism offers? Ultimately, which brand dimensions are incorporated by these tourism mobilities in the brand of Yugonostalgia, and where and how do they fit in the overall discourse of former Yugoslavia’s collective memories?

To address the above research questions, this study aims to adopt a qualitative research approach, consisting of a series of reflexive methods, such as interviews with campers, as well as comparative ethnographic accounts of campervan travels in ex-Yugoslavia. It is argued that this method can elicit reflective and intimate details on the practices and experiences that are involved in the co-creation of the seemingly mobile, retrospective place brand. The incorporation of mobilities theory in the context of place branding also aims to examine whether place brands can be “ongoing, multiple, open, and rather unpredictable” (Kavaratzis and Kalandides, 2015; p. 1375), demonstrating Yugonostalgia as a constellation of bottom-up practices and approaches.

References Balkan Campers. (2017), ‘Balkan Campers’, available at: http://www.balkancampers.com/en/ (accessed 11 December 2017). Bošković, A. (2013), ‘Yugonostalgia and Yugoslav Cultural Memory: Lexicon of Yu Mythology’, Slavic Review, Vol. 72 No. 1, pp. 54–78. Boym, S. (2001), The Future of Nostalgia, Basic Books, New York. Gigova, I. (2013), ‘The good life and post-communist nostalgia’, East European Politics, Routledge, Vol. 29 No. 4, pp. 536–542. van Ham, P. (2008), ‘Place Branding: The State of the Art’, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 616 No. 1, pp. 126–149. Hannam, K., Sheller, M. and Urry, J. (2006), ‘Editorial: Mobilities, immobilities and moorings’, Mobilities, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 1–22.



Hannam, K., Butler, G. and Paris, C.M. (2014), ‘Developments and key issues in tourism mobilities’, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 44, pp. 171–185. Janover, M. (2000), ‘Nostalgias’, Critical Horizons, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 113–133. Kavaratzis, M. and Kalandides, A. (2015), ‘Rethinking the place brand: the interactive formation of place brands and the role of participatory place branding’, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 47 No. 6, pp. 1368–1382. Kolstø, P. (2014), ‘Identifying with the old or the new state: nation-building vs. Yugonostalgia in the Yugoslav successor states’, Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 760–781. Leone, M. (2015), ‘Longing for the past: a semiotic reading of the role of nostalgia in present-day consumption trends’, Social Semiotics, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 1–15. Lichrou, M., O’Malley, L. and Patterson, M. (2010), ‘Narratives of a tourism destination: Local particularities and their implications for place marketing and branding’, Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 134–144. Lindstrom, N. (2005), ‘Yugonostalgia: Restorative and Reflective Nostalgia in Former Yugoslavia’, East Central Europe, Vol. 32 No. 1–2, pp. 227–237. Maksimović, M. (2017), ‘Unattainable past, unsatisfying present – Yugonostalgia: an omen of a better future?’, Nationalities Papers, Routledge, Vol. 45 No. 6, pp. 1066–1081. Pauker, I. (2006), ‘Reconciliation and Popular Culture: A Promising Development in Former Yugoslavia?’, Local-Global: Identity, Security, Community, Vol. 2, pp. 72–83. Petrović, T. (2013), ‘The past that binds us: Yugonostalgia as the politics of future’, in Pavlović, S. and Živković, M. (Eds.), Transcending Fratricide: Political Mythologies, Reconciliations, and the Uncertain Future in the Former Yugoslavia, Nomos, BadenBaden, pp. 129–147. Urry, J. and Larsen, J. (2011), The Tourist Gaze 3.0, Sage, London. Velikonja, M. (2011), ‘The past with a future: The emancipatory potential of Yugonostalgia’, in Zdravković, L. and Zenzerović-Šloser, I. (Eds.), Imagination: Civil Identities and Rights in European Nation-States: Securing the Rights of Migrant Workers as a Contribution for Sustainable Peace-Building, Peace Institute, Ljubljana, pp. 146–173. Volčič, Z. (2007), ‘Yugo-Nostalgia: Cultural Memory and Media in the Former Yugoslavia’, Critical Studies in Media Communication, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 21–38 Wilson, S. and Hannam, K. (2017), ‘The frictions of slow tourism mobilities: Conceptualising campervan travel’, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 67, pp. 25–36.



Session 4 Culture and Heritage


16th – 19th April 2018 An Investigation of Modernist Utopias on Tourism and Postmodern Critique of Modernist Tourism Practices Prof. Dr. Ruhet Genç Faculty of Economics & Administrative Sciences, Turkish German University, Turkey [email protected] Abstract Understanding of the human interactions is subject to change by context, specifically depending on the place and time. Historically, major changes in the perspectives have taken place in longer periods, such as the impact of transition to agriculture, Classical Age or Renaissance took several hundred years. However recently, the duration for major changes has shortened to decades, or even a couple of years parallel to the rapid technological development, the advancements in the means of communication and globalization. For instance, modernism has started with the Fordist mode of production where the mentality of mass production reflected on the thoughts, perceptions and also practices of people in different areas, including the tourism sector.

Modernism gave birth to new utopias for the governance of people, based on the assumptions that there is one single and objective truth, and for the context of tourism, uniformly produced tastes and experiences for tourists. Nevertheless, neither the affordable homes for the middle class designed by Frank Lloyd Wright called Broadacre City on the side of capitalistic utopia nor was the functionally classified structure of Cite Radieuese developed by Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret) on the side of socialist utopia successful in terms of satisfying the needs and expectations of the individuals. The modern architecture and urban planning is associated by the modernism and post-colonial times of the countries where heavy governmental control and state monitored commerce as well as expression of nationalist and utopian ideals take place (Chalana & Sprague, 2013). The understanding of modernism therefore naturally reflected on the practices in tourism sector, which then lead to gradual accumulation of several fundamental social, environmental and individual contradictions (Xie & Sun, 2017).



On the other hand, post-modern social theory is a reaction against the grand theories addressed by modernism and their inclinations to conceptualize societies as totalities and masses, and post-modern tourism is mostly characterized by the multiplicity of motivations, experiences and environments for tourists (Uriely, 1997). As Cohen (1979) proposes that different people may desire different modes of tourist experiences, therefore the modernist mentality highlighting the standardized, uniformed tourist experience is not applicable for recent dynamics of tourism sector. Parallel to the emergence of small and specialized travel agencies, rise of nostalgia and “heritage tourism”, growing attraction of nature-oriented tourism, and the increase in the tourism-related environments (Uriely, 1997), postmodern tourism has started to take place of modernist point of view in tourism activity which fails to recognize the personal differences and multiplicity of tastes for tourism experience. The deconstruction led by post-modernism has critically questioned the practice in social sciences and has made an engagement with “non-representional” respects of the social, specifically the ways that are expressed in touristic activities (Minca & Oakes, 2014). Modernist drives of tourism activity should therefore be replaced by those which critically put forth by post-modernist point of view.

Even currently, postmodernism gives place to transmodernity which is characterized by four basic values these are equality of sexes, global culture & ethnic equality, sustainability and the survival of humankind, and individuality, globalism and interconnectedness (Ghisi, 2010; Pritchard, Morgan, & Ateljevic, 2011). Educational, experiential, altruistic, spiritual and/or authentic aspects of tourism gained importance where authenticity is defined as conforming to self-image of tourists and reflection who these tourists are and who they want to be in relation to how they perceive the world (Ivanovic, 2015).

In general, the aim of this manuscript is to investigate the impact of modernism in tourism practices in detail and provide a sound critique based on the change of mentality with the post-modernist Age. The paper will start with a body of literature on the modernist utopias specifically in the context of tourism, and then it will provide a postmodernist point of view in order to critically evaluate the modernist practices taking place in contemporary tourism sector.



The methodology will be literature review and critical evaluation of the findings on the possible impacts of modernism on tourism sector and motivation of stakeholders, local governments and states in tourism activity. The study will also propose a model in order to provide a quantitative analysis for the postmodern critique, including the possible related economic and social variables and the degree of changes in them.

In conclusion, the study aims to find that modernist ideals have a significant impact on touristic activities, especially those which take uniform tastes of individuals for granted and fail to capture the fact that different people may have different tastes, and therefore, search for a different and privatized experience for themselves, which they can evaluate based on the closeness to their self-images. Furthermore, the paper will argue that current applications in tourism are also subject to change as well. Therefore policies targeted to develop the effectiveness of tourism must be adjustable for possible changes in the future; otherwise they will perish soon given the rapidly changing technological and global settings in the world.

References Chalana, M., & Sprague, T. S. (2013). Beyond Le Corbusier and the modernist city: reframing Chandigarh's ‘World Heritage’legacy. Planning Perspectives, 28(2), 199-222. Cohen, E. (1979). A phenomenology of tourist experiences. Sociology, 13(2), 179-201. Ghisi, M. L. (2010). Towards a transmodern transformation of our global society: European challenges and opportunities. Journal of Futures Studies, 15(1), 39-48. Ivanovic, M. (2015). Deconstructing the authenticity of transmodern cultural tourism experience. Innovative Organisations and Global Management: Issues and Policies, 30. Minca, C., & Oakes, T. (2014). Tourism after the postmodern turn. The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Tourism, 294-303. Pritchard, A., Morgan, N., & Ateljevic, I. (2011). Hopeful tourism: A new transformative perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(3), 941-963. Uriely, N. (1997). Theories of modern and postmodern tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(4), 982-985. Xie, Y., & Sun, J. (2017). Reflection and re-reflection in tourism study: a review on the modernism and postmodernism paradigm in Aramberri's framework of criticism. Tourism Tribune, 32(2), 13-21.


16th – 19th April 2018 Marketing the Underground – The Calcification of Creativity? Dr Jan Brown Liverpool John Moores University (UK) [email protected]

Abstract For many places marketing their offer includes examples of their own unique grassroots culture. This culture born, grown and promoted locally provides each place with a special and unique local charm. The inclusion of such culture in marketing communications using various combinations of the senses (sight, sound, touch, taste and smell) can be used to achieve multitude of utopian visions, for example, inclusive growth, SMART cities or placemaking, of that place and can appeal to a wide range of stakeholders. The image(s) gained from these communications offer the receiver an insight into how the local cultural offer is being interpreted by the sender, the official and unofficial place marketers. However, these communications are only a snapshot in time of much more complex webs of practice(s).

In reality, these webs of practice are in perpetual states of movement and the incubation of creativity in these webs are vital to their development and success. However, if place marketers are using ‘snapshots in time’ to communicate grass roots culture are the marketers doing this culture justice and in extreme examples is the appropriation of local culture by place marketing actually inhibit its growth?

Using a service ecosystem approach to place marketing (Vargo, Maglio & Akaka, 2008; Vargo & Lusch, 2011; Vargo & Akaka, 2012) this paper explores the role and value of creativity in grass roots culture; and how this is represented in place marketing communications. Viewing grass roots culture as a connected open and dynamic service ecosystem allows the service ecosystem to be investigated from multiple perspectives across multiple time periods (Barile & Polese, 2010; Wieland, Polese, Vargo & Lusch, 2012). Opportunities to explore the changing roles and value of creativity are also provided as the service ecosystem can be investigated at a macro, meso and micro level simultaneously (Lusch & Spohrer, 2012; Edvardsson, Kleinaltenkamp, Tronvoll, McHugh & Windahl 2014; Vargo & Lusch 2016).


16th – 19th April 2018 The link between creativity and the imagination emerged in the 18th century with the Age of Enlightenment (Albert & Runco, 1999). However, research into creativity did not start as a serious subject of investigation until the late 19th century when Darwin inspired work into individual differences (Runco & Albert, 2010). Research into creativity is seen as highly relevant but contested in the 21st century. For example, Pink (2008) believes that we are entering a new age where creativity is becoming increasingly important: “The last few decades belonged to a certain type of person with a certain kind of mind – computer programmers who could crank code, lawyers who could craft contracts, MBAs who could crunch numbers. But the keys to the kingdom are changing hands. The future belongs to a very different kind of person with very different kind of mind – creators and empathizers, pattern recognizers, and meaning makers. These people – artists, inventors, designers, storytellers, caregivers, consolers, big picture thinkers – will now reap society’s richest rewards and share its greatest joys.” (Pink, 2008: 1). Using Kaufman & Beghetto’s (2009) Four C model of creativity that defines different types of creativity (mini-c, little-c, pro-c and big-c) and acknowledging research identifying differing cultural views on creativity (Mpofu, Myambo, Mogaji, Mashego & Khaleefa, 2006; Niu, 2006; Preiser, 2006; Preiss & Strasser, 2006; Smith & Carlsson, 2006; Sternberg, 2006) this paper explores the role of creativity in grass roots culture, with a particular focus on music, and how this is communicated in place marketing communications.

In many places an important grassroots cultural offer is music. For certain places music is such an important offer that it is a defined element in the place marketing communications. From a city perspective, this is not a new concept. The concept of a music city was first described in “Euphonia or the Musical City” by the French romantic composer Hector Berlioz in his collection “Evenings with the Orchestra” (Berlioz, 1852). Berlioz envisioned a future town, situated on the slopes of Harz in Germany, in which the inhabitants devote themselves exclusively to one single activity – making music. This focus remains today and aside from the fourteen cities commended by the UNESCO as cities of music (www.unesco/creativecities.org) there are ones that had been acknowledged as cities of music because of their celebrated musical histories and plethora of music events that occur in those cities. Examples of such cities are Vienna (Austria), New York (USA), Tokyo (Japan), Nashville (USA), Seattle (USA), and Melbourne (Australia) (www.citymetric.com).


16th – 19th April 2018 By undertaking secondary and primary research in four cities; two who are designated as UNESCO cities of music, Liverpool (UK) and Caracas (Venezuela) and two who are acknowledged as cities of music, Nashville (USA) and Tokyo (Japan); who have identified music as being a core part of their cultural offer in their place marketing communications, a range of stakeholder communications were analysed to identify how grassroots culture was being marketed both officially and unofficially by those places.

Research to date is ongoing but key findings are emerging that identify the importance of factors such as diversity, the need for constant evolution and the importance of the cultural underground and the need for its protection from becoming over commercialisation to the continued health of the music offer. However, these factors are felt by many stakeholders as not being adequately communicated in the official place marketing literature.

In summary, this paper identifies the emergence of an intriguing paradox that seems to be occurring when grassroots culture is promoted in certain place marketing communications. As the place marketers, particularly official place marketers, package grassroots music culture to create utopian visions of the music offer in their communications there is a real risk that this, potentially, has a negative effect on the growth and development of that offer in reality. From certain stakeholders’ perspective, the focus on the commericalised, promoted offer, even if that is seen to be the offer emerging from the underground, can actually calcify the creativity needed for its continued growth and evolution and the once vibrant music scene starts to become trapped in a closed ecosystem whose primary vision and purpose is to promote and celebrate past cultural production and bygone good times.

References Albert, R.S. & Runco, M.A. (1999). A History of Research on Creativity. In Sternberg, R.J. “Handbook of Creativity”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.6. Barile, S. & Polese, F. (2010). Smart Service Systems and Viable Service Systems: Applying Systems Theory to Service Science. “Service Science”, Vol.2, pp.21–40. Bloom, P. (2000). “The Cambridge Companion to Berlioz”. USA: Cambridge University Press. Desmond, J., McDonagh, P. & O’Donohoe, S. (2000). Counter-culture and consumer society. “Consumption, Markets and Culture”, Vol.4, Iss.3, pp.241-279.


16th – 19th April 2018 Edvardsson, B., Kleinaltenkamp, M., Tronvoll, B., McHugh, P. & Windahl, C. (2014), Institutional Logics Matter When Coordinating Resource Integration. “Marketing Theory”, Vol.14, pp.291-309. Kaufman, J.C. & Beghetto, R.A. (2009). Beyond Big and Little: The Four C Model of Creativity. “Review of General Psychology”, Vol.13, Iss.1, pp.1-12. Lusch, R.F. & Spohrer, J.S. (2012). Evolving Service for a Complex Resilient and Sustainable World. “Journal of Marketing Management”, Vol.28, pp.1491-1503. Mpofu, E., Myambo, K., Mogaji, A.A., Mashego, T.A. & Khaleefa, O.H. (2006). African Perspectives on Creativity. In Kaufman, J.C. & Sternberg, R.J. (eds). “The International Handbook of Creativity”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.456-489. Niu, W. (2006). Development of Creativity Research in Chinese Societies. In Kaufman, J.C. & Sternberg, R.J. (eds). “The International Handbook of Creativity”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.374-398. Perry, G. (2017). “The Most Popular Art Exhibition Ever!”. UK: Penguin Random House. Pink, D.H. (2008). “A Whole New Mind: Why Right-Brainers Will Rule the Future”. New York: The Penguin Group. Preiser, S. (2006). Creativity Research in German-Speaking Countries. In Kaufman, J.C. & Sternberg, R.J. (eds). “The International Handbook of Creativity”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.167-201. Preiss, D.D. & Strasser, K. (2006). Creativity in Latin America: Views from Psychology, Humanities and the Arts. In Kaufman, J.C. & Sternberg, R.J. (eds). “The International Handbook of Creativity”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.39-65. Smith, G.J.W. & Carlsson, I. (2006). Creativity under the Northern Lights: Perspectives from Scandinavia. In Kaufman, J.C. & Sternberg, R.J. (eds). “The International Handbook of Creativity”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.202-234. Runco, M.A. & Albert, R.A. (2010). Creativity Research. In Kaufman, J.C. & Sternberg, R.J. “The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vargo, S.L. & Akaka, M.A. (2012). ‘Value Co-Creation and Service Systems (Re)formation: A Service Ecosytems View. “INFORMS Service Science”, Vol.4, pp.207-17. Vargo, S.L. & Lusch, R.F. (2011). It’s All B2B…and Beyond: Toward a System Perspective of the Market. “Industrial Marketing Management”, Vol.40, pp.181-187. Vargo, S.L. & Lusch, R.F. (2016). Institutions and Axioms: An Extension and Update of Service-Dominant Logic. “Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science”, Vol.44, pp.5-23. Vargo, S.L., Maglio, P.P. & Akaka, A.A. (2008). On Value and Value Co-creation: A Service Systems and Service Logic Perspective. “European Management Journal”, Vol.26, pp.145-152. Wieland, H., Polese, F., Vargo, S.L. & Lusch, R.F. (2012). Toward a Service (Eco)Systems Perspective on Value Creation. “International Journal of Service Science, Management, Engineering and Technology”, Vol.13, pp.12-25.



Enhancing place through participatory arts festivals Laura Ripoll González Natalie De Vito Maria Belén Yanotti University of Tasmania [email protected]

Abstract There are various motivations for the establishment of city festivals: community-based, policydriven, instrumental, and commercially-oriented (Finkel 2009, p. 4), and can similarly contribute to place-making in various ways. Festivals can also contribute to enhancing the cultural heritage of the city, influencing motivations and behaviour of tourists (Timothy & Boyd 2007) and to the ‘renewal and rebranding’ of certain areas of a city, as well as ‘development and gentrification’ (Maitland 2010, p.183) often to the detriment of the identity of the local community (Zukin 1995). The ‘festivalisation’ of cities towards wider consumption of culture, however, has resulted in a shift in cultural policy from ‘high art’ to ‘(popular) culture’ (Hitter 2007, p.283) to increase accessibility and broaden consumption. In this sense, academic research shows that city authorities often disregard the artistic imperative and social value of festivals and misconstrue them simply as vehicles for economic generation, rather than ‘holistically conceived’ (Quinn 2005, p. 927; Richards & Palmer 2010). Consequently, many city-developed festivals become homogenised, reproducing the same popular arts practices and mainstream content and format from city to city, with little regard towards the local cultural context. Creating place through participatory arts festivals The purpose of this paper is to analyse how participatory arts festivals can contribute to placemaking and community development as a by-product of meaningful and rigorous artistic pursuit. Festivals are often used as tools for the economic revitalisation of cities, with shortterm activations that often mirror other similar events and have limited social impact (Gibson et al 2010; O’Sullivan & Jackson 2002).


16th – 19th April 2018 We argue that participatory arts festivals, on the contrary, offer a unique interactive proposition that invite audiences to rediscover their place, culture and heritage through artistic pursuit which enhances livability and embeddedness of the community, contributing to a renewed sense of place. While it has been argued that festival homogenisation and spectacle undermine cultural substance and any meaningful civic engagement with community and place (Quinn, 2010, p.271), festivals that engage, interpret and present histories, stories and ideas about a place, its community and its people can reinforce its localness and peculiarities contributing to the ‘uniqueness’ of place (Quinn, 2005, p.928). Site-specific participatory works offer intimate collaborations with place communities that are inherently bound to the city (or place), its history, context, and people (Kwon 2002). Through interventions, playfulness, subtle or overt challenging moments, awkwardness, and storytelling, such works offer a space for personal reflection, to think about place, and therefore act, inadvertently, to alter or ‘remake our sense of place’ (Doherty 2015, p.14). Participation, in this context, supports social interaction in the public realm, as well as local place-making through interaction and engagement with both locals and visitors, thus creating temporary communities (Courage 2017). A case study of a participatory arts festival in regional Tasmania, Australia Using a case study approach (Yin 2003), this paper reflects on the impact and effect that participatory and site-specific artworks that challenge audiences, as part of a festival, have on contributing to redefining and enhancing a regional city. Through an exploration of Junction Arts Festival’s (Junction) vision and practice to commission new site-specific and participatory works specifically for and about the City of Launceston, in regional Tasmania, Australia, this paper argues that the festival reinvigorated the concept of place and therefore contributed to place-making. The case study shows how site-specific participatory arts festivals can not only activate place, but also invite local communities to reimagine and reinvigorate a sense of place and belonging, as well as build local pride. Site-specific participatory artworks offer opportunities for collaboration within the community, new and enhanced configurations of social relationships (either temporary or long-term), increased social capital, and personal connections to the site, city/place, and its history, context, and people, and act to establish a sense of belonging (Arcodia & Witford 2007).


16th – 19th April 2018 We analysed a range of parameters, along with experiences and motivations of patrons across three consecutive editions of the festival (2013, 2014, 2015). The three-year comparison is based on a total 592 online and onsite surveys from festival attendees, and illustrates Junction’s contribution to place-making through quantitative and qualitative responses. To further expand on the findings, we present two mini-case studies reflecting on two of the performances of the festival and the opportunities they created for engagement of the local community. We examine how Junction challenged audiences to engage with contemporary experimental art forms that purposefully did not showcase the city’s primary or traditional tourist destinations and local treasures, but rather invited them to experience and highlighted abandoned and long forgotten spaces of the city, the back streets, alley ways, abandoned basement hideaways, and closed up shops. It also collaborated with local organisations and institutions of the community, bringing different sectors of society together. We argue that Junction therefore reconstructed the uniqueness of place by changing and challenging the familiar of the everyday, creating adventures that unsettled and augmented the unfamiliar and unexpected encounters, creating new avenues to discover, traverse, and experience the city as if for the first time, while building community. By exploring the socio-cultural impacts of the festival in the Launceston community, we focus on how the festival supported community engagement and place-making as a by-product of artistic pursuit. The case also supports the need for further research on how participatory arts festivals could contribute to the development of inclusive place-making models. The paper also provides a practical example of how participatory arts festivals can support holistic interventions to reinvigorate local communities by focusing on creativity, livability and sense of place, whilst increasing visitation and supporting positive economic impact. The participatory nature of the works presented in Junction created an avenue for cultural dialogue between artists, audiences, tourists and the local community to collectively make sense of the place, thus enhancing social cohesion and place development while enhancing livability and vibrancy (Crespi‐Vallbona & Richards et al 2007). Finally, we argue that participatory works have the potential to challenge traditional understandings of policy-driven revitalisation and place-making, by supporting bottom-up collective approaches to increasing social capital through cultural practices.



References Arcodia, C., & Whitford, M. (2007). “Festival attendance and the development of social capital” Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 1-18. Courage, C. (2017), Arts in Place: The Arts, the Urban and Social Practice. Routledge, London. Crespi‐Vallbona, M., & Richards, G. (2007). The meaning of cultural festivals: Stakeholder perspectives in Catalunya. International journal of cultural policy, 13(1), 103-122. Doherty, C. (2015), Public Art (Now): Out of Time. Out of Place, Art Books Publishing, London. Finkel, R. (2009), “A picture of the contemporary combined arts festival landscape”, Cultural Trends, Vol. 18 No.1, pp. 3-21. Maitland, R. (2010), “Everyday life as a creative experience in cities”, International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 176-185. Gibson, C., Waitt, G., Walmsley, J., & Connell, J. (2010). Cultural festivals and economic development in nonmetropolitan Australia. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 29(3), pp.280-293. Kwon, M. (2002). One place after another: Site-specific art and locational identity. MIT press, Cambridge Mass. O'Sullivan, D.; Jackson, MJ. (2002) “Festival tourism: a contributor to sustainable local economic development” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, vol. 10, no 4, p. 325-342. Quinn, B. (2005), “Arts festivals and the city”, Urban studies, Vol. 42 No. 5-6, pp.927-943. Quinn, B. (2010), “Arts festivals, urban tourism and cultural policy”, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 2:3, pp.264-279. Richards, G. and Wilson, J. (2007), “Tourism: from culture to creativity?” in G Richards & J Wilson (eds), Tourism, Creativity and Development, Routledge, Abingdon and New York, pp. 1-19. Timothy, D.J. and Boyd S.W. (2003), Heritage tourism. Harlow, Prentice Hall. Yin, RK. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Sage, Thousand Oaks, California. Zukin, S. (1995). Whose culture? Whose city? The urban sociology reader, pp.281-289.



Session 5 Utopian Associations of Food, Drink, & Places


16th – 19th April 2018 Beer Consumption and Perceptions of Utopic Authenticity Professor TC Melewar The Business School, Middlesex University London, UK Dr Heather Skinner Institute of Place Management, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK [email protected]

Abstract Authenticity is particularly highly valued by consumers who perceive specific particular products to be authentically associated with a specific place (Moulard, Babin and Griffin, 2015). In a continuing trend towards ‘neolocalism’, identified by Flack (1997) over twenty years ago, many consumers are increasingly rejecting homogenised global products in favour of local products, and are ‘using products and experiences to reconnect to places, history, culture, and one another’ (Eades, Arbogast and Kozlowski, 2017:57). Within the brewing industry, there are many examples within the literature of breweries establishing with authentic local names or creating beer brands with authentic local names (Carroll and Wheaton, 2009; Eades et al., 2017; Flack, 1997; Gatrell, Reid and Steiger, 2018; Hede and Watne, 2013; O’Neill, Houtman and Aupers, 2014; Patterson and Hoalst-Pullen, 2014). However, there are equally many other examples, especially in the beer industry, where brands attempt to claim a fake provenance through their naming strategies to create a false perception that the beer may be associated with a particular place (Simms, 2008). On the other hand, in some markets, foreign beer brands ‘such as Heineken and Beck’s can make use of their country of origin images by emphasizing their superiority in product quality and social acceptability’ (Phau and Suntornnond, 2006:39) over local less well-known brands. This research into consumer perceptions of beer brand authenticity is part of a wider study that has researched the corporate identity and territorial brand management decisions of Corfu Beer (Melewar and Skinner, 2018; forthcoming), a microbrewery on this Greek island, that produces a range of craft ales and soft drinks for a local market, a near export market in adjacent Ionian islands and certain cities in the Greek mainland, and also to a tourist market, in order to provide consumers with authentic local products and therefore a wider consumption choice than some major beer brands that currently hold 90% of the Greek beer market share.


16th – 19th April 2018 Indeed, it was the dominance of these global brands in the local market that inspired Mr Kaloudis, the brewery’s owner, to establish the company, asking himself “why would anyone come to Corfu to have a Heineken?”

HeinekenNV, headquartered in the Netherlands, owns the Athenian Brewery. Its beer brands, Amstel, Heineken and the Greek sounding Alfa beer brands hold 75% of the Greek beer market share. Denmark’s Carlsberg Group also own the Mythos Brewery which holds a 15% share of this market. Mythos is seen to have ‘a loyal - some would say fanatical – following’ (Vrellas and Tsiotras, 2014:36). Mythos is also now available to purchase in 30 countries (Vrellas and Tsiotras, 2014), allowing many tourists to re-create their Greek vacation experience on their return home. Many of the Facebook groups relating to destinations in Corfu (and other Greek destination) are replete with examples of tourists posting pictures of a pint of Mythos, accompanied by wording similar to “not long now and I’ll be back in my favourite place drinking my favourite Greek beer”. As pointed out by Bech-Larsen, Esbjerg, Grunert, Juhl and Brunsø (2007:7) food and drink conveys ‘cultural meaning’ that can be particularly evidenced in the tourism literature, where consumption of local food and drink is often seen to enhance a tourist’s authentic destination experience. However, as also pointed out by Mr Kaloudis’ son Thanasis “Mythos is not Greek, Alfa is not Greek, but they sell like they are Greek”. Therefore, this research draws out some of these associations between a utopic vacation experience, where tourists indulge in authentic consumption experiences, while also questioning the very authenticity of these experiences in relation to beer consumption.

This paper presents the findings of an online consumer survey distributed via social media comparing these 3 main Greek named brands: Alfa, Mythos, and Corfu Beer.

The survey was returned by 191 respondents (who either lived or holidayed on Corfu). •

Which of these three brands do you preferred to drink (on a 5-point Likert Scale between 1 - extremely low preference, and 5 - extremely high preference) o Mythos was rated as 4 or 5 by 69.47% of respondents, Corfu Beer by 66.12%. Results for Alfa were quite split between 36.5% of respondents who rated it 4 or 5, 32.5% who rated it around the mid-point, and 30.9% of respondents rating it 1 or 2.


16th – 19th April 2018 •

How important is it for you to consume local food and drink products when in Corfu? o Extremely important - 87.96% o Of some importance - 10.47% o Of no importance 1.57%

•

If a beer is brewed by a Greek company, does it matter to you if that company is owned by a global company such as Heineken or Carlsberg? o Yes - 50.79% o No - 49.21%

•

The extent to which beer brand names convey a sense of place. o 72.25% of respondents stated that a beer’s brand name helps them know which country it is from.

•

Based on the name alone, how authentically ‘Greek’ do you consider these beer brands to be? (1 being the least authentic, and 5 being the most authentic) o Corfu Beer was deemed the most authentically Greek by 76.51% o Mythos by 62.91% o Alfa by only 36.49% (with 32.43% of respondents rating it at the mid-point and 31.08% of respondents rating is as the least authentically Greek brand by name alone).

However, when cross tabulating these responses based on the beer drinking preferences of the respondents, while over 98% of respondents who rated a strong preference to drink Mythos, Alfa, or Corfu Beer also believed it was for of extreme or some importance to them to consume local products when in Corfu, over half of all respondents who preferred to drink Alfa or Corfu Beer believed it mattered if a beer was brewed by a Greek company that was owned by a global company such as Heineken or Carlsberg, yet over half of those who prefer Mythos did not think it mattered.

Giving beer brands such names as Mythos and Alfa can persuade consumers perceive them to be authentically Greek, even though the brands are now owned by large multinationals. However, the very strong attachment consumers have to the utopic ideal of the perfect Greek island vacation, accompanied by a pint of the favourite ‘Greek’ brand, Mythos, can help interpret some of these seemingly paradoxical results.


16th – 19th April 2018 References Bech-Larsen, T., Esbjerg, L., Grunert, K.G., Juhl, H.J., & Brunsø, K. (2007). The Supermalt identity: how Brixton‐based Afro‐Caribbean consumers construct a Danish malt beer brand as one of their own. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 16, 5-15. Carroll, G., & Wheaton, D. (2009). The organizational construction of authenticity: An examination of contemporary food and dining in the U.S. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29, 255-282. Eades, D., Arbogast D., & Kozlowski J. (2017). Life on the ‘Beer Frontier’: A Case Study of Craft Beer and Tourism in West Virginia. In: Kline C., Slocum S., & Cavaliere C. (eds) Craft Beverages and Tourism, Volume 1. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Flack, W. (1997). American microbreweries and neolocalism: ‘Ale-ing’ for a sense of place. Journal of Cultural Geography, 16, 37–53. Gatrell, J., Reid, N., & Steiger, T.L. (2018). Branding spaces: Place, region, sustainability and the American craft beer industry. Applied Geography, 90, 360-370. Hede, A-M., & Watne, T. (2013). Leveraging the human side of the brand using a sense of place: Case studies of craft breweries. Journal of Marketing Management, 29, 207-224. Melewar, T.C., & Skinner, H. (2018). Territorial brand management: beer, authenticity, and sense of place. Journal of Business Research, DOI: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.03.038 Melewar, T.C., & Skinner, H. (forthcoming). Defining and delimiting the scope of the Corporate Identity construct. The Marketing Review. Moulard, J., Babin, B.J., & Griffin, M. (2015). How aspects of a wine’s place affect consumers’ authenticity perceptions and purchase intentions: The role of country of origin and technical terroir. International Journal of Wine Business Research, 27, 6178. O’Neill, C., Houtman, D., & Aupers, S. (2014). Advertising real beer: Authenticity claims beyond truth and falsity. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 17, 585-601. Patterson M., & Hoalst-Pullen N. (2014) (eds) The Geography of Beer. Dordrecht: Springer. Phau, I., & Suntornnond, V. (2006). Dimensions of consumer knowledge and its impacts on country of origin effects among Australian consumers: a case of fast‐consuming product. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23, 34-42. Simms, J. (2008). When Brands Fake their Nationality. Campaign US, 4 March, 2008, [Internet] http://www.campaignlive.com/article/when-brands-fake-nationality/787693 [Accessed 20th October 2016] Vrellas, C. G., & Tsiotras, G. D. (2014). Operational Excellence in the Greek Brewing Industry. Global Business and Organisational Excellence, 33, 31-38.



Beyond the Bucolic Gaze from Afar: A potential new paradigm for exporters in Food & Drink branding: Caroline Whitfield Department of Agriculture & Business Management, Scottish Rural Agricultural College – (accredited by University of Edinburgh) [email protected]

Abstract There is a significant body of academic literature on the role of country of origin (COO) influencing consumer product choices in the context of other influencing factors. However, in terms of creating a sense of origin in a specified place: a) there is little data on best practice to enhancing export sales and consumption b) there is little on how, based on distance and knowledge in the target export market, to set what level of specificity works best - country vs region / town / sub region / hectare etc. c) there is information on individual brands from individual countries but little on what, if any, sense of universality emerges from an aggregate review on best practice in COO branding d) images supporting COO in F&D are often idealised bucolic perfection suggesting a rural idyll which may or may not be an authentic reflection of the actual place or method of production.

To add meaningfully to the extant body of knowledge, my research is based on testing a hypothesis to get preliminary insights and then carry out more detailed research work thereafter.

The hypothesis is that for food & drink brands, what is effective in terms of exporting is a set of universal characteristics related to a specific place and the people therein and less the specifics of a particular place of origin. This is counter much of the current literature and also counters the current practitioner use of projecting national stereotypes as a short cut to communicate COO effectively.


16th – 19th April 2018 Should this hypothesis be correct, it would be the foundation of a fundamentally different way to look at developing F&D brands for export / international consumption and move best practice away from a nationalist paradigm for brand creation to more universal values of appeal supported by evidence in a particular locale of origin. If the findings show the hypothesis to be incorrect, there will still be valuable learnings on how the usage of marketing a brand from a place affects the consumer gaze from afar.

A sub - stream of this work is to recognize that the ecological and economic context in which a food & drink business trades is shifting with far more emphasis on local vs global and using sustainable business models. Exporting for revenue growth may become more export for local sustainability and I will be mindful of how this may be affecting views on COO or subsets of this.

The research approach There are certain global food & drink brands which have been developed with little overt reference to COO apart from the absorption of brand values based in a culture e.g. the broadly Americanised appeal of Coke, Macdonald’s or the lifestyle appeal of Absolute or celebrity endorsed brands e.g. various sports personalities and Lucozade. Where COO is used this can be sub categorised as references to a particular place and usually but not always, reference to the people of that place. A USP based on origin e.g. locally grown unusual ingredient to differentiate might also be used. My research plans to take this to a higher degree of specificity and enables a review of how this may/ or may not transcend COO as a specific place or stereotypes that might be used therein.

Specific methodology 1. Cohort Given this is research for an initial testing hypothesis; the sample size is kept limited to 50 food & drink brands produced within the G7 countries of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States plus a few from Scandinavia, New Zealand and Argentina with a well-developed export-orientated F&D sector. The brands chosen will have been successful at export growth in several markets and for a sustained period of time as a best proxy for success as a brand offer.


16th – 19th April 2018 Each of these countries has an export organisation that reviews progress and aids adaptation of their exports into different markets. Exceptionally, some successful brands who use COO approach within their domestic market will be included by way of comparison or approach. This is accepting limitations on perspective from excluding emerging economies e.g. South African wine (7th largest exporter in the world) or unique offers e.g. Madagascar vanilla. However, that can be expanded in the next round of research to broaden the cohort set.

For a structured comparison, the sectors from which these are intentionally chosen from a range of limited added value to high added value. Some will have appellation controlee or the equivalent and some will not. Sectors from which brands will be drawn are: a) Dairy b) Wine c) Alcoholic spirits d) Sweet baked goods e) Beef

2. Dual approach to research a) Taxonomy of branding analysis From a mix of advertised material, website information and on pack imaged and description, material in the public domain will be analysed to indicate the following along with what evidence of authenticity (Graded 0-10 for strength) is given to support: - Origin as described (and the degree of locality) - What imagery or symbols are used to reflect that place - What if any well known national or regional symbols are used as a short cut to consumer comprehension e.g. flag, cartoon, national dress, famous landscape or national monuments - Information on the people representing or behind the brand - Specific information on unique local ingredients and proof thereof - Any health claims, whether substantiated in trials or just folkloric - Other unique cultural or historic narrative to differentiate the offer - Which broad Brand Archetype (per Jungian analysis) best fits the brand as expressed - Any other particular attribute that stands out as unique and well differentiated or that appears as part of a pattern analysis across several brands


16th – 19th April 2018 b) Survey results from national F&D representative with an export remit In addition to the above, 10 interviews will be undertaken with the key export bodies in these countries. The objective is to understand what importers and / or consumers in different countries look for when they are reviewing their countries export produce. The interviews will be a cross check on the information and data emerging from the taxonomy research plus provide a cross sector perspective on how they believe their country / region is projected abroad. Participants will also be asked about their perception of the degree of authenticity or imaginative stylisation in the process of COO marketing of their brands.

A further set of enquiries will be on the degree to which they believe that F&D brands are similar or different to the images used to attract people to their region for tourism purposes. Is there a common narrative of what makes their place/ products of appeal or are these quite distinct? A synopsis of the research findings will be provided to participants.

c) Extracting the meta patterns across the brand taxonomy will generate a set of attributes that then can be compared to the perception of those in the exporting agencies which may clash or be synergistic. The objective is to assess what patterns emerge and are the distinct archetypes that emerge across the brands which are above and beyond the COO assumptions practioners use today.

Timing Some taxonomy research has already started and a paper on the full results will be available for review end of February 2018.



Consuming Place: Towards a regional logo for promoting Welsh food Robert Bowen School of Management, Swansea University [email protected]

Abstract The aim of this paper is to discuss the suitability of regional logos as a means of promoting local food products, specifically exploring whether the development of a logo would be beneficial for the Welsh food and drink industry. Examples of logos from Brittany, Cornwall and New Zealand are considered as models for the different ways in which such logos could be developed, particularly in places where there is a close association with food. Formerly the Cymru y Gwir Flas/Wales the True Taste brand and awards were used to promote Welsh produce, which ended in 2013. The relationship between food and place is manifested in many ways. Tregear (2001) highlights the associations between food and its origins through ‘typicity’, the combination of cultural heritage and identity. Additionally, the French concept of ‘terroir’ underlines the unique characteristics of food products associated with their location of origin derived from the soil, climate and topography of the location (Barham, 2003). Terroir is evident in products such as Champagne, with products of that name only originating in the equivalent French region due to its particular geographical features, despite other similar sparkling wines existing elsewhere. Such unique regional characteristics act as a source competitive advantage, based on the principles of the VRIN model (Barney, 1991), in which advantages are obtained through valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable resources. Specific product advantages are evident for products carrying a protected food name (such as PGI, PDO or TSG protected status) (Tregear et al., 2015), notable examples being Parma Ham (PDO), Scotch Whisky (PGI) and Welsh Lamb (PGI).


16th – 19th April 2018 Modern marketing uses place as a means for promoting food products, given the aforementioned associations with the place of origin, such as through regional ‘made in’ logos, as seen in Brittany (Produit en Bretagne), Cornwall (Made in Cornwall) or New Zealand (New Zealand Made). The ability to develop a competitive advantage is seen within countries that can develop their own country brands (FutureBrand, 2015), as seen through the VRIN model (Barney, 1991). With the different examples of logos, different models are evident for the development of logos. In Brittany, the Produit en Bretagne logo was developed and is managed by food producers, whereas the Made in Cornwall brand is a product of the local government. Additionally, the New Zealand Made brand is managed by Business NZ, a non-governmental business advocacy group. Using mixed methods, the study investigates opinions of stakeholders in the food and drink industry as to the benefits of regional labels for the promotion of food products. This includes interviews with 37 food producers in Wales and Brittany, with one additional interview conducted with the manager of the Produit en Bretagne brand. The 17 interviews with Breton food producers focussed on reasons why companies had chosen to join the Produit en Bretagne brand, or not, and the benefits that were seen through membership. The 20 interviews in Wales discussed food producers’ opinions on the development of a Welsh brand, and whether this could bring advantages in promoting Welsh food products. Additionally, 169 responses were obtained from an online questionnaire with food producers in Wales and Brittany, which focussed on the regional reputation of both regions for food products and whether the use of cultural markers is significant in the branding of food products in both regions. Results show that the products of the participating food companies possess a strong cultural identity. This is unsurprising when considering the strong associations between food and its place of origin (Tregear, 2001). Quantitative results highlight the strong product cultural identity (76.9%), as well as the use of origin-based branding (67.46%) and iconography of the region (58.8%) in promoting the product. Respondents also pointed to a positive reputation of the region for food (72.2%). From the interviews, 7 of the 17 food producer respondents in Brittany were members of the Produit en Bretagne brand, carrying the logo on their products. Respondents pointed not only to the benefits in the awareness of the brand to their business, both on a national and international scale, but also alluded to the support from within the network between the different businesses that were members of the brand.


16th – 19th April 2018 Although no logo currently exists in Wales, it was evident from interviews Welsh respondents that cultural markers, such as a red dragon or the use of the Welsh language are being used to promote Welsh products, therefore it was recognised that culture was extremely important for the identity of Welsh food products. As such, the idea of developing a Welsh logo was met with positivity; however, some concerns were raised over the management of such a logo in ensuring that the brand was truly representative of Wales and its food. The advantages of place-based logos are evident, both from existing examples and from the results of the study. However, for a region or a country to develop a successful brand, it is necessary to gain support from relevant stakeholders in maintaining and growing the brand. The different models of logos highlight a need to engage with various stakeholders, such as food producers, policy makers and support agencies. In the case of Wales, it is clear that there is an appetite for establishing a clearer brand for the promotion of food products, which matches the growing reputation of the country for food. The onset of Brexit represents increasing negative coverage of the UK across Europe and around the world, which could have an impact on the image of the UK for food, which is not seen to be positive in the eyes of some. For Wales, this represents an opportunity to distinguish itself as a country known for quality in food products and strengthen its global awareness through a recognisable brand. References Barham, E. (2003) ‘Translating terroir: the global challenge of French AOC labeling’, Journal of Rural Studies, 19(1), pp. 127–138. Barney, J. B. (1991) ‘Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage’, Journal of Management, 17, p. 99. FutureBrand (2015) Country Brand Index 2014-15. Tregear, A. (2001) What is a ‘typical Local Food’?: An Examination of Territorial Identity in Foods Based on Development Initiatives in the Agrifood and Rural Sectors. Centre for Rural Economy, University of Newcastle upon Tyne (Centre for Rural Economy working paper series). Tregear, A., Török, Á. and Gorton, M. (2015) ‘Geographical indications and upgrading of small-scale producers in global agro-food chains: A case study of the Makó Onion Protected Designation of Origin’, Environment and Planning A.



Session 6 Places, Power and Stakeholders


16th – 19th April 2018 Discourse and power – Case study of discursive construction of stakeholder’s positions in regional place marketing collaboration Juha Halme University of Eastern Finland / Karelian Institute, Finland [email protected]

Abstract Place marketing is a contemporary marketing practice done in collaboration with public and private sector stakeholders with purpose to attract economic and human capital into the place with ultimate goal to increase the economic wellbeing of place. In practice, place marketing is a collaborative activity between various organizations from both public and private sectors, who can contribute to the activity for example by financing, managing or participating in marketing activities. In place marketing literature, the stakeholder participation has been considered as critical element for the success of the activity. However, the collaborative process of stakeholder participation is also considered as complex as it deals with cross-sector stakeholders with potentially different interests and understanding of the practice. Furthermore, recent place marketing discussion have pointed out tensions in the collaboration caused by biased positions of stakeholder groups in place marketing projects (Boisen 2011, Kavaratzis 2012). Central factor which adds to tensions in place marketing and branding collaborations is that place marketing is inherently selective process where specific elements from place’s economy, geography or culture need to be selected for promotional purposes, with purpose to produce focused image for external audiences. In study of regional place marketing collaboration in context of Finland (Halme, forthcoming) it was found out that some of main sources of tension in this selection process are spatial allocation of marketing activities and symbolic content of the activity. To advance understanding of the potential tensions in collaborative process, the interest of this paper is look into the power relations between different stakeholder groups. Specifically, interest is to see what kind of discursive and nondiscursive resources that representative utilize contribute to the variance in the power relations between stakeholder groups.



Research questions of the study can be formulated as: 1) How representatives of regional place marketing collaboration construct discursively theirs and other participating organizations positions in the collaboration? 2) What type of discursive and non-discursive resources are used in this positioning? 3) How does this positioning process reflect power relations between stakeholders?

Theoretical framework As a theoretical basis to answer these questions the study starts from a definition of collaboration by Ouchi (1980), who defines collaboration as cooperative inter-organizational relationships which does not depend on market-based or hierarchical mechanisms of control. In absence of these restrictions ongoing communicative process between actors becomes significant factor. Following this communicative emphasis of collaboration, Lawrence & al. (1999) have suggested that the communicate process in collaboration can be conceptualised as discursive struggle where participants have access to varying sets of discursive and nondiscursive resources which can be strategically utilised in collaboration.

Utilisation of these resources is not without limitations but is restricted by the socio-economic context where collaboration takes place. This means that certain resources can be considered as more relevant than others in context of collaboration. For instance, in study of Halme (2017) it was found that the discursive legitimation of regional level place marketing project drew from dominant discourses in contemporary regional development such as competition between regions, promotionality and partnership working. While legitimative discourses such as these can provide discursive resources for the collaborators, they also set limitations in sense that they support certain institutions, and work in maintaining certain structures of power. This means that they have direct influence not only to which groups are represented in the activity, but also, they set limits, or biases to which positions in the collaboration are considered as legitimate. To study the positioning of representatives in the collaboration the study utilizes positioning theory from Harre & Langehove (1999), which emphasises the relational joint (re)production of positions of actors through discourse. The concept of position differs from a more known concept of role, in sense that, adoption of certain position in communicative process also assumes a position for the interlocutor as well. Furthermore, positions are momentarily and ephemeral, which be readily challenged and transformed.



Study Methods Study design of the paper is multiple case-study, where two regional level place marketing projects from Eastern Finland were selected as research sites. The selected projects were the “Regional attractiveness program of North Karelia and Joensuu” of North Karelia (2011 2013), and the “Mission Future: Regional marketing program” of Northern Savonia (2012 2015). Data collected in 2015 consists of 24 semi-structured interviews with representatives of stakeholder organizations from both public and private sectors, and minutes of the steering group meetings. Interview questions related with representative’s perceptions of their own position in the management and activities, relations with management and other representatives participating the collaboration, and perception the stakeholder assemblage participating in the project.

Study significance This study is relevant for this year’s theme of Corfu symposium because the collaborative outcomes of place marketing or branding projects, and power relations reflected in these, can have potentially has far reaching impact to the development of the place. This is because as result of place marketing activity certain symbolic and geographic aspects of the place gets biased representation in development of the place. This bias can lead in spread of the economic wealth to the place, where collaboratively agreed strengths of place are utilised for common good. However, it can also lead to a development trajectory, where existing power relations of place are not only reproduced, but actually enforced through place marketing activity, ultimately advancing the interests of few. Although not as black and white matter in reality, this study provides insights to the potential construction of these outcomes at the grassroots level of communication in place marketing projects.



References Boisen, M. et al. (2011) The selective nature of place branding and the layering of spatial identities. Journal of Place Management and Development. 4 (2), 135–147.

Halme, J. (2017) Discursive construction of the legitimacy of a place marketing project: The case of north karelia. Journal of Place Management and Development. 10 (1), 61–72.

Harré, R. & Langenhove, L. van (eds.) (1999) Positioning theory: Moral contexts of intentional action. Oxford, Malden: Blackwell. Kavaratzis, M. (2012) From ‘necessary evil’ to necessity: Stakeholders’ involvement in place branding. Journal of Place Management and Development. 5 (1), 7–19.

Lawrence, T. B. et al. (1999) Watching whale watching: Exploring the discursive foundations of collaborative relationships. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 35 (4), 479–502.

Ouchi, W. G. (1980) Markets, bureaucracies, and clans. Administrative science quarterly 25. 129–141.


16th – 19th April 2018 Residents’ co-creative potential in the context of place marketing Aleksandra Sazhina PhD candidate, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia [email protected]

Abstract There is no doubt that residents can play crucial role in tourism development. On the one hand residents can support various touristic events in cities. But on the other hand, there are plenty of cases then tourism activities were not appreciated by residents and therefore they led to conflicts between tourists and residents. In order to avoid such conflicts it is important to involve residents in development of touristic and place marketing products (for instance, engaging residents in coproduction of public goods or touristic events) as it was proved that stakeholder involvement leads both to a clearer place marketing concept and to increased effectiveness in terms of attracting tourists (Klijn et al., 2012).

Currently, the concept of coproduction (or co-creation) is one of the topical approaches to attracting residents to the process of implementing various socially significant projects in various fields as well as in tourism. Co-creation has many advantages, such as creating an open dialogue between representatives of city authorities and residents, which allows to take into account the interests of the latter and subsequently neutralize potential conflicts with other groups of stakeholders, especially when it comes to external actors such as tourists. Moreover, residents themselves can be active participants in the implementation of marketing strategies for cities.

However, nowadays the role of residents remains undervalued, so there is a need to analyze the willingness of residents to co-create. Within the framework of this research, co-creation will be understood as the involvement of residents in implementation various cities’ promotional strategies, the interaction of city authorities and residents, aimed at the building of a favorable image of the places and attracting tourists.



Therefore, development of ways to involve residents in co-creation in such promotional tourism strategies is an urgent task. After careful analysis of theory and practice we have discovered that there are could be the following types of residents’ co-creation in tourism strategies: 1. Volunteering 2. Crowdsourcing 3. Crowd funding 4. Recommendations 5. Couch Surfing Therefore, the main aim of this research was to estimate residents’ intentions to participate in various types of co-creation in tourism strategies. These types will be used in conceptual model proposed by the author.

Data and Methods In order to fulfill the research aim we have developed conceptual model (Figure 1) and questionnaire for it, which was verified on the residents of Volgograd city (Russia) on the sample of 619 respondents. We have tested residents’ intentions to support FIFA 2018 in Russia.

The survey consisted of 36 questions. It was delivered online.

The model includes the following key elements: •

"The attitude of residents to co-creation" is an integrated exogenous (independent) variable, consisting of three elements that characterize different aspects of the relationship: cognitive, emotional and behavioral components.

•

"The willingness of residents to pay for the particular event aimed at tourists" is one of the types of co-creation that has a material meaning and that can be calculated in terms of money equivalent. In this model, "the willingness of residents to pay for the public good" is an endogenous (dependent) variable.


16th – 19th April 2018 •

A number of independent variables - "personal benefits from participation in cocreation", "attitude to the city", "attitude to the event."

In the framework of this study, the following hypotheses were set up: Hypothesis 1. There is a positive relationship between the cognitive, affective and behavioral component and the relationship to co-creation. Hypothesis 2. There is a positive relationship between the relation to the co-creation and the willingness of residents to pay for events aimed at tourists. Hypothesis 3. The existence of personal benefits for residents from co-creation has a positive effect on the willingness of residents to pay for such events. Hypothesis 4. There is a positive relationship between the attitude to the event and the willingness of residents to pay for goods and services (generated by this event). Hypothesis 5. There is a positive relationship between the attitude to the city and the willingness of residents to pay for goods and services (generated by this event).

The completed analysis procedure consisted of two stages. The first stage included a basic statistics such as the calculation of the frequency of respondents' answers, the analysis of the suitability of the scales used, and the evaluation of the relationship between the answers to different questions using cross tabulation. The second stage was connected with testing hypotheses and verifying the validity of the models developed by the author path and measurement models. At this stage, a matrix of pair correlations was compiled and regression analysis was performed, which made it possible to reveal the influence of several variables on the dependent variable.

Research Findings The socio-demographics of the respondents was the: 40% are women, 60% are men; the majority of respondents (71%) are people with higher education, as well as people who currently receive education (11%); 40% of respondents are young people aged between 27 and 36. The majority of respondents (51%) are people who are married with children (45%) or without children (55%).

It was discovered that the more positive attitude respondents feel towards a particular event aimed at tourists, the higher they assess their personal benefits from this event.


16th – 19th April 2018 It can be stated that the respondents assessed their personal benefits of hosting the 2018 World Cup in Volgograd from their relationship to football, that is, personal benefits are characterized for the respondents by emotional characteristics (not material).

A similar relationship can be traced in the construction of the conjugation between the variables "attitude towards World Cup" and "personal benefits", which confirms the thesis of the existence of personal benefits as a factor of emotional connection with the 2018 World Cup event itself.

Figure 1. Conceptual model of residents’ intention to co-produce public services in tourism

Hence, all five hypotheses were confirmed in the course of the empirical study. Thus this model allows to assess the influence of various factors on the willingness of residents to participate in co-creation activities.

Discussion and conclusions Based on the series of researches carried out by the author, a conceptual model of estimating the attitude of residents’ co-creation intentions in promotional activities of cities aimed at tourists has been developed and empirically verified. As a result of the research, it was revealed that the actual readiness to support the activities of co-creation, expressed in "willingness to pay for such events" and is influenced by two key factors - attitudes towards the city and attitudes towards a certain touristic event. These factors are the predictors of "willingness to pay" and are fundamental in predicting the activities of residents within the co-creation.



References 1. Alford, J. (2002). Why do public-sector clients co-produce? Toward a contingency theory. Administration & Society, 34(1), 32-56. 2. Bovaird, T. (2007). Beyond engagement and participation: User and community cocreation of public services. Public Administration Review, 67(5), 846-860. 3. Bosley H. E. Volunteers' Perceptions of Impacts of the Azalea Festival: Do Findings on Resident Perceptions of Tourism Impacts Apply?. – 2004. 4. Fledderus J., Brandsen T., Honingh M. Restoring trust through the coproduction of public services: A theoretical elaboration //Public Management Review. – 2014. – Т. 16. – №. 3. – С. 424-443. 5. Gordon, I. Relationship Marketing: New strategies, Techniques and Technologies to win customers you want and keep them forever [Text] / I. Gordon // John Wiley and Sons: Canada. – 1998 6. Kiser L. L., Percy S. L. The concept of coproduction and its implications for public service delivery //Workshop in political theory and policy analysis. – 1980. – С. 13-16. 7. Klijn, E., Eshuis, J. and Braun, E. The Influence of Stakeholder Involvement on the Effectiveness of Place Branding // Public Management Review ISSN 1471-9037 print/ISSN 1471-9045 online 8. Leadbeater C. Personalisation through participation: a new script for public services. – Demos, 2004. 9. Lovelock, C.H. and R.F. Young (1979). “Look to Consumers to Increase Productivity,” Harvard Business Review, 57 (May/June) 168– 176 10. Parks, Roger B, Paula Baker, Larry Kiser, Ronald J. Oakerson, Elinor Ostrom, Vincent Ostrom, Stephen L. Percy, Martha Vandivort, Gordon P. Whitaker, and Rick Wilson, 1981, "Consumers as Coproducers of Public Services: Some Economic and Institutional Considerations," Policy Studies Journal, vol. 9, Summer, pp. 1,001-1,011.


16th – 19th April 2018 The Impact of Place Involvement and Attachment on City Image and Resident Loyalty Emeritus Professor Eugene Jaffe Graduate School of Business Administration, Bar-Ilan University, Israel [email protected]

Dr. Shaked Gilboa Head, Department of Business Administration, Ruppin Academic Center, Israel

Abstract The present pilot study focuses on three well researched constructs in the context of city image: place involvement, place attachment and place loyalty. The research tests the question whether place involvement enhances residents' attachment, which in turn affects their image of the city, leading to loyalty. Place involvement or place making are the everyday activities that encompass the lives of a place (Wang, Shiuh and Wong, 2016). Following de Certeau (1984), who claims that people ascribe their own meaning to a place through their routine behavioural practices, studies found a positive link between place involvement and place attachment (Kyle, Graefe, Manning and Bacon, 2003; Prayag and Ryan, 2012 ). Place attachment is defined as the bonds people develop toward places through emotions, meanings and memories, which in turn influence their personal identity (Morgan, 2010). Florek (2010) argued that people with high psychological attachment feel a strong positive link with the city that they want to live there, even though better options are available. In addition, it was suggested that development of emotional bonds with places is a prerequisite of stability and involvement in local activities (Hay, 1998). Studies showed that place attachment leads to place loyalty (Gursoy, Chen and Chi, 2014; Prayag and Ryan, 2012; Yuksel, Yuksel, and Bilim, 2010).



Many studies used city image as a driver to outcomes related to loyalty such as word of mouth, intentions to leave and intentions to move-in (Herstein, Jaffe and Berger, 2014; Prayag and Ryan, 2012; Zenker and Rütter, 2014). In some of these studies (e.g., Prayag and Ryan, 2012), place attachment was used as a mediator between city image and loyalty. However, taking into account that place involvement leads to place attachment, it is possible that place attachment leads to place image, rather than the other way around, as suggested by Lewicka (2011) and demonstrated in a recent study (Stylos, Bellou, Andronikidis and Vassiliadis, 2017). Data collection and participants The pilot study survey was distributed to residents of the city of Haifa, the third largest city in Israel. Two research assistants distributed a self-administered questionnaire among the city residents, ending with a sample of 150 participants. Measurements City image was measured with a scale developed by Gilboa et al. (2015). Place attachment was measured with a scale adapted from Kyle, Graefe, Manning and Bacon (2004). Place loyalty was measured with a scale adapted from Gilboa and Herstein (2012). Place involvement measurement was developed by the study authors, as existing scales were not measuring actual activities, but focused on the emotions accompanying the performance of the activities. The Place involvement measure included the following: Membership in charity organizations, visiting religious institutions, going to the gym, membership in business organizations, sending kids to youth organizations, participation in cultural activities, participation in city events, taking children to playgrounds and going to the mall. For each item in the questionnaire, respondents were asked to indicate to what extent they agreed with the statement in on a 7-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree; 7=strongly agree). Respondents filled out each item in the questionnaire separately for their city and neighborhood. Results Structural equation analysis was used to test the study model at the city and neighborhood scales. A good fit resulted for the city (χ2= 1.3, df = 1, p> .10; χ2/df= 1.3; TLI = .97; CFI = 1.0; RMSEA = .04) and for the neighborhood (χ2= .54, df = 1, p> .10; χ2/df= .54; TLI = 1.03; CFI = 1.0; RMSEA = .00).



The results of the analysis for the city suggest that involvement in city activities enhances residents’ attachment and loyalty to the city, but not the city image. Place attachment is positively linked to both place image and place loyalty. This “dynamic” was also found at the neighborhood level. In addition, it was found that neighborhood image has a positive impact on loyalty to the neighborhood. These results suggest that at the city scale, the overall image has no impact on residents’ loyalty, but at the neighborhood scale overall image does play a significant role in retaining residents. Following these results, it is possible that the impact of place involvement at the city level is mediated by perception of the neighborhood. This means that urban activities enhance residents’ attachment towards their neighborhood, consequently improving their perception of neighborhood image, which has a positive impact on residents’ loyalty. To test this dynamic, an additional SEM analysis was done. The fit measures are good (χ2= 2.5, df = 2, p> .10; χ2/df= 1.2; TLI = .98; CFI = 1.0; RMSEA = .04). The results suggest that place involvement at the city scale enhances attachment to the neighborhood, which in turn improves the image of the neighborhood, leading to loyalty towards the neighborhood. Neighborhood loyalty is a predictor of city loyalty. Discussion and implications The majority of the studies about city image remain at the city scale, omitting the role that neighborhood play in the impact of image on loyalty (Eshuis, Braun, Klijn and Zenker, 2017; Herstein, Jaffe and Berger, 2014). The current findings demonstrate that city image results from the interaction between the neighborhood and the city. Thus, activities done across the city enhance residents’ attachment and image of the neighborhood, resulting in improved loyalty. Based on these preliminary results, it is suggested that municipalities and place marketers should take into account perception of the neighborhood. Strengthening connections between the residents and their local neighborhood through community initiatives and citizen participation can eventually improve their attachment and perception of the neighborhood, affecting eventually their loyalty to the city. The final paper will be based on a more robust study consisting of three cities analyzed, Haifa, a large city, Netanya, a medium sized city and Acre, a small city, all located in Israel.


16th – 19th April 2018 References De Certeau (1984). The Practice of Everyday Life. The University of California Press, 1984. Eshuis, Braun, Klijn & Zenker (2017). The differential effect of various stakeholder groups in place marketing. Environment and Planning, forthcoming. Florek (2010). Place satisfaction of city residents. In Ashworth & Kavaratzis, eds. Towards Effective Place Management. Edward Elgar. Gilboa et al (2015). A summated rating scale for measuring city image. Cities. 44, 50-59. Gilboa & Herstein (2012). Place Status, place loyalty and wellbeing: An exploratory examination of Israeli residents. Journal of Place Management and Development. 5, 2, 141157. Gursoy, Chen & Chi (2014). Theoretical examination of destination loyalty. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Place status, place loyalty Management. 26, 5, 809-827. Hay (1998). Sense of place in developmental context. Journal of Developmental Psychology. 18, 5-29. Herstein, Jaffe & Berger (2014). Five typical city branding mistakes. Journal of Brand Strategy. 2, 4, 392-402. Kyle, Graefe, Manning & Bacon (2003). An examination of the relationship between leisure activity involvement and place attachment among hikers along the Appalacian Trail. Journal of Leisure Research, 35, 249-273. Lewicka (2011). Place attachment: How far have we come in the last 40 years? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31, 207-231. Morgan (2010). Towards a developmental theory of place attachment. Journal of Developmental Psychology. 30, 11-22. Prayag & Ryan (2012). Antecedents of tourist’s loyalty to Mauritius. Journal of Travel Research. 51, 3, 342-356. Stylus, Bellou, Andronikidis & Vassiliadis (2017). Linking the dots among destination images, attachment and revisit intentions: A study among British and Russian tourists. Tourism Managemnent.60, 15-29. Yuksel, Yuksel & Bilim (2010). Destination attachment: Effects on customer satisfaction and cognitive, affective and conative loyalty. Tourism Management. 31, 2, 274-284. Zenker & Rütter (2014). Is satisfaction the key? The role of citizen satisfaction, place attachment and place brand attitude on positive citizen behavior. Cities, 38, 11-17.



Session 7 Interactive Special Session: Performativity of Digital and Social Media and Place


16th – 19th April 2018 Performativity of Digital and Social Media and Place Brendan Keegan Manchester Metropolitan University, UK [email protected]

Abstract Digital and social media platforms are becoming increasingly important to a wide range of sectors, industries and organisations (Tiago and Veríssimo, 2014). Thus, the contribution of digital technologies to organisational practices is a prominent theme amongst scholars, in particular, the influence of mobile technology and social media (Lamberton and Stephen, 2016). An emergent stream of research considers the impact of these platforms on placemaking, place branding and place marketing in various contexts (e.g. Sevin, 2014; Zhou and Wang, 2014; Hanna, and Rowley, 2015; Oliveira and Panyik, 2015; Kim et al., 2017; Scott et al., 2017; Tussyadiah and Jia, 2017; Uşaklı, Koç and Sönmez, 2017; Zach and Tussyadiah, 2017). Therefore, to further understand how digital and social media augments - or inhibits – phenomena relating to place, this session will provide a review of key contributions in this area highlighting apparent knowledge gaps. In doing so, it aspires to categorise research-informed knowledge, informing future research endeavours, and contributing to a discussion around the performativity of digital and social media in place. It is hoped that this session will bring together researchers with a vested interest in ‘digital placemaking’ to consider and discuss the following questions: • • • • • • • • •

What is the role of digital and social media in place? What are your hopes and aspirations for the use of digital and social media in place? Have you witnessed examples of digital and social media augmenting the management and marketing of places? Equally, what issues are associated with the use of digital and social media in place? Do you have any concerns regarding the use of digital and social media in place? To what extent does the current research assist your understanding of digital and social media in place? Are there any gaps in knowledge regarding digital and social media in place? What direction would you like to see future research in this area to take? What methodological or theoretical approaches would underpin future research into the use of digital and social media in place?


16th – 19th April 2018 • • • •

Is there anything wrong with the current understand how digital and social media are used in place? Is there potential for digital and social media to enable co-creation of place and space? Are there any untapped resources in digital and social media which you are aware of? How should researchers conceptualise the use of digital and social media in place?

References: Tiago, M. T. P. M. B. and Veríssimo, J. M. C. (2014) ‘Digital marketing and social media: Why bother?’ Business Horizons, 57(6) pp. 703–708. Hanna, S. and Rowley, J. (2015) ‘Towards a model of the Place Brand Web.’ Tourism Management. Elsevier Ltd, 48 pp. 100–112. Järvinen, J. and Karjaluoto, H. (2015) ‘The use of Web analytics for digital marketing performance measurement.’ Industrial Marketing Management, 50((October)) pp. 117–127. Kim, S. E., Lee, K. Y., Shin, S. Il and Yang, S. B. (2017) ‘Effects of tourism information quality in social media on destination image formation: The case of Sina Weibo.’ Information and Management. Elsevier B.V., 54(6) pp. 687–702. Lamberton, C. and Stephen, A. T. (2016) ‘A Thematic Exploration of Digital, Social Media, and Mobile Marketing: Research Evolution from 2000 to 2015 and an Agenda for Future Inquiry.’ Journal of Marketing, 80(6) pp. 146–172. Oliveira, E. and Panyik, E. (2015) ‘Content, context and co-creation: Digital challenges in destination branding with references to Portugal as a tourist destination.’ Journal of Vacation Marketing, 21(1) pp. 53–74. Scott, P., Scott, T., Stokes, P., Moore, N., Smith, S. M., Rowland, C., & Ward, T. (2017). The consumer journey in the digital age: the challenges faced by destination and place marketing agencies. International Journal of Digital Culture and Electronic Tourism, 2(1), 28-45. Sevin, H. E. (2014) ‘Understanding cities through city brands: City branding as a social and semantic network.’ Cities. Elsevier Ltd, 38 pp. 47–56. Tussyadiah, I. P., Wang, D. and Jia, C. (2017) ‘Virtual Reality and Attitudes Toward Tourism Destinations.’ In Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2017. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 229–239. Uşaklı, A., Koç, B. and Sönmez, S. (2017) ‘How “social” are destinations? Examining European DMO social media usage.’ Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 6(2) pp. 136–149. Zach, F. J. and Tussyadiah, I. P. (2017) ‘To Catch Them All—The (Un)intended Consequences of Pokémon GO on Mobility, Consumption, and Wellbeing.’ In Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2017. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 217–227. Zhou, L., & Wang, T. (2014). Social media: A new vehicle for city marketing in China. Cities, 37, 27-32.



Session 8 Open Business Forum


16th – 19th April 2018 Research Dissemination and Impact on Local Issues Christina Panagiotidou & Alex Christou Green Corfu [email protected] In November 2017 the Corfu Tourism Forum held an event where business people and local policymakers could come together to discuss some of the main problems facing tourism development on Corfu. This year’s Open Business Forum held as part of the Corfu Symposium on Managing & Marketing Places, in co-operation with the Corfu Municipality and Green Corfu, will be taking some of these issues and exploring them further. As a result of discussions with various local organisations and tourism businesses we have identified the following main problems the island faces right now. In general, these problems fall into three main categories that will be discussed at the Open Business Forum: Infrastructure • No DMO / no targeted branding • Poor infrastructure for congress tourism • Lack of qualified personnel in tourism • Poor road network / boat network • Garbage and recycling issues • Too much bureaucracy stifling business development • Lack of funding for improving and updating tourism businesses Information and Technology • Poor information for tourists – and the need for better information to be provided via digital methods, apps, online and social media – Corfu is not a Smart city that makes the best of technology to serve tourists – especially in Corfu Town • Changes to the role of travel agents and other information agents due to the rise in use of social media • Poor signposting Types and number of tourists • Large volume of visitors to Corfu Town from Cruise tourism • Sea and sun, and all-inclusive tourism resulting in low income visitors • Lack of focus on special interest tourism • Underexploited foot path network • Short tourism season • The challenges of the sharing economy (e.g. Airbnb) • The challenge of low-cost airlines which can make the destination less attractive for larger tour operators



Session 9 Places, Brands and Image


16th – 19th April 2018 Place Branding: Bibliometric Analysis of the Literature and Emerging Research Trends Iuliia Mykhailiuk University of Agder, Norway [email protected]

Abstract Brand are often considered to be strategically important intangible assets that bring added economic value to the products, services and corporations. Strong brands have an impact on business performance by providing competitive advantage, increasing market share, allowing companies to charge premium price, and saving time and recourses on introducing new products. At the same time, current branding principles and models have evolved beyond simple application to products, services and companies. With the current advances in interdisciplinary research, both academics and practitioners increasingly note the importance of country, city, nation and destination brands. The purpose of this paper is to examine the historic scholarly research development in the field of place branding by employing bibliometric citation meta-analysis technique. This work analyses the historic development of previous research in the field by identifying the key research areas which contributed to establishment of place branding research. Additionally it highlights and ranks the most influential papers, authors and journals that lead the way in establishment of place branding research field.

Contribution The contribution of this paper is in providing a structured research review based on timeline of scholarly work in the place branding field. Understanding of how place, nation, country, city and destination brand research came to be, how these streams of research influenced each other and the nature of the future enquiries in the field is currently missing from the academic literature. While a lot of scholars talk about the different ways of understanding and defining place branding, not a lot of attention has been devoted to examining how research on place branding has evolved and shaped the research field. This work aims to fill the above mentioned literature gap by conducting a bibliometric citation meta-analysis of the literature and publications on place branding.



Additional contribution of this work is identifying themes and groups of articles that shaped the research area. This work provides a condensed and informative introduction for scholars who are starting their enquiries in place branding, businesses that work with development of place brands and other interested parties unfamiliar with the research field.

Methodology 160 place branding publications from 341 authors in 89 journals displaying 6503 citations in total are included in analysis with data collected from ISI Web of Science also known as Web of Knowledge - one of the most comprehensive academic databases which provides Social Science Citation Index (SSCI). To conduct an accurate data collection keywords were determined prior the Web of Science database search to reflect the purpose of the study within the relevant field of scholarship. They included “place brand”, “country brand”, “city brand”, “nation brand” and “destination brand”. Bibliometric citation meta-analysis technique is used to analyse this database and to visualise connections between the publications in the dataset. The findings have been visualised by using HistCite™ software and the citation mapping technique.

Findings The findings indicate and display the emergence and development of place branding literature from country of origin effect, branding and economic psychology research. Country, nation, city and destination brands have been identified as separate yet loosely connected research streams within place branding field. A relationship between these research streams has been highlighted through identifying and analysing key publications. A strong demand for theory development and testing identifies across above mentioned areas of interest with particular focus placed on emerging need for comprehensive multilevel models reflecting the layered complexity of the field. Findings indicate that the current research pattern in place branding remains dispersed and incoherent. Relatively few attempts have been done to develop a place brand theory, define place, city, nation, country and destination brands or evaluate place brand equity. The current state of the field is both practitioner and academic led.



Limitations This paper makes an important contribution to the literature by shedding the light on the place branding research evolution and development. It does so by identifying, analysing and structuring previous publications that led to the development of the research field. It also provides a visualisation of the research streams in this research area and their development with time. At the same time, it is worth noting that certain limitations persist in this study. The data was collected from the ISI Web of Science, which is one of the most popular academic databases, but it is by no means comprehensive. Despite the fact that the top tier journals and their work are included in the database not all publications from the top journals worldwide are available. The conference papers and articles that were published before any of the journals were included in the ISI Web of Science might also be omitted by the database system or display no citations. This particular study does not exclude self-citations from the analysis, however upon future availability of methodological tools that allow for excluding self-citations this should be performed. Future research may further refine the findings by excluding selfcitations to arrive at more accurate results of the author, article or journal importance. Due to the complex nature of the field of research, it is fair to assume that there is a certain number of publications featured in academic journals that are not included in Web of Science database due to various reasons be it a new journal, highly specialised journal or a lower ranking one. Finally despite its objectivity bibliometric citation meta-analysis can be partly subjective due to the scholar’s choice of the studied time period and further citation mapping labelling. The majority of publications that appear in the Web of Knowledge database are written in English, therefore future research of the literature published on other languages can further expand and clarify the results.



An exploratory study of educational tourism in Nottingham Becca Walker Department of Marketing, Nottingham Trent University, United Kingdom [email protected]

Abstract Despite international visitors being an essential component of tourism development and tourism studies, a specific group of visitor, the International Student (IS), appears to much ignored, both in literature, tourism planning, managing and marketing. Indeed, places are notionally the world’s biggest tourism brands (Morgan et al. 2002) with the choice of destination a utopian lifestyle indicator and for today’s aspirational consumer, none could be more discerning than the international student. This paper will explore the proposed research to develop an ‘educational tourism marketing model’ for the sustainable management and branding of a destination.

Over the years, the tourism industry and primarily the privatised educational sector have developed the service of educating international students as a means to bring in more tourists of a specific age and profile to the UK. This idea played an important part within city plans and subsequent regeneration programmes famously highlighted by the RT Hon Tony Blair MP in a speech: ‘Attracting More International Students to the United Kingdom’ (1999). This changing view of the landscape at a local, national and international level, has not been reflected within the literature.

Moving forward eighteen years, Universities UK (2017) suggest that to retain such a desirable international trading position, and associated economic and social benefits, it is still critical to attract legitimate IS (against those merely seeking UK entry) especially in these uncertain times of the Post Brexit Referendum (and lack of council funded prospects). Cities within the United Kingdom are in competition for one common goal; to bring income into their region, to ensure at least economic sustainability, and at best, investment for local consumption.



From an economic point of view, it has been recently published that IS are worth £20.3bn per annum to the UK economy, hence it can be argued that IS are an important influence in supporting local economies. With £1.28 billion generated within the East Midlands, of which Nottingham plays a significant part (The Higher Education Policy Institute, 2018, pg.9), therefore educational tourism can be seen as a valuable source of income generation for the region.

Educational tourism (edu-tourism) consists of a student travelling to a destination to join any type of programme, either as an individual (or a group) with the primary motive of participating in a learning experience (Rodger, 1998). By reviewing Ritchie’s (2003) segmentation model of educational tourism it is evident that there are potentially more segments to this definition rather than the three famously published. The ‘tourism first’ segment highlights that travel is the primary motivating factor (education being secondary), whilst the ‘education first’ segment includes university experiences (Ritchie, 2003 p.13).Thus, whilst the model helps to conceptualise “the overlap between education and tourism“ (McGladdery and Lubbe, 2017, p.320), and has helped form the foundations of theoretical debate over the past two decades, it may have been excluded by the very sector in which learning is the main activity.

An initial review of the literature suggests that there are a range of different perspectives, from Pitman et al.’s (2010) recommendation of a more process based approach to Richard’s (2011) suggestion of a transformative experience. Consequently, there is no single accepted definition/common usage of key terms within the educational tourism literature. To illustrate the terms ‘visitor’ versus ‘tourist’ seem to cause a quandary as both definitions, whilst they differ, can encapsulate the IS, and whilst the student may not view themselves as tourists, they can create tourism impacts and would be part of urban and regional development implications.

Over recent decades, the growth of both education and tourism has led to a growing recognition of these sectors from both an economic and social perspective. Roppolo (1996, p.191) highlighted this by stating “as countries become more interdependent, their success, growth and economic prosperity will largely depend on the ability of two industries –education and tourism – to create the avenues necessary to support international exchange and learning”.


16th – 19th April 2018 The development of both sectors has seen the convergence of the two, with “education facilitating mobility and learning becoming an important part of the tourist experience” (Ritchie, 2003, p.1) hence the symbiotic relationship between education and tourism as the focus of this study. Until the 1990’s planning and management strategies treated all tourists as a homogenous whole (Gunn, 1994). Education and alternative interests were excluded and the standardised treatment of tourist was not beneficial, as proven by marketers in other sectors. According to Butler (1980) there was more merit in dividing the totality of tourists into groups with similarities, introducing segmentation to the planning stage of a destination. Interestingly, the educational tourist was not identified within this original model and yet the ‘The Grand Tour’ could be classed as educational tourism (ET) showing that educational tourism (ET) and international education (IE) both share a common history and terminology within tourism principles.

McGladdery and Lubbe (2017) express that travelling to learn is a significant aspect of both education and educational tourism. Whereas Leiper’s (1975) tourism framework was developed to bridge two streams (economic development and tourism impacts), it neglected the key elements of human behaviour (attitudes, wants and needs) which could impact the industry (Jafari, 1977). Such elements can be incorporated into international educational tourism (IET). From a marketing perspective, it seems that whilst literature on marketing concepts are rich, the contextualised broader destination management literature connecting the many principles with destination marketing seem to be obscure (Line and Wang, 2016). Thus, the purpose of this research will be to link destination branding and destination enhancement to utilise a multi- stakeholder market orientation (MSMO) approach (Line and Wang, 2016). This will contrast with the more conventional marketing contexts, such as in goods and services and better align Leiper’s (1975) approach.

Accepting the limitations of the two bodies of literature, the aim is to outline a proposed exploratory study of educational tourism in Nottingham.



Specifically it will: 1. Critically investigate the motivational factors and decision making process (DMP) of international students, in selecting Higher Education study in Nottingham. 2. Map and critically review the activities of key Destination Marketing Organisation (DMO) stakeholders to generate an understanding of educational tourism in Nottingham’s. 3. Create an ‘educational tourism marketing model’ for the sustainable management and branding of a destination.

References Blair, T. 1999. Attracting More International Students. London: London School of Economics. Accessed August 11, 2001. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20060130194436/ http://number10.gov.uk/page3369. Borden, N., 1964. The concept of the marketing mix. Journal of Advertising Research, 4(1), 2-7. Bryman, A., and Bell, E., 2015. Business Research Methods. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Buhalis, D., 2000. Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism Management, 21 (1), 97-116. Burgess, H. and Wellington, J., 2010. Exploring the impact of the professional doctorate on students’ professional practice and personal development: Early indications. Work Based Learning e-Journal. 1 (1). Butler, R.1980. The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management resources. Canadian Geographies, 24, 5-12 Gunn, C.A., 1994. Tourism Planning. London: Taylor and Francis Higher Education Policy institute and Kaplan International Pathways 2018


16th – 19th April 2018 Jafari ,J.,1977. Editor’s page. Annals of Tourism Research. 5, supplement 1, 6-11. Leiper. N., 1975. Tourism Management. Collingwood, VIC: TAFE Publications. Line, N.D., and Wang,Y. 2016. A multi-stakeholder market orientated approach to destination marketing. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 6 (2017) 84-93. McGladderry, C, A., and Lubbe, B,A., 2017. "Rethinking educational tourism: proposing a new model and future directions", Tourism Review, Vol. 72 Issue: 3, pp.319-329 [Accessed 20 February 2018]. Morgan, N., Pritchard, A., and Piggott, R., 2002. Destination Branding: Creating the Unique Destination Proposition (2nd Edition). Cardiff: Elsevier Pitman, T., Broomhall, S., McEwan, J. and Majocha, E., 2010. “Adult learning in educational tourism”, Australian Journal of Adult Learning, Vol. 50 No. 2, pp. 219-238. Richards, G., 2011. “Cultural tourism trends in Europe: a context for the development of Cultural Route’s”, in Khovanova-Rubicondo, K. ed. Impact of European Cultural Routes on SMEs’ Innovation and Competitiveness, Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, pp. 2139. Ritchie, B, W.,2003. Managing Educational Tourism. Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Rodger, D., 1998. Leisure, learning, and travel. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 69, 28–31 (Vol. 4). Roppolo, C.,1996. International education: What does this mean for universities and tourism? In Robinson, m. Evans, N and Callaghan, P (eds), Tourism and Cultural Changes. 191-201. Universities UK, 2017. HEGlobal [online]. Universities UK. Available at: http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/International/heglobal/ [Accessed 04 April 2107].


16th – 19th April 2018 .

Groups’ Place Image: Attributes and Relationships Xiaoye Liu Advertising School, Communication University of China, Media Science School, Northeast Normal University of China [email protected]

Chunying Wen Asia Media Research Center, Communication University of China [email protected]

Yingying Wu Asia Media Research Center, Communication University of China

Abstract In the literature of both place branding and urban studies, place image of different stakeholders plays an important role in influencing the competiveness of nations, cities, and destinations. Policy makers traditionally employ place branding to communicate positive images of their city in the minds of target groups (Kavaratzis&Ashworth,2007; Zenker&Beckmann,2013). After reviewing previous academic studies on ‘place image’, we discovered two core issues formed the basis of past research. The first involved studies of which attributes work best together to build place image, and the second was how place perceptions form and change. However, most of the studies regarding image attributes and image formation were made separately under different research frameworks and had limited correlation. Moreover, since place branding involves a great variety of stakeholders, including businesses, investors, students, visitors, and special sub-groups, accurate and applicable research is essential when evaluating a location. In contrast to this, most past place branding literature was based on the tourism marketing field, which focused on external audiences (Zenker, et al., 2010). Additionally, in regards to the methodological perspective，structured questionnaires and group interviews were often used, by which desired attributes were selected and important dimensions applicable in other situations have been left out (Zenker, Petersen et al., 2013).


16th – 19th April 2018 This paper aims at covering this gap. The objectives are threefold. First, to examine the place image attributes from the internal stakeholders’ perspectives. The four sub-groups chosen are all individuals currently residing in a city and include students, microblog opinion leaders 3, officials, and businesspeople.

Second, to incorporate the “Relationship” level into the

understanding of place image. In other words, to determine how the attributes and groups interact with each other. Third, to develop a conceptual model of perceived place image attributes and their formational process. The research is being conducted in the city of Changchun, known as China’s “City of Automobiles” and core city of Northeast China. In trying to avoid the hypothetico-deductive approach, a social networking-based grounded theory study has been introduced. The largest social networking site in China, Sina Weibo, was selected, as it provides both the contents and contexts of internal and external stakeholders, through which longtime separated image components and formational research will be bridged together through a two stage analysis. The first stage is attribute level. In this stage, we are revealing different place attributes from the perspectives of the four internal target groups previously mentioned: students, microblog opinion leaders, officials, and businesspeople. We will analyze data collected from Sina Weibo regarding Changchun for one year period (2017.1-2017.12) to understand how different groups perceive the city in which they live, work, and study, both cognitively and affectively. Second, in regards to relationship level, we will explore the inter-relationships between the attributes and determine how the groups interact with each other, which will give an answer to some ongoing debates in place branding and marketing, especially the following two questions: What factors most influence the image formation process in the context of China? What evokes the interaction of different attributes and group members? We hope that both of these questions will soon have answers.

3

In China, verified Weibo users who has more than 500,000 followers are considered as Microblog Opinion Leaders.


16th – 19th April 2018 Through data mining of sample Sina Weibo accounts from Changchun, we have obtained the initial contextual messages. We are then using grounded theory method to analyze these multidisciplinary texts. We have broken internal groups’ ideas into components and discovered the conceptual categories regarding Changchun’s perceived image, which is called open coding and memoing in the grounded theory. In conclusion, by establishing a conceptual model of internal groups’ place image attributes and formation, this research will lead to a deeper understanding of place image in the discipline of participatory place branding. References ［1］Chan, C. S., & Marafa, L. M. (2013). A review of place branding methodologies in the new millennium. Place Branding & Public Diplomacy, 9(4), 236-253. ［2］Sevin, E. (2013). Places going viral: twitter usage patterns in destination marketing and place branding. Journal of Place Management & Development, 6(3), 227-239. ［3］Herington, C., Merrilees, B., Miller, D., & Abimbola, T. (2012). Multiple stakeholders and multiple city brand meanings. European Journal of Marketing, 46(7/8), 1032-1047. ［4］Zenker, S., & Beckmann, S. C. (2013). My place is not your place—different place brand knowledge by different target groups. Journal of Place Management & Development, 6(1), 617. ［5］Kavaratzis M, Kalandides A. Rethinking the place brand: the interactive formation of place brands and the role of participatory place branding[J]. Environment & Planning A, 2015, 47(6):1368-1382. ［6］Kavaratzis M. From “necessary evil” to necessity: stakeholders' involvement in place branding[J]. Journal of Place Management & Development, 2012, 5(1):7-19. ［7］Eshuis J. The Influence of Stakeholder Involvement on The Effectiveness of Place Branding[J]. Public Management Review, 2012, 14(4):499-519. ［8］Robert Aitken, Adriana Campelo. The four Rs of place branding[J]. Journal of Marketing Management, 2011, 27(9-10):913-933. ［9］Andéhn M, Kazeminia A, Lucarelli A, et al. User-generated place brand equity on Twitter: The dynamics of brand associations in social media[J]. Place Branding & Public Diplomacy, 2014, 10(2):132-144. ［10］Braun E, Eshuis J, Klijn E H. The effectiveness of place brand communication[J]. Cities, 2014, 41:64-70.



Branding Villages through Historical and Cultural Heritage: Empirical studies in the Chinese context Professor Hong Fan Director of National Image Research Centre, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China [email protected]

Abstract Over the past three decades, China has gone through a rapid development of urbanization, mainly by improving urban infrastructure, building modern structures, and extending urban territory into rural areas. Meanwhile, as part of urbanization, many countryside residents migrated to cities as members of the labour force. With a rapid urban construction pace, rural villages are badly affected in terms of economic development and cultural conservation, and many historical and cultural villages have disappeared due to demolition. In recent years, the Chinese government have made great efforts to balance development between urban and rural areas, as well as between economy and culture. One measure that the Chinese government has taken is to encourage the local government to help rural villages retrieve their vitality through restoration of heritage and enhancement of cultural attractiveness, such as traditional customs, lifestyles, architecture, arts and crafts, etc as culture acts as a “means of communication between generations and societies” (Jepson, 2009). In addition, places which values their past and tradition by preserving culture and heritage are considered civilised entities and this helps to enhance the place’s image over time (Gabr, 2004). As a contribution to the conservation of cultural heritage and cultural features of Chinese towns and places, the author and her colleagues set up an institute, the Institute of Creation of Cultural Spaces (ICCS) in Tsinghua University, that works across six disciplines to assist the villages in building their cultural identities and in branding them as historical and cultural attractions. Under this institute, the Tsinghua City Branding Studio works closely with the School of Liberal Arts, the School of Architecture, the Academy of Art and Design, the School of Public Administration, the Research Center of Cultural Industry, and the School of Communication, to help the villages in maintaining their historical and cultural attractiveness and to focus the villages' branding.



The paper will first introduce the current situation regarding the branding of towns and villages in China and the reasons behind the loss of historical and cultural identity of many villages during the Chinese urbanization process. Secondly, it will introduce the “4-D Model" working model for retrieving the historical and cultural identities of the towns and villages through the interdisciplinary work of cultural experts, architects, artists, branding consultants, tourism experts, and local leaders. Thirdly, the paper will present the empirical study of a village which was rebuilt after the 2008 earthquake and then rebranded with its cultural attractiveness as the core value for its new image. Finally, the paper will summarize the restrictions and difficulties in making such villages destination brands. As van Ham wrote in 2012, “place branding goes beyond mere slogans or old-fashioned ad campaigns; it involves more than gloss or spin or the placing of a territory on the map as an attractive tourist destination.” A “4-D Model", i.e., Discover, Define, Design and Develop was developed to suggest the four stages, linked as a chain, for a village branding project. The first step is to discover the historical and cultural resources of the village through site observation, interviews, meetings, questionnaires, and research on written materials and documents. With careful investigation of the village, project leaders****** will discover the most attractive components for building the village brand. The second stage is to define the core historical and cultural value of the village brand and have a positioning statement and slogan. By following the positioning statement, the third stage begins with different kinds of design, including urban design, architectural design, tourism planning, public furniture design, and visual design, including logo design, for the place's brand. The last stage is to develop the brand through physical renovation or construction, business development, and marketing communication.

The paper will study Nianhua Village as the village was branded by adopting the 4-D working model. The old village was destroyed in the 2008 earthquake. After the earthquake, almost on the same site, a new village has been built. The name of the village comes out of two Chinese characters: Nian-Hua. Nian means ‘year’, and Hua means ‘painting’. Nianhua means ‘new year painting’. The village was named Nianhua Village is just because it has long been well known for its unique art craft of Chinese new year painting.



In China, Chinese New Year, or Spring Festival, is the most important holiday for Chinese people. In rural China, hanging New Year paintings is a must. Bought from the market, New Year pictures are hanged on every important spots of the house, especially the gate, rooms, the kitchen, the storehouse, the well, and the stable. Portraits of village god and kitchen got are usually pasted up on niched to express people's wishes for peace and happiness. For average Chinese farmers, hanging New Year paintings bring about unusual festive joy and delight to them. Nianhua Village by name is famous for in their distinctive New Year paintings.

By following the 4-D model, the working team first investigated the village and found that about six households operated Nianhua stores to sell their own New Year paintings. As the paintings were different from other villages' nearby, it was obvious that Nianhua art was the distinctive branding feature for the village. The team then mapped out all resources that connected with Nianhua, such as painting materials making, stores selling painting materials, painting craftsmen, painting showrooms, and painting decorations in the village environment.

Then the team sorted out all resources connected with Nianhua, such as painting materials making, stores selling painting supplies, painting craftsmen, painting showrooms, and the painting of decorations in the village environment, and thus decided to position the village as Nianhua Village. With traditional Nianhua as the core branding value, the village houses were then painted with Nianhua on the doors and walls of almost every household, and on village public furniture as well. Later, a museum of Nianhua history and culture was built, a souvenir store of Nianhua was set up, restaurants decorated with Nianhua were opened, and a Nianhua training center was opened. Now the village has become a famous tourist attraction for the Nianhua cultural experience.

The paper will also present some restrictions and difficulties that the author encountered in her work while branding historical and cultural villages, such as changes in local leadership, the Chinese preference for all-inclusiveness, lack of consistency in branding, insufficient time for conducting research on historical records and local culture, lack of branding talent in villages, and the negligence of marketing communication.



References

Gabr, H. S. (2004) Attitudes of residents and tourists towards the use of urban historic sites for festival events. Event Management, 8: 231–242.

Jepson, A. S. (2009). Investigating Cultural Relationships within the Festival Planning and Construction Process in a Local Community Festival Context. Published Doctoral Thesis, University of Derby, UK

van Ham, P. (2008). Place Branding: The State of the Art. The ANNALS Of The American Academy

Of

Political

And

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716207312274

Social

Science, 616(1),

126-149.



Session 10 Cities


16th – 19th April 2018 Hard facts for the vision of a young and innovative city: Empirical analysis of students’ living preferences Prof. Dr. Stefanie Wesselmann Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences / Public Management University of Applied Sciences, Osnabrück, Germany [email protected]

Abstract Cities and regions are increasingly competing to attract students and qualified recent graduates, who create something of a "fountain of youth", enhancing the region's capacity for innovation and competitiveness and offering a collegiate flair to cities, both of which serve to increase the positive image and quality of life there (Yigitcanlar 2012; Anholt 2010; Ashworth und Kavaratzis 2009; Murie und Musterd 2010). The younger generation in Germany exhibits a strong tendency for migratory movements upon starting the education and career entry phase of life; these migrations tend to result in concentrations ("swarms") towards certain cities and consequently to housing shortages and price increases in those areas, while other cities and in particular rural districts tend to empty out (Simons et al. 2015). The root cause for this swarming is not the presence of (potential) job opportunities but rather an increase in the importance of the quality of life and locale, for which distant commute are even accepted (Braun 2016). Young people appear to seek out those places where many of their generation have already settled. In light of demographic change, if the absolute number of younger people continues to decrease, these polarising tendencies will also continue to be exacerbated. In general, there is little knowledge about the specific requirements that students and young career entrants are looking for in a place to live and study (Brown 2015; Tippel et al. 2017; Buenstorf et al. 2016). While the basic criteria proposed by Florida (Florida 2006, 2009) have offered key hints about these requirements, they nonetheless apply only to certain circumstances and are not specific to students. This study therefore addresses this gap in the research; the analysis is based on a survey of 2300 students at the university city of Osnabrück. Located in northwest Germany, Osnabrück (160,000 residents, 22,000 students) became a university centre only recently, in 1970.


16th – 19th April 2018 Consequently, its perception as a university city is not yet as firmly established as it is, for example, in the nearby city of Münster (300,000 residents, 60,000 students, university founded in 1780). Higher education institutions play a key role in the city's successful structural change and branding process. Being perceived as a university city is an important vision of urban development in Osnabrück. Insights from the empirical survey can help both in the analysis of factors important in students' decision-making as well as in providing information about potential influences on the part of the city's stakeholders. Design/methodology/approach Following extensive qualitative preliminary studies (Wesselmann 2016; Wesselmann et al. 2012), a survey of close to 2300 students in the university city of Osnabrück was conducted at the end of 2016. Students were differentiated according to the type of higher education institution (university or university of applied sciences), subject area and degree; a proportionality quota procedure ensured that the sample reflected the overall target population adequately. Integration of the Sinus-Milieu indicator facilitated conclusions about everyday life factors as well. The survey is currently (November 2017) being continued at two universities in Berlin, in order to generate data for comparison. Additional cities are also planned. The focus was on the following research questions:  What requirements do students have in terms of the place in which they live and study? What does their "ideal" city have to offer?  How do students rate these criteria for the city of Osnabrück? In which areas are the greatest discrepancies found? In which areas can the city exercise an impact?  What influence does the city's attractiveness have on the choice of higher education institutions?  Where and how (with parents, student dormitory, communal residence etc.) are students currently living?  How satisfied are they with their currently living situation?  Can they imagine themselves remaining in Osnabrück after they complete their study programme?  According to which (Sinus-) Milieu do students classify themselves?



Findings (sampling) Central- safe –clean and with affordable housing: this sums up students' core expectations for a city. This is a surprising insight because the demand for safety and cleanliness are more often attributed to an older milieu. Cultural offers, an exciting night-life and a multicultural population were not important factors among our survey participants; this result was in stark contrast to the findings of Richard Florida (Florida 2006; Krätke 2010) regarding the creative class. Further study is required to determine the extent to which this result applies only to Osnabrück. A follow-up is already underway in the city of Berlin.

Practical implications The knowledge of the specific decision-making and satisfaction factors should increase the ability of politicians, administrators, universities and the real estate industry to exert control.

Further surveys planned for additional cities should create a dataset that will facilitate a better understanding of the target/performance comparison of a city's qualities in terms of locale from the point of view of students.

The survey can be a kick-start for processes of dialogue that could help improve living quality in the context of design thinking processes. The author is pursuing this aspect in a follow-up project in Berlin.

Depending on the field of study and milieu, the students who participated in the survey offered some diverse demands for cities. An interesting option may therefore be to consider in greater depth these social and cultural factors in the competition for qualified specialists. Today, as a part of their branding processes, many cities already address the issue of which offers and assets to highlight and with which they hope to be associated both external and internally (Kavaratzis et al. 2015; Anholt 2008). The results of the survey offer a differentiated approach to individual student groups. Specifically, the question could be phrased in the form of a matching: which student milieus fit best to the strengths of our city?



Originality/value To date (as of September 2017), there have been no comparable empirical surveys of a Germanspeaking populace to investigate the living place preferences of students. In the context of higher education marketing, there are a number of studies that examine the decision-making process of foreign students for a particular university. However, the focus lies on the university and less on the city. (Padlee et al. 2010; Cubillo-Pinilla et al. 2009)

References Anholt, Simon (2008): Place branding. Is it marketing, or isn't it? In: Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (1), S. 1–6. Anholt, Simon (2010): Definitions of place branding – Working towards a resolution. In: Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 6 (1), S. 1–10. Ashworth, Gregory; Kavaratzis, Mihalis (2009): Beyond the logo: Brand management for cities. In: Brand Management 16 (8), S. 520–531. Braun, Reiner (2016): Ist die Kommunalisierung der Wohnungswirtschaft die richtige Antwort auf die Wohnungsknappheit? In: vhw Forum Wohneigentum (FWS 2 / März - April 2016), S. 85–90. Brown, Julie (2015): Home from Home? Locational Choices of International “Creative Class” Workers. In: European Planning Studies (23), S. 2336–2355. Buenstorf, Guido; Geissler, Matthias; Krabel, Stefan (2016): Locations of labor market entry by German university graduates. Is (regional) beauty in the eye of the beholder? In: Rev Reg Res 36 (1), S. 29–49. Cubillo-Pinilla, J. M.; Zuniga, J.; Losantos, I.; Sanchez, J. (2009): Factors influencing international student's evaluation of higher education programs. In: The Journal of America Academy of Business (15), S. 270–279. Florida, Richard L. (2006): The rise of the creative class. And how it's transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life. [Nachdr.]. New York, NY: Basic Books. Florida, Richard L. (2009): Who's your city? How the creative economy is making where to live the most important decision of your life. New York: Basic Books. Kavaratzis, Mihalis; Warnaby, Gary; Ashworth, Gregory J. (Hg.) (2015): Rethinking place branding. Comprehensive Brand Development for Cities and Regions. Heidelberg: Springer International. Krätke, Stefan (2010): ‘Creative Cities’ and the Rise of the Dealer Class. A Critique of Richard Florida's Approach to Urban Theory. In: International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 34 (4), S. 835–853.



Murie, Alan; Musterd, Sako (Hg.) (2010): Making competitive cities. ebrary, Inc. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K, Ames, IA: Blackwell (Real Estate Issues, v.38). Padlee, Siti Falindah; Kamaruddin, Abdul Razak; Baharun, Rohaizat (2010): International Students’ Choice Behavior for Higher Education at Malaysian Private Universities. In: IJMS 2 (2). Simons, Harald; Weiden, Lukas; empirica ag (2015): Schwarmstädte in Deutschland Ursachen und Nachhaltigkeit der neuen Wanderungsmuster. Hg. v. GdW Bundesverband deutscher Wohnungs- und Immobilienunternehmen e.V. Berlin. Tippel, Cornelia; Plöger, Jörg; Becker, Anna (2017): ‘I don’t care about the city’. The role of connections in job-related mobility decisions of skilled professionals. In: Regional Studies, Regional Science 4 (1), S. 94–108. Wesselmann, Stefanie (2016): Was erwarten Studierende von Städten? In: Wissenschaftsmanagement. Zeitschrift für Innovation (3), S. 49–53. Wesselmann, Stefanie; Meyer, Clas; Lisowski, Rainer (2012): Researching: Key factors for the success of knowledge cities in Germany. In: Tan Yigitcanlar, Kostas Metaxiotis und Francisco Javier Carrillo (Hg.): Building Prosperous Knowledge Cities. Policies, Plans and Metrics. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, S. 96–110. Yigitcanlar, Tan (2012): Comparing: knowledge-based urban development of Vancouver, Melbourne, Manchester and Boston. In: Tan Yigitcanlar, Kostas Metaxiotis und Francisco Javier Carrillo (Hg.): Building Prosperous Knowledge Cities. Policies, Plans and Metrics. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, S. 327–347.

Re-placing Topias: Chinese tourists in Austria, Hallstatt Johanna Teubert Karlshochschule International University, Germany [email protected] Prof. Dr Desmond Wee Professor of Tourism Sciences and Spatial Theories Karlshochschule International University, Germany [email protected]

Abstract It becomes increasingly challenging in our contemporary age to conceive of tourism culture and tourist places as static, especially when cultural identities become mobile and morph with emergent spaces. Clifford’s (1997)1 notion of dwelling and travelling moves beyond the fixity of place and people, postulating culture itself with the propensity to travel. Unfortunately, “despite the cognation between travel and tourism, the revitalization of the concept of culture has not been much inspired by insights from the tourism study” (Sørensen 2003:864)2. Hui (2008:307)3 adds that tourism is better conceived “as a continuum of practices that occur in many diverse spaces, interspersed throughout many types of mobilities.” Hence the relationship between everyday practices in tourist sites may contribute to the making and shifting of identity, straddling both what visions of Utopia or Dystopia could mean. Experiencing place makes it difficult to separate images and experiences that shape tourism from the everyday. It raises the point if tourism in modern times “has become an established part of everyday life culture and consumption” (McCabe 2002:63)4. This paper uses the town of Hallstadt in Austria to question how tourism may indeed be a reflexive part of the everyday, embodied and full of agency, through quotidian practices such as new technologies and social media platforms.

1

Clifford, J. (1997) Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2 Sørensen, A. (2003) Backpacker ethnography. Annals of Tourism Research 30(4): 847-867. 3

Hui, A. (2008) Many Homes for tourism: Re-considering spatializations of home and away. Tourist Studies 8(3): 291-311. 4

McCabe, S. (2002) The Tourist Experience and Everyday Life. In: G. Dann (ed.) The Tourist as a Metaphor for the Social World. Wallingford: CABI Publishing.


16th – 19th April 2018 Especially since Hallstatt has now ‘relocated’ to China, we find increasingly that experiences are no longer desires that require an escapism toward the exotic, but experiences that are encapsulated in and through everyday practice, de-familiarizing familiar spaces and playing up to the imaginary. Hallstatt, a small, picturesque town in Austria has been experiencing a significant growth in overnight stays (+153,59%) while having one of the highest fluctuation of inhabitants within the past decade.5 In fact, the number of visitors are ten-fold the number of inhabitants. Perhaps this could be attributed to its unique alpine setting on the shore of the Hallstätter Lake, its ancient history edged onto the cobbled-stoned streets of the pretty settlement and the fact that it is a UNESCO heritage site. However, what is particularly interesting in this town is the physical and visible presence of an unusually high number of Chinese tourists and how they experience the place using the latest technology and social media platforms. What is even more interesting is the Chinese enthusiasm about Hallstatt, exemplified by the reproduction of a replica Hallstatt in the Chinese province of Guangdong. It remains to be seen if Hallstatt, China, is indeed the precursor for the ‘real thing’ in Austria, or that there is some kind of inherent relationship that connects the two towns. What is apparent is that Hallstatt Mayor Alexander Schütz signed an agreement on the cultural exchange with the Huizhou authorities and said he was "very proud" that his village was rebuilt in China, much to the amusement of Austrian media who poked fun at distorted architecture, signage typos and palm trees.6 Yet the replica was not meant as a tourist attraction, but a high-end housing investment project with the aim of having a local populace indulging in a quintessential ‘Austrianness’. Afterall, ‘[t]his is the only genuinely Austrian town in the whole of China.’7

5

http://www.nachrichten.at/nachrichten/politik/landespolitik/Hallstatt-verliert-am-staerkstenEinwohner;art383,1589377 6

Von Bernd Steinle (2017) Chinesen kopieren Alpendorf: Falsche Freunde im echten Hallstatt. Frankfurter Allgemeine, 28.09.2017. http://www.faz.net/aktuell/stil/drinnen-draussen/hallstatt-kopie-china-eroeffnetnachbau-eines-oesterreichischen-dorfs-15205080.html [accessed 20.12.2017] 7

Parry, S. (2012) The Alpine village of the Far East: Chinese build bizarre replica of Austrian town (only problem is, no-one wants to live there). Daily Mail. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2093067/How-Chinesebuilding-exact-replicas-Austrian-village--houses-sold.html#ixzz51qnaWrNl [accessed 20.12.2017]


16th – 19th April 2018 Initially the replica was thought to be an economic ‘gift’, a complementary by-product to the burgeoning tourism in its Austrian predecessor. Unfortunately, the extremely limited capacity of space in a town of 800 inhabitants started causing problems much to the disdain of the locals, in dealing with the steadily increasing visitor numbers. It comes as no surprise that the DMO and local authorities in Hallstatt are faced with pressing issues, especially with regards to the co-ordination and handling of increasing Chinese tourism influx and the existence of its reproduction in China. The focus of this paper goes beyond the impacts of such tourism on the environment, community voices and the question of authenticity. Instead, it situates both Hallstatt Austria and Halstatt China as places constitutive of each other in place making, in which one space informs the other through tourism practices, networks and mobilities. It can be said that they are also ‘changing places’ concurrently as they strive to define themselves in relation to each other, both as brand and self. By this token, visions of Utopia and Dystopia are conflated in which they exist in abundance simultaneously, and at the same time, their resolve is a liminal one giving rise to emergent complexities in the making of identities. Perhaps it is necessary to ‘re-place’ Topias, not so much in the ridding sense, but in the way in which we need to rethink the modalities of place and the contingency in which the tourist is not only consuming space, but reproducing it. This paper further investigates the Chinese tourism flow in Hallstatt by considering its unique way of experiencing and consuming places, paying attention to possible influences on Hallstatt as a place. We will analyse the use of new technologies and everyday social media platforms like Instagram or Facebook and their discursive implications in the post-processing phase of the tourist experience. The increasing use of social media platforms and universal connectivity might have an impact on the reputation management of places and if so, it becomes apparent that the communicated perception would naturally influence Hallstatt's marketing strategies. In other words, the way tourists use technology and communicate through social media channels in ‘mundane’ ways, shapes the expectation of prospective visitors of a destination, alongside the existence of the ‘sister’ destination. Hence, tourism may be repositioned as part of a particular everyday, in order to explore new tourist practices in which spaces and identities are constantly evolving in contingent ways.


16th – 19th April 2018 City Brand Innovation and Its Measurement: An Empirical Study on Chinese Cities Yanping Liu National Academy of Economic Strategy, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China [email protected]

Abstract In place branding, measurement and evaluation of place brands is a hot and steadily growing topic. Critique has been directed towards the inclusion of too few methodological approaches, and emphasis has been put on the necessity to incorporate a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods in the evaluation and measurement of place brands (Zenker, 2011). The aim of this article is to examine recent city brand innovation in the context of China’s Mass Entrepreneurship and Innovation strategy. The focus is especially on Jingjinji (Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei) coordinated development strategy, the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21stcentury Maritime Silk Road initiative, as well as the Yangtze River Economic Belt Strategy and its related node cities.

Based on relevant literature and historical observations, this article outlines a number of trends and challenges of city branding innovation in China. The paper also attempts to evaluate the city branding innovation of all main Chinese cities as part of national strategic nodes, in 2016, using a three-level hierarchical system of 52 cultural, innovative & entrepreneurial, experiential, governance and communication indicators. These indicators have been chosen so that the brand innovation of a city can be measured in terms of its performance when it comes to brand positioning and cultural advantages, innovative potential, livable conditions, governance transition and the innovation of brand communications.

The data was primarily collected from data sources collected in 2016, including the City and Competitiveness Research Center database of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the National Bureau of Statistics, the respective City Statistical Bulletins, Baidu Index, Google Search, CYYun Big Data Platform, Today’s Headline Database, and the database of Sina Weibo. This study employs the geometric mean method to synthesize the composite index.


16th – 19th April 2018 The findings show that the creative and innovative factors are becoming decisive force for the creation and rejuvenation of a city brand. Some western Chinese cities, such as Guiyang, Chongqing, Chengdu, and Xi'an has raised remarkably since innovation driven transformation turned out to be a successful story in these cities, while the traditional strong city brands in northeast area of China have withered dramatically, like Shenyang, Jilin, Ha’erbin, etc. The findings moreover suggest that governments should attach greater importance to the city marketing governance transition, both on an internal and regional level, in order to keep the public value and not just the performance of governments. In addition, the inclusiveness, green growth and education & research input as increasingly important brand innovation factors should be strengthened.

The relationship among five city brand innovation components is revealed by a correlation analysis. There was less consistency among cultural innovation, innovation & entrepreneur development, experiential innovation, governance transition and digital communication. This implies that in some cities, creative culture, I&E strategy, urban planning and construction, urban governance, and marketing communication development are imbalanced. References Anholt, S. (2005), “Anholt Nation Brands Index: How Does the World See America?”, Journal of Advertising Research, September, 296-304. Anholt, S. (2006), “The Anholt-GMI city brands index: How the world sees the world's cities”, Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 2(1), 18-31. Gartner, W.C. (2014), “Brand equity in a tourism destination”, Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 10(2), 108-116. Green, A., Grace, D., & Perkins, H. (2016). City branding research and practice: An integrative review. Journal of Brand Management, 23(3), 252-272. Hanna, S.A., & Rowley, J. (2015), “Rethinking Strategic Place Branding in the Digital Age”, In Kavaratzis, M., Warnaby, G. & Ashworth, A. (Eds.), Rethinking Place Branding: Comprehensive Brand Development for Cities and Regions, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 85-100. Keller, K.L., Parameswaran, M.G., & Jacob, I. (2011), Strategic brand management: Building, measuring, and managing brand equity, Pearson Education, India. Liu, YP., Xu, F., Qian, MH. & Li YY. (2009) (Eds), China City Marketing Development Report (2009-2010): A Road to Harmony and Prosperity, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press. Liu, YP., Xu, F., Qian, MH., Björner, E. & Zhao, Z. (2015) (Eds), China City Marketing Development Report (2014-2015): Stimulating the Sustainable Urbanization, Beijing: China Social Sciences Press.


16th – 19th April 2018 Liu, YP. (2017) (Eds), China City Brand Innovation Report (2017). Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press (SSAP). Lucarelli, A. (2012), “Unraveling the complexity of “city brand equity”: A threedimensional framework”, Journal of Place Management and Development, 5(3), 231252. Metaxas, T. (2010), “Place marketing, place branding and foreign direct investments: Defining their relationship in the frame of local economic development process”, Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 6(3), 228-243. Nguyen, B., Yu, X., Melewar, T. C., & Chen, J. (2015). Brand innovation and social media: Knowledge acquisition from social media, market orientation, and the moderating role of social media strategic capability. Industrial Marketing Management, 51, 11-25. Nguyen, B., Yu, X., Melewar, T. C., & Gupta, S. (2016). Critical brand innovation factors (CBIF): Understanding innovation and market performance in the Chinese high -tech service industry. Journal of Business Research, 69(7), 2471-2479. Pasquinelli, C., & Teräs, J. (2013). Branding knowledge-intensive regions: A comparative study of Pisa and Oulu high-tech brands. European Planning Studies, 21(10), 1611-1629. Sevin, E. (2013), “Places going viral: Twitter usage patterns in destination marketing and place branding”, Journal of Place Management and Development, 6(3), 227-239. Zavattaro, S. M., Daspit, J. J., & Adams, F. G. (2015), “Assessing managerial methods for evaluating place brand equity: A qualitative investigation”, Tourism Management, 47, 11-21. Zavattaro, S. M., Daspit, J. J., & Adams, F. G. (2015). Assessing manage rial methods for evaluating place brand equity: A qualitative investigation. Tourism Management, 47, 1121. Zenker, S. (2011), “How to catch a city? The concept and measurement of place brands”, Journal of Place Management and Development, 4(1), 40-52. Zenker, S., & Martin, N. (2011), “Measuring success in place marketing and branding”, Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 7(1), 32-41. Zenker, S., Beckmann, S.C. (2013), “My place is not your place-different place brand knowledge by different target groups”, Journal of Place Management and Development, 6 (1), 6-17. Zenker, S., Petersen, S., Anholt, A. (2013), “The citizen satisfaction index (CSI): evidence for a four basic factor model”, Cites, 31, 156-164.



Session 11 Utopian and Dystopian Narratives and Experiences


16th – 19th April 2018 User-Generated Place Brand Identity: An Articulation of Place Brand Identity from Social Media Platforms Viriya Taecharungroj Mahidol University International College, Thailand [email protected]

Abstract The objective of this research is to utilise user-generated content on social media platforms to articulate the place brand identities of two famous metropolitan areas in Bangkok, Thailand, namely, Khaosan Road and Yaowarat (Bangkok’s Chinatown), both of which are famous for their street vendors and nightlife. These two places are interesting study sites because of recent identity conflicts among their stakeholders. In April 2017, the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) announced that it will remove street vendors, including the ones in Khaosan Road and Yaowarat, from Bangkok in an attempt to return the pavements to the pedestrians (Rujivanarom, 2017). Nevertheless, the announcement in April 2017 caused uproars from the locals, the domestic and international press who revere the Bangkok’s distinctive street food scene (Coffey, 2017). Later, the officials reprieved the remark and stated instead that the street vendors will be strictly regulated (Coffey, 2017; Fredrickson, 2017). The public outcry following the announcements by the BMA is an example of the dissonance between the “conceived” place identity by the public and the “desired” place identity (Trueman, Klemm, & Giroud, 2004) by the officials. The successful management of the metropolitan place brands requires a continuous monitoring of the subtextual atmosphere of the place (Mahnken, 2011). This research developed methods to study place brand identity on social media platforms that could help prevent related problems in other places by consistently informing officials of place brand identity from various stakeholders’ perspectives.

Methodology The author employs the content analysis method (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008) to study user-generated images on Flickr and user-generated reviews on TripAdvisor and Google Maps. In total, 399 images of Khaosan and 382 images of Yaowarat were used for image analysis. MAXQDA Analytics Pro 12 (Release 12.3.2) was used to code all images.


16th – 19th April 2018 MAXQDA allows researchers to specify parts of the images according to codes. In total, 1005codes were generated for both places. User-generated textual reviews in English language of Khaosan Road and Yaowarat on TripAdvisor and Google Maps were studied using Leximancer Version 4.50.26. In total, the author analysed 4,761 textual user-generated reviews of Khaosan Road (“Khaosan Road”) and 2,823 reviews of Yaowarat (“Chinatown – Bangkok”) on TripAdvisor. On Google Maps, this research analysed 1,500 reviews of Khaosan Road (“Khaosan Road Night Marketing”) and 2,058 reviews of Yaowarat. All of the textual reviews in English language of the two places were retrieved using the script programmed in Python language. The author also introduced a positivity of concept analysis to identify positive and negative components of place brand identity.

Findings The author developed a place brand identity framework that includes three pillars, namely, place physics, place practices, and place personality (Figure 1).

Figure 1 The three pillars of place brand identity and interactions

Content analysis of the images generated 105 codes and a count of the frequency of the codes that represent place brand identity. Table 1 shows the frequency of codes from the image analysis. The text analysis by Leximancer generated lists of concepts and the concept maps of reviews of Khaosan Road and Yaowarat.


16th – 19th April 2018 Table 1 Frequency of codes Codes 1 Businesses (physics) 1.1 Stalls (food) 1.2 Restaurants 1.3 Stalls (fashion and beauty) 1.4 Stores (crops/medicines/herbs/dried foods) 1.5 Stores (fashion) 1.6 Stores (gold and jewellery) 1.7 Stalls (hardware) 1.8 Stalls (lottery) 1.9 Massage parlours 1.10 Commercial buildings (misc.) 1.11 Stalls (misc.) 2 Objects (physics) 2.1 Vehicles 2.2 Signage 2.3 Business objects 2.4 Festival objects 2.5 Food and beverages 2.6 Religious objects 2.7 Temples 2.8 Other objects 3 People (practices) 3.1 Businesspersons 3.2 Visitors 3.3 Locals 3.4 Festivalgoers 3.5 Worshippers 3.6 Crowd 4 Activities (practices) 4.1 Preparing/selling/serving food and beverages 4.2 Attending festivals 4.3 Walking down the street 4.4 Commuting 4.5 Dining/drinking 4.6 Promoting businesses/products 4.7 Shopping 4.8 Worshipping 4.9 Selling of other items 4.10 Labour 4.11 Providing transport services 4.12 Selling of electronics/hardware 4.13 Selling of fashion items 4.14 Selling of crops/medicines/herbs/dried foods 4.15 Providing repair/mechanic services 4.16 Selling of festival items 4.17 Selling of lottery tickets 4.18 Providing foot massages 4.19 Practices (misc.) 5. Personality dimension (personality) 5.1 Responsibility 5.2 Activity 5.3 Aggressiveness 5.4 Simplicity 5.5 Emotionality

n (Khaosan) 129 36 37 29 0 3 2 0 0 6 10 6 323 40 67 65 71 35 3 0 4 345 113 108 22 79 0 23 345 31 79 65 6 37 38 10 0 5 3 8 0 10 0 0 6 0 5 42 399 41 279 11 68 0

% of group 100 28 29 22 0 2 2 0 0 5 8 5 100 12 21 20 22 11 1 0 13 100 33 31 6 23 0 7 100 9 23 19 2 11 11 3 0 1 1 2 0 3 0 0 2 0 1 12 100 10 70 3 17 0

n (Yaowarat) 166 67 17 7 12 6 6 8 6 0 27 10 240 72 28 28 0 13 31 18 50 305 140 47 85 0 31 2 305 57 0 12 56 11 1 24 32 15 14 7 10 3 8 7 0 5 0 43 383 119 156 1 104 3

% of group 100 40 10 4 7 4 4 5 4 0 16 6 100 30 12 12 0 5 13 8 21 100 46 15 28 0 10 1 100 19 0 4 18 4 0 8 10 5 5 2 3 1 3 2 0 2 0 14 100 31 41 0 27 1


16th – 19th April 2018 Content analysis of textual reviews created the concepts in the three pillars (Table 2), explored the relationships among the concepts, and identified the positive and negative concepts for both places. The results of both image and text analyses showed that street food vending is one of the most salient components of place brand identity for both Khaosan Road and Yaowarat. Table 2 The three pillars of place brand identity for Khaosan Road and Yaowarat from text analyses

Part of speech Place physics

Nouns

Place practices

Verbs

Place personality

Adjectives

Khaosan Road

Yaowarat

place; street; food; bars; night; people; road; tourists; backpackers; street food; shops; music; restaurants; day; prices; stalls; markets; vendors; things; beer; world; life; clothes; taxis; hotels; locals; tuk (tuk); money; nightlife; atmosphere visit; drink; party; sell; walk; massage; try; experience; shopping; stay; buy; take; look; enjoy; travel; pay Thai; cheap; fun; full; nice; loud; busy; worthy; best; better; young; fried; fake; expensive; crowded; drunk

food; place; street; street food; shops; market; restaurants; stalls; night; people; price; day; things; road; soups; seafood; gold; vendors; taxis; locals; traffic; city; goods; stuff; station; river; fin; shark; shark fin visit; walk; buy; sell; shopping; experience; take; try; look

Chinese, Thai; busy; cheap; crowded; best; worthy; interesting; different; nice; full; amazing; old; hot; fresh; delicious

Unique concepts are italicised

Practical implications The finding of this research allows BMA to understand the place brand identity of Khaosan Road and Yaowarat from the perspectives of users on social media platforms. BMA can use this method to track changes after the policy implementation. Furthermore, BMA can benchmark places with others in order to compare strengths and weaknesses. From the findings, BMA can develop policies or activities that reinforce the strengths and mitigate problems. For example, the notable concepts from the text analysis of Khaosan Road are music, fun, and loud; BMA can utilise the “spinning liability into assets” strategy (Avraham & Ketter, 2017) by turning Khaosan Road into a music scene for visitors and locals alike. To counter the current connections between music and drinking parties, BMA can come up with new ways to promote Khaosan Road as a music hub that promotes diversity and creativity. In the case of Yaowarat, a certain set of notable concepts includes try, seafood, and restaurant; BMA can use the “hosting spotlight event” strategy (Avraham & Ketter, 2017) such as a seafood festival that can attract both visitors and locals while supporting the businesses in the area.


16th – 19th April 2018 Another notable finding from the image analysis is that although street walking and commuting are prominent place practices, vehicles are still a very salient identity of both places. The images often show the copresence of people and vehicles in the two areas. In order to improve the experience of visitors and locals in the two areas, BMA should also come up with the policies to reduce traffic and improve walkability of Khaosan Road and Yaowarat. Originality/value The study of place brand identity from user-generated contents on social media platforms is new and very limited. In this current research, the author developed a place brand identity framework that includes the three components; place physics, place practices, and place personality. Then, user-generated contents from social media platforms were used to make sense of the place brand identities of Khaosan Road and Yaowarat via image analysis (MAXQDA) and text analysis (Leximancer). This dual approach of content analysis presents a new way to articulate the erratic and fluid place brand identity. The use of both image and text analysis complemented one another while mitigating the weaknesses of each method. References Avraham, E., & Ketter, E. (2017). Destination marketing during and following crises: combating negative images in Asia. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 34(6), 709-718. Coffey, H. (2017, 19 April 2017). News that Bangkok’s thriving street food scene is under threat has spread far and wide – but there are some doubts about whether it’s actually happening. Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-andadvice/bangkok-bans-street-food-chinatown-yaowarat-khao-san-road-thailand-capitalcity-a7690526.html Elo, S., & Kyngäs, H. (2008). The qualitative content analysis process. Journal of advanced nursing, 62(1), 107-115. Fredrickson, T. (2017, 21 April 2017). Street food update: Partial reprieve, stricter rules. Retrieved from http://www.bangkokpost.com/learning/advanced/1235251/street-foodto-stay-in-parts-of-khao-san-yaowarat Kavaratzis, M., & Hatch, M. J. (2013). The dynamics of place brands: An identity-based approach to place branding theory. Marketing theory, 13(1), 69-86. Mahnken, G. (2011). Place identity beyond province and metropolis: Paths and perspectives in Germany's “capital region” Berlin-Brandenburg. Journal of Place Management and Development, 4(1), 67-79. Rujivanarom, P. (2017, 18 April 2017). BMA bans all street food across Bangkok this year. Retrieved from http://www.nationmultimedia.com/news/national/30312543 Trueman, M., Klemm, M., & Giroud, A. (2004). Can a city communicate? Bradford as a corporate brand. Corporate communications: an international journal, 9(4), 317-330.


16th – 19th April 2018 Marketing Heaven & Hell: Botanic Garden’ Cause-Related Narratives Nicholas Catahan Edge Hill University Business School, UK [email protected]

Abstract Botanic Gardens (BGs) are important places of heritage, leisure and tourism (Connell and Page, 2014), and for sustainable development (Emmett and Kanellos, 2010; Williams et al., 2015). Purpose and definition of BGs in contrast to other ‘gardens’ is that they exist for ‘scientific research, conservation, display and education’ (BGCI, 2018). However BGs have been under threat of decline for some decades now (Garrod, Pickering and Willis, 1993), due to a range of factors (e.g. support, advocacy, funding, perceptions, management, and marketing challenges) (Catahan and Woodruffe-Burton, 2017a, 2017b). As a novel approach to some of these challenges, this paper begins to conceptualise a strategic BG marketing model. Using lenses of Utopia and Dystopia (U/D) to develop revenue generating narratives, to be delivered via Cause Marketing (CM) efforts (Varadarajan and Menon, 1988; Adkins, 1999; Vizard, 2015), these being key components to the model. CM for the purposes of this paper will act as a means for greater visibility, funding and support. The conceptual model is expected to enable potential changes in values, attitudes, perceptions and behaviour of visitors and non-visitors; leading to a better understanding of purpose and the important work associated with BGs past, present and future. Perceptions of BGs’ existence are mainly linked to certain leisure and tourism aspects (e.g. accessibility, aesthetics, facilities, and services not related to key BG’ purpose) (Fox and Edwards, 2008; Kimberley, 2009; Connell and Page, 2014). Therefore there is a need to change perceptions, to inform people of the purpose of BGs, and to create much needed value and revenue. In this paper, lenses of U/D are used as an approach to discuss, explore and frame unique narratives for BGs. Outcomes are to highlight and cross reference important, maybe sometimes difficult narratives, maybe missed, forgotten narratives, narratives from experts through to everyday people, all with unique causes and potential to create awareness, education, and funding.


16th – 19th April 2018 This paper also seeks to further develop the discourse on placemaking processes and practices (Kavaratzis and Kalandides, 2015; Roberts, Parker and Steadman, 2017; Skinner, 2017; Kavaratzis, 2018), in the context of BGs Place Management and Development (PMD). Literature Review Even though there is a long history of the popularity and phenomenon of garden tourism (Fox and Edwards, 2008; Connell and Page, 2014), research into Botanic Garden (BG) tourism is limited and in need of more rigour (Garrod, Pickering and Willis, 1993; Benfield, 2013). Perceptions of BGs are not in line with the core importance or value of BGs, therefore a more strategic approach to marketing communication activities are needed (Kimberley, 2009; Catahan and Woodruffe-Burton, 2017a, 2017b). Areas to consider when developing such strategies include: Information, Communication Technologies (ICTs), physical and digital networks, social media, and big data including User Generated Content (UGC) (Sevin, 2013; Lu and Stepchenkova, 2015; Minazzi, 2015; Mariani et al., 2016); the creation of distinctive marketing messages (Morgan and Pritchard, 2010; McCabe, 2018); and the recognition of strategic marketing knowledge, skills and processes being at the forefront of developments (Middleton et al., 2009; McCamley and Gilmore, 2018). However the link between CM, PMD, and responsible tourism across the extant literature have not been highlighted as a potential key element to management and marketing strategies. Therefore this paper proposes the link and the adoption of CM to communicate purpose of BGs to generate mindfulness and funds. Cause Marketing used alongside Utopia and Dystopia related narratives of Botanic Garden heritage are expected to generate much needed, reach, revenue and awareness, to existing and broader audiences. Themes and Narratives of Utopia and Dystopia A diversity of themes from various sources, and from the extraordinary to the mundane, from past, present to future are explored and presented. Examples of unique Botanic Garden (BG) stories link to: a perpetual spring, the re-creation of earthly paradise and the birth of the BG (Prest, 1981). To stories of medicine, the pharmacological revolution, and those dangerous plant products such as alcohol, tobacco, and opiates (Cappelletti, 1994; Smith, 2017). Growing the new world, stories of agriculture, sugar, tea, coffee, all-pervasive empire-building, Western colonial expansion (Emmett and Kanellos, 2010) and the multiplicities of plant hunters (Musgrave, Gardner and Musgrave, 1980), rifling the treasure of old paradise, witnessing both


16th – 19th April 2018 collapse and revival of indigenous cultures (Prest, 1981). Narratives of socio-cultural and environmental concerns (Moskwa and Crilley, 2012; Vergou and Willison, 2016), and the survival and threat of closure of BGs (Garrod, Pickering and Willis, 1993; Brown and Williams, 2009). Global garden tourism (Benfield, 2016), online reviews and social media communications (Sevin, 2013; Lu and Stepchenkova, 2015; Catahan and Woodruffe-Burton, 2017a, 2017b), the good and bad, heaven and hell, the list is not exhaustive (Johnson and Medbury, 2007); a complex list which some entries can be interchangeable with regard to visions of Utopia and Dystopia. Discussion and recommendations In this paper, conceptualisation of a model for strategic Botanic Garden (BG) marketing is introduced, however, needs further investigation, development and practice. This paper also begins to introduce notions and visions of Utopia and Dystopia (U/D), to explore related characteristics and themes of BG heritage alongside Cause Marketing (C/M). As part of the range of models and approaches for managing and developing BGs, this particular model is directed toward generating cause-related narratives, mindfulness, and much needed revenue streams. BGs could use such ideas to inform and incorporate these into their placemaking efforts; providing opportunities for intradisciplinary and collaborative approaches to Place Management and Development. Therefore BG management may use the U/D thematic approach explored in this paper to determine their unique causes, and associated revenuegenerating narratives. The role of CM, and the identification of U/D related themes, are to create awareness, assist in changing values, attitudes, perceptions and behaviour, and communicating, educating and developing more mindfulness (Moscardo, 1996); ultimately supporting purpose, causes and the sustainable development of such important and valuable, places and spaces (Roberts, Parker and Steadman, 2017). In the case of Botanic Gardens, without mindfulness of purpose (e.g. scientific research, conservation, display and education) and without a Cause Marketing approach to communicating unique narratives (visions of Utopia and Dystopia or otherwise), could it be, that important knowledge, funding and responsible tourism opportunities may be overlooked?


16th – 19th April 2018 Reference list Adkins, S. (1999), Cause-related marketing: who cares wins, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Benfield, R. (2013), Garden Tourism, CABI, Wallingford. BGCI, Botanic Garden Conservation International (2018), “Definition of a Botanic Garden” Resource Centre, Available at: http://www.bgci.org/resources/1528/ (accessed 12 March 2018) Brown, N. and Williams, S. (2009), “Treborth Botanic Garden – saving a university botanic garden and making it count in education”, BGCI, available at: https://www.bgci.org/resources/article/0629/ (accessed 12 March 2018). McCamley, C. and Gilmore, A. (2018), “Strategic marketing planning for heritage tourism: a conceptual model and empirical findings from two emerging heritage regions”, Journal of Strategic Marketing, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 156-173. Cappelletti, E.M. (1994), “The Botanic Garden of The University of Padua 1545-1995”, Botanic Gardens Conservation International News, Vol. 2 No. 4, pp. 23-26. Catahan, N. and Woodruffe-Burton, H. (2017a), The botanic garden tourism gaze: perceptions & (re)presentations, 4th Corfu Symposium on Managing & Marketing Places, 24th – 27th April 2017, Institute of Place Management, Mon Repos Palace Art Hotel, Corfu, Greece, pp. 144-149. Catahan, N. and Woodruffe-Burton, H. (2017b), Strategically Managing Sustainable and Innovative Business Development in Uncertain Times: An Exploratory Study of Botanic Gardens, The 50th Academy of Marketing Conference, Freedom Through Marketing: Looking Back, Going Forward, 3rd July 2017 - 6th July 2017, Hull University Business School. Connell, J. and Page, S.J. (2014), “Chapter 8 Visitor Attractions”, in Page, S.J. (Ed.)(2014), Tourism Management, 5th ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 271-301. Emmett, P. and Kanellos, T. (2010), Santos MEB: Museum of Economic Botany. Board of the Botanic Gardens & State Herbarium, Adelaide SA. Fox, D. and Edwards, J. (2008), “Chapter 13 Managing Gardens” in Fyall, A., Garrod, B., Leask A. and Wanhill, S. (Eds.)(2008), Managing visitor attractions, 2nd Ed., Butterworth and Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 213-267. Garrod, B., Pickering, A. and Willis, K. (1993), “The economic value of botanic gardens: A recreational perspective”, Geoforum, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 215–224. Johnson, B. and Medbury, S. (2007), Botanic Gardens: A living history. Black Dog Publishing, London. Kavaratzis, M. and Kalandides, A. (2015), “Rethinking the place brand: The interactional formation of place brands and the role of participatory place branding”, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 47, pp. 1368-1382. Kavaratzis, M. (2018), “Conference report, 2nd consumer research summit – place and identity: advancing theory and practice”, Journal of Place Management and Development, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp.145-146.


16th – 19th April 2018 Kimberley, M. (2009), “What is the future of botanic gardens?” Horticulture Week, 6 March, available at: http://www.hortweek.com/future-botanicgardens/ornamentals/article/887002 (accessed 12 March 2018) Lu, W. and Stepchenkova, S. (2015), “User Generated Content as a Research Mode in Tourism and Hospitality Applications Topics Methods and Software”, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 119-154. Mariani, M., Buhalis, D., Wojciech, C. and Vitouladiti, O. (Eds.)(2016), Tourism management, marketing and development, Palgrave Macmillan, New York. McCabe, S. (2018), Marketing Communications in Tourism and Hospitality, Concepts, Strategies and Cases, 2nd Ed., Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Middleton, V.T.C., Fyall, A., Morgan, M. and Ranchhod, A. (2009), Marketing Travel and Tourism, 4th ed., Butterworth and Heinemann, Oxford. Minazzi, R. (2015), Social Media Marketing in Tourism and Hospitality, Springer, Italy. Morgan, N. and Pritchard, A. (2010), Advertising in Leisure and Tourism, Butterworth and Heinemann, Oxford. Moscardo, G. (1996), “Mindful visitors: Heritage and tourism”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 376-397. Moskwa, E.C. and Crilley, G. (2012), “Recreation, education, conservation: The multiple roles of botanic gardens in Australia”, Annals of Leisure Research, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 404-421. Roberts, G.; Parker, C. and Steadman, C. (2017) “4th International Institute of Place Management Biennial Conference, “Inclusive placemaking””, Journal of Place Management and Development, Vol. 10 No. 5, pp.521-524. Sevin, E. (2013), “Places going viral: Twitter usage patterns in destination marketing and place branding”, Journal of Place Management and Development, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 227-239 Skinner, H. (2017) "Guest editorial", Journal of Place Management and Development, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp.102-105 Smith Jr., J.P. (2017) "A Chronicle of Economic Botany", Botanical Studies. Vol. 9. http://digitalcommons.humboldt.edu/botany_jps/9 Varadarajan, P. R. and Menon, A., (1988), “Cause-Related Marketing: A Coalignment of Marketing Strategy and Corporate Philanthropy”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 52 No. 3, pp. 58-74. Vergou, A. and Willison, J. (2016), “Relating social inclusion and environmental issues in botanic gardens”, Environmental Education Research, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 21-42. Vizard, S. (2015), “The National Trust puts the focus on cause marketing with digital revamp”, Marketing Week, 11 December, available at: https://www.marketingweek.com/2015/12/11/the-national-trust-puts-the-focus-oncause-marketing-with-digital-revamp/ (accessed 12 March 2018). Williams, S., Jones, J.P.G., Clubbe, C. and Gibbons, J. (2015), “Botanic gardens can positively influence visitors’ environmental attitudes”, Biodiversity and Conservation, Vol. 24 No. 7, pp. 1609-1620.



(Un)making places: Dystopic/utopic places, time, and atmospheric ruptures Chloe Steadman Institute of Place Management, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK [email protected]

Gareth Roberts Institute of Place Management, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

Abstract This paper explores the entanglements between place, time, and atmosphere within the context of football matches. Since “...atmospheres are perpetually forming and deforming, appearing and disappearing...” (Anderson, 2009: 79), they are difficult to grasp. There is, however, a growing literature exploring people’s lived experiences of atmospheres (e.g. Bille, 2015; Edensor and Bille, 2017), and how marketers/place managers can engineer ‘effective’ atmospheres (e.g. Kotler, 1974; Turley and Chebat, 2002). Yet, less is known about how atmospheres might become disrupted over time and space. We address this lacuna by unpacking a series of what we term ‘atmospheric ruptures’ before, during, and after Manchester City (MCFC) football matches. Lefebvre’s (2004) work concerning rhythmanalysis, and Seamon’s (1980) insights into place ballets, are drawn upon to interpret our findings. We conclude by discussing the implications of our study for understanding how more ‘utopic’ atmospheres can be (co)created in places beyond football stadia.

Utopic and dystopic atmospheres Atmosphere denotes the shifting, affective, and sensuous nature of space (Anderson, 2009; Böhme, 1993). As Edensor (2014: 2) observes, “A space may attune our moods but is simultaneously ‘the extendedness’ of our moods”. Various elements intermingling in a place co-construct its perceived atmospheric qualities, including interacting embodied persons, and the sights, sounds, and smells engulfing them (Anderson and Ash, 2015; Kotler, 1974).



Examples are found in the existing literature of positive- or utopic- atmospheres, such as residents living in Islands Brygge (Copenhagen) using warm candlelight to create cosy atmospheres (Bille, 2015), and the assortment of different lighting creating a ‘lumitopia’ in Tivoli Gardens (Edensor and Bille, 2017). Conversely, negative- or dystopic- atmospheres are observed in stressful cities involving stimuli overload (Brighenti and Pavoni, 2017), and uneasy atmospheres created by the sight of sick patients in a hospital waiting room (Anderson and Ash, 2015). However, multiple micro-atmospheres can flow across the same place, which transform over time (ibid; Edensor, 2014); for example, the move from the carnivalesque dancefloor, to the relaxing atmosphere of a nightclub’s ‘chillout’ area (Goulding, Shankar, and Elliott, 2002). We provide a more nuanced understanding of this shifting and sprawling nature of atmosphere.

Context and research design This study was initially commissioned by Manchester City Football Group to ascertain MCFC fans’ perceptions of Etihad Stadium atmosphere, why fans are failing to deliver an atmosphere befitting of the club’s standing in the game, and how this can be addressed. Despite MCFC enjoying recent success that would have ten years ago been unthinkable, the club believe they have a problem with the atmosphere at their home ground, the Etihad Stadium. The club moved here in 2003, having been based at Maine Road since 1923 (Edensor, 2014). Whilst the years spent at their former home were largely unsuccessful on the field, the atmosphere was never deemed problematic. As is common at other football clubs, particularly those having moved to new stadiums, this has since changed. There are macro issues in modern football, such as the increasing disconnect between fans and clubs, the rising costs of attendance, and the perceived sanitisation of what has traditionally been termed ‘the people’s game’. However, the club considered that there might be problems specific to the Etihad Stadium environment that are having a detrimental effect on match-day atmosphere, which in turn may negatively impact performances on the pitch. Subsequently, netnography was adopted (Kozinets, 2010) to observe fans’ online discussions relating to Etihad Stadium atmosphere on three forums (BlueMoon, ManCityFans.Net, and ManCityForum); Twitter; Facebook; and online news article discussions (Appendix 1).


16th – 19th April 2018 Moreover, three semi-structured focus groups were conducted at the Etihad Stadium. These included male Manchester City fans, female fans, and a mixed gender group of fans that had never visited Maine Road. Focus groups were conversational, and fans were also taken outside into the stadium to provoke their feelings about atmosphere whilst in that space. Data was analysed using a thematic approach (Braun and Clarke, 2006).

Key findings: Atmospheric ruptures Much behaviour in spaces is routinised (Seamon, 1980). As Lefebvre (2004: 15) observes, “Everywhere where there is interaction between a place, a time, and an expenditure of energy, there is rhythm”. Such habitual routines- for example cheering with the same fans each weekcan engender a positive atmosphere of homeliness (Edensor, 2014). Yet, rhythms in places can become disrupted and ‘arrhythmic’ (Lefebvre, 2004), subsequently impacting atmosphere. Akin to unanticipated snowstorms bringing a community together (Bennett, 2015), atmospheric ruptures at the Etihad Stadium were sometimes perceived positively by fans, such as unexpectedly dimming the lights pre-match.

However, we identified a series of ruptures that a Manchester City fan might encounter before, during, and following a match, which negatively impact atmosphere (Appendix 2). Regarding pre-match atmospheric ruptures, many fans discussed the difficulties of obtaining tickets, overcrowded public transport, and turnstile/queuing issues, which leads to empty seats and a quiet stadium atmosphere: You can't make any effort towards building a pre-match atmosphere... if all the seats around you are half-empty because people are outside queuing [Chris; FG1].

Meanwhile during matches, fans expressed frustrations over people leaving seats early to avoid bar queues/traffic, overzealous stewarding, restricted stadium mobility, and being separated from friends/family, which diluted the atmosphere within the Etihad: It’s hard because you are restricted to where you sit in the stadium, and what atmosphere that brings... You can't stand singing on your own... [Leo; FG3]. Consequently, there are multiple elements co-constructing a place’s atmosphere, from people to spatial design.


16th – 19th April 2018 We map the identified atmospheric ruptures in light of their influence on atmosphere, and the control the football club has over them. We thereby suggest several ways in which atmospheric ruptures can be repaired (e.g. creating an external perimeter); and hence how a ‘place ballet’ (Seamon, 1980) can be (re)created at the Etihad Stadium.

Conclusions This paper explored the relations between place, time, and atmosphere through the lens of MCFC football matches. By focusing upon the shifting and sprawling nature of atmosphere, we respond to calls to consider the intertwined nature of time and space (May and Thrift, 2001). We more specifically build upon the burgeoning literature regarding atmosphere in the social sciences (e.g. Anderson, 2009; Bennett, 2015; Edensor, 2014). Namely, by introducing the notion of ‘atmospheric rupture’, more nuanced empirical insights into how atmosphere is temporalised and can become disrupted over time and space are provided. Furthermore, our study offers important practical insights into how a series of potential atmospheric ruptures can be identified over time, and subsequently minimised/addressed, within a range of places beyond football stadia. Examples could include litter in a town square, aggressive nightclub door staff, and over-crowded museums, which might worsen the atmosphere in these places.

References Anderson, B. (2009). “Affective atmospheres”. Emotion, Space, and Society. 2: 77-81. Anderson, B and Ash, J. (2015). Atmospheric Methods. In P. Vannini. Nonrepresentational Methodologies: Reenvisioning Research. London: Routledge. Bennett, J. (2015). “'Snowed in!': Offbeat Rhythms and Belonging as Everyday Practice”. Sociology. 49(5). Bille, M. (2015). “Lighting up cosy atmospheres in Denmark”. Emotion, Space, and Society. 15. Böhme, G. (1993). “Atmosphere as the funamental concept of a new aesthetics”. Thesis Eleven. 36(1): 113-126. Braun, V and Clarke, V. (2006). "Using thematic analysis in psychology". Qualitative Research in Psychology. 3(2): 77-101. Brighenti, A and Pavoni, A. (2017). “City of unpleasant feelings: Stress, comfort, and animosity in urban life”. Social and Cultural Geography. Edensor, T. (2014). “Producing atmospheres at the match: Fan cultures, commercialisation and mood management in English football”. Emotion, Space and Society: 1-8.


16th – 19th April 2018 Edensor, T and Bille, M. (2017). “'Always like never before': Learning from the lumitopia of Tivoli Gardens”. Social and Cultural Geography. Goulding, C, Shankar, A, and Elliott, R. (2002). "Working weeks, rave weekends: Identity fragmentation and the emergence of new communities". Consumption Markets & Culture. 5(4): 261-284. Kotler, P. (1974). “Atmospherics as a Marketing Tool”. Journal of Retailing. 49(4). Kozinets. R. (2010). Netnography: Doing Ethnographic Research Online. London: Sage Publications. Lefebvre, H. (2004). Rhythmanalysis: Space, time, and everyday life. London: Continuum. May, J and Thrift, N. (2001). Introduction. In J. May and N. Thrift. Timespace: Geographies of temporality. London: Routledge. Seamon, D. (1980). Body-Subject, Time-Space Routines, and Place Ballets. In A. Buttimer and D. Seamon. The Human Experience of Space and Place. London: Routledge. Turley, L and Chebat, J. (2002). “Linking Retail Strategy, Atmospheric Design, and Shopping Behaviour”. Journal of Marketing Management. 18(1/2).

Appendix 1: Netnographic data collection DIGITAL

DATA COLLECTION PROCESS

PLATFORM ONLINE FORUMS BlueMoon

ManCityFans.Net

ManCityForum

TWITTER

FACEBOOK

ONLINE NEWS ARTICLES

-Manual keyword searches on forum for ‘atmosphere’ and ‘Etihad atmosphere’. -Relevant threads identified, copied into word documents, and read in full (threads span November 2015 - April 2017). -Manually filtered through 12 months’ worth of threads spanning March 2016 - March 2017. -11 threads relating to atmosphere identified, copied into word documents, and read in full. -Manual keyword search on forum for ‘atmosphere’. -Identified all relevant postings on the forum, copied them into word documents, and read in full. -Manual keyword searches on Twitter for ‘Etihad’ during the MCFC vs. Monaco and MCFC vs. Huddersfield matches. -Read through all tweets relating to the Etihad spanning kick-off to a couple of hours’ after each match. -All tweets relating to the Etihad atmosphere collected. -Read through match day postings on Official Man City and 1894 Group Facebook pages during April 2017. -All postings relating to Etihad atmosphere identified and copied into word documents. -Google search for ‘The Etihad atmosphere’. -10 relevant online news articles on the Daily Mail Online and Guardian Online identified, spanning 2014 - 2017. -Manually read through audience discussions under each article (3000+ reader comments), identified any comments relating to Etihad atmosphere, and copied them into word documents.



Appendix 2: Table of key findings

KEY FINDINGS

Disillusionment with modern game

ILLUSTRATIVE DATA “...I think that City has become more of a brand... rather than a football club. The gap between the fans and the playing staff and the club as a whole is getting so much bigger that you just feel the atmosphere is diluting as well because of that; because the connection is not there” [Phil; FG1] “...Modern football. Fans are mere cashpoints for these clubs and the league they operate in..., which makes these Barclays 'You are the game' adverts so nauseating” [Rich; netnography] “I remember a night match... and they completely turned all the lights off of the stadium and just had on the screens a blue moon. And the atmosphere that night was amazing” [Elizabeth; FG2].

Positive atmospheric ruptures Home from an incredible game at the Etihad. The City PA system summed it up when they played "Oh What a Night" at the final whistle! [Lou; Twitter]

Pre-match “...When I was a kid anyone could jump on a bus/train and go to a game no matter who you supported you could queue up, pay your money at the turnstile and you were in. Now it is all members only, you have to have a card, buy a ticket and so on. Too many obstacles” [Sam; netnography] The whole match day experience is too much hassle... I enjoy watching fantastic football, but slogging across the other side of Manchester and back stood in traffic or waiting for trams is a frustrating experience...” [Jake; netnography] Negative atmospheric ruptures

During match “It’s hard because you are restricted to where you sit in the stadium, and what atmosphere that brings in your seat. You can't stand singing on your own when everyone around you doesn’t” [Leo; FG3] “It’s got to be the acoustics. Because you sit up there in the third tier and you can see them all going mad but you can’t hear them. You can see they’re obviously singing. But you just can’t hear them” [Jane; FG2]


16th – 19th April 2018 Post-match “I think most people leave early to avoid the traffic. If they could improve the people and traffic flow leaving the ground, I'm sure more would stay to the end” [Justin; netnography] “We don’t get any special treatment. I’ve had a season ticket for 30 years continuously. I don’t get any discount. I’d pay whatever I had to pay because I want to come and watch City. I did go through a bit of a stage this season where I wasn’t going to be renewing my ticket for next year...” [Elizabeth; FG2]

Repairing atmospheric ruptures

John: And when it comes to the club doing things... Paul: It can't be manufactured. John: It can't be manufactured. It has to be in the club just doing things to make atmosphere easy. I remember one year when we were at Maine Road- I think it was the season before we left Maine Road- they trialed songs through the stereo in the Kippax and they’re like come on, City, and started going, and everyone was like “what is that”? It was coming from the roof. Like, what are you doing? Making it worse” [Conversation from FG1].

Embodied Heritage Experiences of a Dystopic Event: ‘Living the History’ of the Titanic in Cobh Maria Lichrou Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, Ireland maria.lichrou.ul.ie Aggelos Panayiotopoulos School of Sports and Service Management, University of Brighton, UK Lisa O’Malley Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, Ireland Maurice Patterson Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, Ireland Abstract Fundamentally heritage indicates an interest in the past (Lowenthal, 1994; Nuryanti, 1996) and refers to “things of value that are inherited” and to “things we want to keep” (Hall and McArthur 1998, p. 4). Given its evolving nature and malleable character, heritage defies definition (Brett, 1996); besides physical relics, the term encompasses all accumulated cultural and artistic productivity, the natural environment as well as non-physical elements including individual and collective memories. Heritage attractions offer opportunities for meaningful experiences because visitors and communities often use them in their construction of individual and social identities (e.g. Newman and McLean, 2006; Gouthro and Palmer, 2010). Yet, there are concerns that the practice of turning aspects of the past into heritage attractions often trivializes and overly commercializes the past (Neil, 2011), glossing over identity conflicts and other challenges.

Albeit problematic, for heritage management authenticity is a valued concept because it is used to verify the originality of sites, artefacts and exhibits. Museum curators rely on authenticity as a measure of museum distinctiveness and a criterion for resource allocation (Chhabra, 2008) and marketers employ authenticity as a tool to promote tourism attractions (Prentice, 2001).



We use the case of the Titanic Experience in Cobh (pronounced Cove) to consider how heritage is invoked for consumption, and how it is particularly tied to the making of tourist places. Our consideration of the Titanic Experience Cobh is based on our own experience of visiting, as well as by consideration of published material and online visitor reviews. We then revert to the extant literature to explore the multiplicity of claims to authenticity, from authenticity of the object, to opportunities for authentic tourist experiences. Finally, we offer concluding comments regarding the implications for heritage management. The Titanic: Calamity, Myth and Heritage Attraction(s) The story of the Titanic, laden with mythical overtones perpetuated by the media ever since the fateful night of April 14th 1912, is a point of global fascination (Brown et al. 2013). Significantly, to mark one hundred years since the sinking of the ship, in 2012 several Titanic Experiences were launched in commemoration. For example, Belfast, the birthplace of the Titanic, erected “a striking, six-story, steel-clad, star-shaped, staggeringly expensive commemorative centre” (Brown et al., 2013, p. 599) beside the original slipway, graving dock and drawing office. Not only has this contributed to the gentrification of the dockland area, it has had a massive impact on tourism in the area. While Belfast pins its authentic link to the Titanic on the basis of its construction, other places claim their links based on other historical facts as well as on the reconstruction of collective and personal memories and stories. Smaller in size than the attraction in Belfast, Titanic Experience in Cobh is located at the building of the White Star Line Ticket Office, overlooking the original pier, which, on Thursday April 11th 1912, was the last port of call of the Titanic during its maiden trip to New York. Cobh’s historical associations extend beyond the Titanic; the town has a strong link to Ireland’s colonial past and immigration history (Neville, 2015). In terms of heritage, it seems that what ‘we want to keep’ (Hall and McArthur, 1998) is not just the memory of a sinking ship, but somehow we wish to know what the experience of being on the Titanic might have been. Because Cobh was the last port visited by the Titanic it has certain unassailable claims to authenticity. Some of the passengers who boarded at Cobh perished in the disaster while others were lucky enough to survive. Thus, the Titanic Experience at Cobh is very much part of the phenomenon of ‘dark tourism’ (Lennon and Foley 2000; Podoshen et al., 2015), a fairly recent manifestation of the heritage industry involving the commodification of occasions and locations associated with death and destruction (Seaton, 1996; Stone and Sharpley, 2008).



Multisensory, Embodied and Relational Heritage Experience In Titanic Cobh, authenticity is established by nature of the attraction’s location, and in particular through association with the original ticket office as well as the pier. However, the artefacts exhibited are in the most part replicas and copies rather than original objects. This might be considered problematic if we only consider the authenticity of the objects, but less so if we shift focus from the originality of the toured object to the potential for existential authenticity (Wang, 1999). This is particularly true of the Titanic Experience at Cobh where the attraction centres on the experience of the story of the Titanic as narrated with the aid of audio-visual technology: cinematic shows, scene sets, holographic imagery and touch screen technology1. This is evident in the attraction’s motto, which invites visitors to Live the history - Feel the story.

As with many contemporary tourism attractions, the Titanic experience is a space for multisensory interactivity: visitors are offered the opportunity not only to interact with the space, and the objects, but also, to interact with other visitors and staff. Moving away from the concept of object authenticity, the focus is truly placed on the experience. Although the space and objects have their own claims to authenticity, the real opportunity for the visitor is to immerse him or herself in the experience in different ways at the different stages of the attraction. Having visited Titanic Experience in the summer of 2017 we understand how ‘feeling the story’ and ‘living the history’ can result in a truly embodied experience. We offer a reflection on the following aspects of the experience: the very personal nature of the quest; stimulating the imagination and (re)locating the visitor to the past; engagement with personal and collective memories as they are evoked and (re)constructed throughout the tour; and, how the experience simultaneously fascinates and repulses the visitor creating ambivalent emotions.

1

http://www.titanicexperiencecobh.ie/



Concluding Comments Appreciation of the combined role of embodiment processes (Chronis, 2006), sensations (Joy and Sherry, 2003) and interactions (Vom Lehn, 2006) opens up opportunities for heritage managers in the facilitation of meaningful heritage experiences. Furthermore, it opens up possibilities for retaining the integrity of the experience through personal connection even when object authenticity or large-scale spectacle is not feasible. In the case of the Titanic Experience in Cobh, this was achieved in a relatively small-scale attraction, with very few original artefacts.

References Brett, D. (1996), The Construction of Heritage, Cork, Cork University Press. Brown, S., McDonagh, P., and Shultz, C. J. (2013). Titanic: Consuming the myths and meanings of an ambiguous brand. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(4), 595-614. Chhabra, D. (2008). Positioning museums on an authenticity continuum. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(2), 427-447. Chronis, A. (2006). Heritage of the senses: Collective remembering as an embodied praxis. Tourist Studies, 6(3), 267-296. Gouthro, M.B and Palmer, C. (2010). Pilgrimage in Heritage Tourism: Finding Meaning and Identity in the Industrial Past. In Conlin, M.V. and Jolliffe, L. (eds) Mining Heritage and Tourism: A Global Synthesis. London: Routledge, pp. 33-43. Hall, C. M. and McArthur, S. (1998). Integrated Heritage Management: Principles and Practice. London: Stationery Office. Joy, A., and Sherry Jr, J. F. (2003). Speaking of art as embodied imagination: A multisensory approach to understanding aesthetic experience. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(2), 259282. Lennon, J. J. and Foley, M. (2000). Dark tourism. London: Cengage Learning EMEA. Lowenthal, D. (1994). Identity, heritage, and history. Commemorations: The politics of national identity, 41-57. Neill, W. J. (2011). The Debasing of Myth: The Privatization of Titanic Memory in Designing the ‘Post-Conflict’ City. Journal of Urban Design, 16(1), 67-86. Neville, P. (2015). Nostalgia and Titanic commemorations in Cobh, Ireland. Irish Studies Review, 23(3), 292-309.



Newman, A., and McLean, F. (2006). The impact of museums upon identity. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 12(1), 49-68. Nuryanti, W. (1996). Heritage and postmodern tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 23(2), 249-260. Prentice, R. (2001). Experiential cultural tourism: Museums and the marketing of the new romanticism of evoked authenticity. Museum Management and Curatorship, 19(1), 5-26. Podoshen, J. S., Venkatesh, V., Wallin, J., Andrzejewski, S. A., and Jin, Z. (2015). Dystopian dark tourism: An exploratory examination. Tourism Management, 51, 316-328. Seaton, A. V. (1996). Guided by the dark: From thanatopsis to thanatourism. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 2(4), 234-244. Stone, P., and Sharpley, R. (2008). Consuming dark tourism: A thanatological perspective. Annals of tourism Research, 35(2), 574-595. Vom Lehn, D. (2006). Embodying experience: A video-based examination of visitors' conduct and interaction in museums. European Journal of Marketing, 40(11/12), 1340-1359. Wang, N. (1999). Rethinking authenticity in tourism experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2), 349-370.



Session 12 Interactive Special Session Introducing the Institute of Place Management, Journal of Place Management & Development Writing for Publication



About the Institute of Place Management The Institute of Place Management has provided formal accreditation for the 3rd Corfu Symposium on Managing and Marketing Places to encourage and support individuals undertaking continuous professional development. The Institute of Place Management is the professional membership organisation that supports and represents organisations and practitioners in the place management and development sector. In this role the Institute supports and encourages the continuous professional development of those individuals engaged in place management, to maintain, improve and broaden their knowledge and skills to maintain a sufficiently high standard of professional competence. If you would like more information about the IPM and its services, please visit www.placemanagement.org.

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