Journal of Medicinal Plants Research Vol. 2(11), pp. 331-340, November, 2008 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR ISSN 1996-0875© 2008 Academic Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Medicinal plant commercialization in Benin: An analysis of profit distribution equity across supply chain actors and its effect on the sustainable use of harvested species F. G. Vodouhê1*, O. Coulibaly2, A. E. Assogbadjo1 and B. Sinsin1 1
Laboratoire d’Ecologie Appliquée, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi; 01 B. P. 526 Cotonou, Benin. 2 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, 08 B. P. 0932 Tri Postal, Cotonou, Benin. Accepted 25 October 2008
This paper assesses the effects of the marketing of seven commonly-used medicinal plants on their sustainable use. Data were collected from a sample of 100 marketing agents by direct interviews and ANOVA (analysis of variance) was used to test profit margin distribution across actors involved in the marketing of medicinal plants. Results show that collectors have the lowest margins while retailers have the highest. Wholesalers have average margins from 1.37 to 20.69 times higher than collectors’ per gram of species parts sold on urban markets. Collectors are farmers who harvest plant parts and sell them to compensate for decreasing agricultural income. Low margins and propensity to increase income lead to more harvesting, pressure and consequent damage to harvested species. Diversification of income sources and access to alternative cash resources would reduce pressure on harvested species. Complementary studies are needed on medicinal plants’ supply-chain to minimize pressure on resources for enhanced biodiversity. Key words: Medicinal plants, market integration, sustainability, Benin. INTRODUCTION A high proportion (70 to 80%) of the world population uses medicinal plants or consults traditional practitioners for their primary healthcare (Cunningham, 1993; Olsen, 2005; Pei, 2001). The increasing use of these medicinal species has significant socio-economic importance in household and community economics in Africa (Hamilton, 2004). It allows millions of people to generate incomes through medicinal plant organ collection and marketing (Cunningham, 1996; Hamilton, 2004). It procures substantial incomes for households and communities while preserving the natural resources (Nepstad and Schwartzman, 1992; Panayotou and Ashton, 1992; Plotkin and Famolare, 1992; Balick and Mendelsohn, 1992; Arnold and Perez, 2001). Thus Non-Timber Forest
*Corresponding author. E-mail:
[email protected] or
[email protected]. Phone: (+229) 95 06 75 64.
Products (NTFPs) encourage the conservation of biodiversity and contribute to rural development on a sustainable basis (Falconer, 1996, De Jong et al., 2000). But for numerous authors, the marketing of natural resources such as NTFPs would negatively affect the conservation of biodiversity (Painter and Durham, 1995) and would increase the poverty of the target populations (Marshall et al., 2003). After two decades of debate, scholars still disagree on the effects of market development of natural resources on their conservation status (Godoy et al., 1995). Earlier, studies have focused on documenting deforestation rather than providing information on supply-chains, which can shed light on how markets may hurt or help conservation (Godoy et al., 1995). A study conducted on Nepalese NTFPs by Maraseni et al. (2006) and related to profit distribution across a supply chain had permitted to know that there is inequity in benefit or value added distri-
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0 0 0 0 0 6
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Figure 1. Study locations in Southern Benin
tion and this situation was exacerbated by a low level of understanding of marketing among collectors. But the study doesn’t permit to know strategies used by collectors to improve their margin and their effect on harvested species. In the case of Benin, although medicinal plants are marketed for a long time, no study has assessed the impact of medicinal plant organ sales on their sustainable uses. The objectives of this paper are i.) to compare the profit margins and their allocation to marketing actors like collectors, wholesalers and traders. ii.) to analyse strategies used by each actor to make mar-
keting profitable and the assessment of impact of these strategies on sustainable use of harvested species. Study area The survey covers the Southern and Central regions of Benin, across three provinces, three main rural markets (Bohicon, Covè and Sèhouè) and two major urban markets (Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou, the capital city) (Figure 1). These regions have the highest density of population in the country with little access to natural resources and almost little medicinal plant available. Markets in these regions are the sole source of supply in me-
Vodouhê et al.
dicinal plants commercialization. Climate in southern Benin is sub-equatorial with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons. The mean annual rainfall is 1200 mm with annual temperatures ranging from 26 to 31°C. Vegetation is extensively degraded with a predo-minance of fallow and farm (Ganglo, 1999). The region still maintains a number of forest relics, of which the most important are Lama (16 250 ha) and Niaouli (11 000 ha) forests. Communities from these forest areas harvest useful species for food, primary healthcare and incomes. This zone is covered also by the forest of Lokoli which has recently attracted interest as a habitat for wild-life species like Cercopithecus erythrogaster subsp. Erythro gaster (Red-bellied Monkey). The forest is also a source of many medicinal species used by local commu-nities for their primary healthcare and incomes. Popula-tion in the study area is estimated at 1.677.729 for 2 provinces (Atlantique and Littoral) and 599 954 for Zou province (INSAE, 2004a, b and c). Subsistence farming and petty trade are the main activities in the area (Figure 1).
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interviews (with formal questionnaires). The non-structured interviews (called key informant interviews) were used for all actors along the supply-chain of the plants to the markets. The structured interviews were especially used to collect data from respondents. Data were collected on plant parts commonly used and related prices, factors that affect prices, and price trends from collectors to retailers. Data were also taken from collectors on the type of vegetation in which they collect the plants concerned. For drawing relationships between plant parts’ quantity commercialized and prices, sample “bunches” (bunch is a bundle of roots or bark of medicinal plants for sale) of medicinal plant parts have been collected from each actor interviewed. These bunches were weighed in the laboratory. In effect, it’s in “bunches’’ making that supplychain actors realize all of their strategies. Data analysis
Data collection methods
The profit margins of traders and wholesalers in the supply-chain were assessed using partial budgeting:
Sampling
GM1 = Selling Price – Buying Price – Transportation cost
This study carries out a marketing survey to identify different medicinal plant species and the types of plant organs sold in different markets in the study area. A sample of five markets was chosen for data collection based on their importance in medicinal plant organ sales and market accessibility. Key informant surveys were held with actors involved in sales in the different markets. Species commonly sold in the market were ranked and the seven most frequently sold were selected for detailed study. Species in the sample include Bridelia ferruginea (Benth.), Rauvolfia vomitoria (Afzel.), Ceasalpinia bonduc (Linn.) Roxb., Mondia whytei (Hook. F.) Skeels, Sarcocephalus latifolius (Smith) Bruce, Nauclea xantho-xylon A. (Chev.) Aubrev. and Zanthoxylum zanthoxy-loides (Lam.) Zepen. and Timber. The detailed surveys were carried out between July and December 2005. A sample size of 70 sellers, of which 97% were women, was selected across markets. The main criteria for sampling are the availability of species in the sellers’ stall and the respondent willingness to be interviewed. This sample consisted of key actors in the supply chain: wholesalers (9%), stationary retailers or retailers based in a given market (60%) and itinerant retailers who move across markets (31%). Thirty medicinal plant organ collectors were also chosen. The criteria for selection of sellers and collectors were: frequency in markets and willingness to participate in interviews.
GM1: the actor's (traders and wholesalers) unit gross margin of organ parts
RESULTS
Surveys
Marketing channels and stakeholders in medicinal plant supply chain
Data were collected through both informal and structured
Medicinal plant parts commonly sold vary according to
(1)
The profit margin (GM2) of collectors was estimated as: GM2= Selling Price – Collection costs
(2)
Collectors harvest medicinal plant parts directly in vegetation and did not pay any royalties. The collection costs cover equipment and labour cost. The wage rates for farm activities were taken as the labour opportunity cost. In considering difference between men and women in farm wages, separate wage rates were applied. The formula is: Collection cost = (Total man days involved*Wage rate + cost of equipment) / Total quantity sold (3)
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to compare gains through gross margins between actors across markets. Variable distribution met normality conditions and no data transformation was necessary. For the groups of actors for which the marketing gross margins exhibited a significant difference, the Student-Newman-Keuls test was performed to identify the actors who had the biggest unit raw margins.
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Covè and Sèhouè. The results show that profit margins vary significantly according to agent (Table 1). Retailers have the highest gross margins. Their gross margin per unit of plant organ is respectively 7 to 17 times and 4 to 9 times higher for collectors for the roots and bark respectively of B. ferruginea. The margin increases from 10 to 20 times for the roots of R. vomitoria, 7 to 13 times and 6 to 44 times respectively for the roots and seeds of C. bonduc, 14 to 21 times for the roots of M. whytei, 2 to 7 times for the roots of S. latifolius, 2 to 6 times for the bark of N. xanthoxylon and 2 or 8 times for the roots of Z. zanthoxyloides. Margins per agent in major urban markets (AbomeyCalavi and Cotonou)
Figure 2. Marketing channels and actors.
species: roots (B. ferruginea, R. vomitoria, C. bonduc, M. whytei, S. latifolius, Z. zanthoxyloides), bark (B. ferruginea and N. xanthoxylon) and seeds (C. bonduc). Two main marketing channels were identified from thesurvey results (Figure 2): The first supply channel is short. Plant parts are collected in their natural habitats and brought to the market for sale. This marketing channel is rather short and common to most of the species. The sites where plant parts are collected are not far from the markets. Collectors bring products to the markets and sell them directly to retailers. This reduces transport costs. The second market channel is common to several rural and urban markets in Southern Benin (Bohicon, Covè, Sèhouè, Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou). This market channel sells basically roots of C. bonduc and R. vomitoria and seeds of C. bonduc. The most important market for these products is Bohicon, a major market for sellers from Covè, Abomey-Calavi and wholesalers from Cotonou, the capital city and the most important market of the country. Sèhouè, a rural market, is closer to a busy international road linking Benin to neighbouring countries, and it is important for supplying plant organs of C. bonduc to retailers and wholesalers of Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou. Margins in the medicinal plant parts supply-chain Margins per agent on rural markets In Table 1 we compare the unit gross margins for different agents involved in the rural markets of Bohicon,
Table 2 compares gross margins of different agents along the medicinal plants supply-chain in major urban markets (Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou). The results show that gross margins vary significantly between the three supply-chain agents (Table 2). The results of the Student-Newman-Keuls test show that retailers have the highest gross margins and that collectors have the lowest gross margins. The wholesalers have gross margins between the other two agents. These results show that gross margins distribution is uneven across actors in the rural (Bohicon, Covè, Sèhouè) and urban (Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou) markets. Strategies used profitable
by actors to
make marketing
In the study area, medicinal plant commercialisation actors used mainly two strategies to improve their benefits. The first strategy results from bunches making. In effect, the measurement units for medicinal plant organs are “bunch” for roots and barks, and "tohoungolo" for seeds of C. Bonduc (Figure 3). Tohounglo is a bowl used as a traditional measuring unit for sales of staple grains in Benin. One measure of Tohounglo is 120 or 160 seeds of C. bonduc. Concerning “bunches”, in all markets covered by the study, the weight of a “bunch” of plant organs varies significantly according to the type of actors (collector, wholesaler or retailer) (Table 3, Figure 3). The application of the Student-Newman-Keuls test shows that collectors are chain actors who sell the heavier parts as “bunch” while retailers sell the lightest “bunch”. Moreover, the comparison of bunches weight between rural and urban markets with ANOVA and application of Student-Newman-Keuls test permits to know that actors on rural markets sold the most heavier bunches (Table 4). The same situation was observed concerning the price setting of medicinal plant parts (Table 5). The price of medcinal plant parts is set by supply and demand accord-
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Table 1. Variation margins across actors on rural markets (Bohicon, Covè and Sèhouè).
Plant part trade
Commercialization actors
Root of B. Ferruginea Bark of B. Ferruginea Root of R. Vomitoria Root of C. bonduc Seeds of C. Bonduc Root of M. whytei Root of S. latifolius Bark of N. xanthoxylon Root of Z. zanthoxyloides
Collectors Retailers Collectors Retailers Collectors Retailers Collectors Retailers Collectors Retailers Collectors Retailers Collectors Retailers Collectors Retailers Collectors Retailers
Margins per actors (FCFA/g) Bohicon Covè Sèhoué 0.475 0.682 0.411 6.046 4.705 7.031 0.911 0.536 1.472 8.334 4.541 6.864 0.445 0.6075 0.513 8.998 6.240 6.441 1.850 1.575 0.800 13.741 10.790 10.404 0.22 0.215 0.897 7.53 9.350 5.345 0.652 0.730 0.672 13.685 10.403 11.576 0.473 1.36 1.620 3.092 3.146 3.060 0.647 0.654 2.647 3.939 3.908 5.460 1.488 0.550 2.480 3.992 4.590 5.027
ing to seasons. Collectors who are mainly farmers are not active during the rainy season and plant organs supply decreases on markets because of agricultural activities. During rainy season, medicinal plant parts are scarce in the markets and therefore are more expensive because of lower supply. Some collectors used to do their harvesting activities during this period in order to improve their margin.
Medicinal plant harvesting area The survey’s results show that medicinal plant organs, especially roots, barks and seeds of B. ferruginea, R. vomitoria, C. bonduc, M. whytei, S. latifolius, N. xanthoxylon and Z. zanthoxyloides, used for traditional healthcare and other domestic purposes, are harvested in current vegetation systems (fallows, forests), and in family gardens. Figure 4 presents the systems commonly used for harvesting of medicinal plant organs (Figure 4). Based on the results reported in Figure 4, the majority of medicinal plants traded in markets are harvested in natural vegetation (forests and fallows). Only R. vomitoria and C. bonduc are from the cultivated lands and 70% of C. bonduc organs sold by traditional practitioners are harvested in domestic gardens.
F
Df
Probabilities
1
0.001
1
0.007
63.25 24.34 1
0.012
18.26 86.63
1
0.000
34.85
1
0.004
1
0.024
12.41 31.32
1
0.005
13.80
1
0.020
21.93
1
0.008
DISCUSSION Profitability per agent of the supply chain and strategies used by actors to make marketing profitable The results of statistical analysis show that gross margins are not fairly distributed across supply-chain agents. The primary collectors have the lowest gross margins among all actors involved in the supply-chain of medicinal plant organs. Their gross margins are 2 to 20 times lower than retailers’ in rural markets. According to Banana (1998), one of the reasons for the low margins of collectors is the poor access to market information on the sources of plants. Unlike retailers and wholesalers, collectors come from different locations and do not have the opportunity to assess and exchange information. Collectors are not permanent actors living in or near the markets. They come periodically to sell medicinal plant organs and also to purchase food items for their households. They are not organized in cooperatives, unlike wholesalers and retailers, who reside near markets and share information related to supply and demand, and fix the prices very often. Moreover, in the case study area, collection of different parts of medicinal plant species does not represent the main activity of collectors. They are farmers and collect
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Table 2. Variation of margins across major urban markets (Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou).
Plant part trade Root of B. Ferruginea
Bark of B. Ferruginea
Root of R. Vomitoria
Root of C. bonduc
Seeds of C. Bonduc
Root of M. whytei
Root of S. Latifolius
Bark of N. xanthoxylon
Root of Z. zanthoxyloides
Commercialization actors Collectors Wholesalers Retailers Collectors Wholesalers Retailers Collectors Wholesalers Retailers Collectors Wholesalers Retailers Collectors Wholesalers Retailers Collectors Wholesalers Retailers Collectors Wholesalers Retailers Collectors Wholesalers Retailers Collectors Wholesalers Retailers
Margins per actors (FCFA/g) Abomey-Calavi Cotonou 0.318 0.54 0.912 0.912 4.53 6.041 1.406 1.292 7.045 7.045 8.000 6.811 0.502 0.422 2.357 2.357 6.789 7.049 3.720 4.792 6.590 6.590 14.030 15.391 0.230 0.43 3.612 3.612 3.557 4.626 2.164 0.784 3.297 3.297 7.547 7.205 0.332 1.300 3.580 3.580 5.453 6.600 0.777 0.874 3.300 3.300 4.846 7.070 0.230 0.332 4.990 4.990 6.455 7.741
medicinal plants as a secondary activity to generate extra agricultural incomes. The importance of this latter activity explains the fact that plant parts are not found frequently on the markets during the rainy season as in the dry season. The collector’s low margins could be also justified by the fact that they are not spending their time on this activity like detailers. The plant parts commercialisation is for them an occasional activity. To compensate for low margins, collectors may have to speed up the harvesting of medicinal plants. This puts alot of pressure on the harvested plant species. This skewed distribution of gross margins to increase incomes and the willingness of collectors are therefore a very damaging combination for harvested species and consequently for biodiversity. The results from this study are supported by findings from Godoy and Bawa (1993) and Maraseni et al. (2006), who observed that the incomes resulting from the exploitation of the NTFPs are the main reason for pressure on exploited species.
F
Df
Probabilities
36.806
2
0.007
97.129
2
0.001
1779.311
2
0.000
120.350
2
0.001
42.507
2
0.006
54.236
2
0.004
36.188
2
0.007
15.947
2
0.025
87.875
2
0.002
A similar situation is observed at wholesaler’s level: they also have low gross margins compared with retailers. The need for higher profit puts pressure on species marketed. The market opportunities for medicinal plant organs and associated margins can be a threat to biodiversity if accompanying policies are not developed to sustain the conservation of plants and species in high demand. A number of appropriate actions could be taken to increase incomes from medicinal plants while protecting the species. Access to information from markets and choice of locations for supply and access to financial resources through financial services could enhance other sources of incomes and protect the environment. Impact of harvested conservation
species
on
biodiversity
The bulk of the supply of medicinal plants sold is harvested from natural vegetations (fallows and forests). The
Vodouhê et al.
Roots of R. vomitoria
Roots of Z. zanthoxyloides
Roots of C. bonduc
Roots of S. latifolius
Roots of M. whytei
Bark of N. xanthoxylon
Bark of B. ferruginea
Tohounglo
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Figure 3. Commercialization instruments. Table 3. Weight of “bunch” of medicinal plant-organs sold.
Plant parts sold
Mean weight of bunches sold by collectors (g) 241.59 237.28 167.14 102.21 206.09 373.28 409.99 425.35
P e rc e n ta g e o f R e s p o n d e n ts
Root of B. Ferruginea Bark of B. Ferruginea Root of R. vomitoria Root of C. bonduc Root of M. whytei Root of S. Latifolius Bark of N. xanthoxylon Root of Z. zanthoxyloides
Mean weight of bunches sold by retailers (g) 104.32 99.90 55.31 45.80 93.81 142.98 112.17 139.74
120 100 80 60 40 20
Forests
Fallows
Z. z a n th o x y lo id e s
N. x a n th o x y lo n
Species
S . la tifo liu s
M . w h y te i
C . bonduc
R . v o m ito ria
B . fe rru g in e a
0
Home gardens
Figure 4. Vegetation systems for medicinal plant organs harvest.
Mean weight of bunches sold by wholesalers (g) 129.98 77.95 51.05 26.80 46.20 102.62 90.60 119.66
df (degree of freedom)
F
P
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
6.37 52.46 44.45 7.58 1.50 23.84 12.78 13.29
0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.02
This explains the significant difference observed between the weights of bunches of medicinal plant organs and their prices. The bunch of medicinal plant organs marketed in rural markets is heavier and less expensive than those marketed on the urban markets where demand is higher. Natural vegetation plants are available in rural areas so their access is easier for rural markets. Medicinal plant harvest in the study area is free and involves only labour. The risk of species extinction is high when we consider the phenologic stages of plants harvested and organs collected (roots, seeds and barks). Plants used are those considered “mature” by collectors. Plants identified as mature are those which have fructified at least once (as in the case of the exploitation of the roots of B. ferruginea, R. vomitoria, C. bonduc, M. whytei, S. latifolius, and Z. zanthoxyloides). The preference for mature species is explained by the fact that at this development stage plants produce more mature roots and these are
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Table 4. Comparison of weights of medicinal plant parts sold between rural and urban markets.
Weight
Mean weight of bunches of collectors on rural markets (g) (Sd) Mean weight of bunches of collectors on urban markets (g) (Sd) Mean weight of bunches of retailers on rural markets (g) (Sd) Mean weight of bunches of retailers on urban markets (g) (Sd)
B. ferruginea (roots)
B. ferruginea (bark)
R. vomitoria (roots)
C. bonduc (roots)
M. whytei (roots)
S. latifolius (roots)
N. xanthoxylon (bark)
Z. zanthoxyloides (roots)
476.41
314.33
174.82
159.86
201.02
688.42
266.04
500.84
(46.16)
(56.02)
(28.22)
(78.57)
(56.90)
(119.35)
(31.40)
(57.33)
315.23
208.44
124.03
120.50
147.92
593.90
168.70
386.71
(43.62)
(53.44)
(11.21)
(38.30)
(39.80)
(166.70)
(32.72)
(110.15)
189.38
138.02
77.11
81.68
91.05
304.58
119.95
219.06
(43.62) 85.30
(53.44) 77.28
(11.21) 45.46
(38.30) 33.13
(39.80) 54.02
(166.70) 250.39
(32.72) 64.35
(110.15) 162.08
(14.14)
(12.20)
(3.97)
(3.29)
(7.40)
(6.36)
(2.05)
(48.98)
Roots of B. ferruginea (F = 26.60 ; P = 0.000 < 0.05), Bark of of B. ferruginea (F = 16.62 ; P = 0.003 < 0.05) Roots R. vomitoria (F = 26.12 ; P = 0.000 < 0.05), Roots of C. bonduc (F = 6.71 ; P = 0.032 < 0.05), Roots of M. whytei (F = 14.55 ; P = 0.005 < 0.05), Roots of S. latifolius (F = 27.48 ; P = 0.000 < 0.05), Bark of N. xanthoxylon (F = 17.26 ; P = 0.003 < 0.05) and Roots of Z. zanthoxyloides (F = 17.23 ; P = 0.002 < 0.05).
plants species increases the risk of extinction of the spepopular in markets. As shown by Cunningham (2001) and Peters (1994), however, the reduction of reproductive cies. The community demand and harvesting practices have significant effects on plant populations and hence biodiversity and availability of species in the long term. To reduce this negative impact of medicinal plant sales on biodiversity conservation, information is needed on the “best bet” agroforestry systems, which may involve many species. More studies are needed for better knowledge of reproductive modes of species before integration in the agroforestry system.
tailers, who have the highest margins. Collectors seeking higher profit collect more organs and therefore destroy vegetation and species diversification. A number of appropriate actions could be taken to increase incomes from medicinal plants while protecting the species. Access to information from markets and choice of locations for supply and access to financial resources through financial services could enhance other sources of incomes and protect the environment. Sensitization, knowledge and best bet practices for medicinal plants management which can be used to increase and sustain the environment are needed.
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study analyzes the sales margin distribution and management practices of medicinal plant species B .ferruginea, R. vomitoria, C. bonduc, M. whytei, S. latifolius, N. xanthoxylon and Z. zanthoxyloides). Higher profit-seeking from medicinal plant organ sales compromises the sustainability of the overall biodiversity and protection of natural plantations. The results show that the gross margins distribution is skewed between different agents of the supply-chain. Collectors, who are key actors, have the lowest gross margins compared with re-
We would like to extend gratitude to all of the commercialization actors and interviewers involved in the study. Thanks to reviewers for their comments on the manuscript. REFERENCES Arnold JEM, Pérez MR (2001). Can non-timber forest products match tropical forest conservation and development objectives? Ecol. Econ. (39): 437-447. Balick MJ, Mendelsohn R (1992). Assessing the economic value of
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Table 5. Comparison of medicinal plant parts prices between rural and urban markets.
Prices
Price of bunches sold by collectors on rural markets (FCFA/g) (Sd) Price of bunches sold by collectors on urban markets (FCFA/g) (Sd) Price of bunches sold by retailers on rural markets (FCFA/g) (Sd) Price of bunches sold by retailers on urban markets (FCFA/g) (Sd)
B. ferruginea (roots)
B. ferruginea (bark)
R. vomitoria (roots)
C. bonduc (roots)
M. whytei (roots)
S. latifolius (roots)
N. xanthoxylon (bark)
Z. zanthoxyloides (roots)
0 .05
0.08
0.15
0.18
0.13
0.04
0.09
0.05
(0.01)
(0.01)
(0.02)
(0.07)
(0.04)
(0.01)
(0.01)
(0.01)
0.08
0.12
0.20
0.21
0.17
0.04
0.15
0.07
(0.00)
(0.01)
(0.01)
(0.01)
(0.00)
(0.00)
(0.01)
(0.02)
0.14
0.20
0.33
0.35
0.33
0.10
0.22
0.13
(0.07)
(0.05)
(0.13)
(0.18)
(0.05)
(0.07)
(0.05)
0.30
0.33
0.55
0.76
0.47
0.10
0.39
0.16
(0.05)
(0.05)
(0.05)
(0.08)
(0.06)
(0.00)
(0.01)
(0.05)
(0.03)
Roots of B. ferruginea (F = 10.45 ; P = 0.012 < 0.05), Bark of of B. ferruginea (F = 13.51 ; P = 0.006 < 0.05) Roots R. vomitoria (F = 17.48 ; P = 0.003 < 0.05), Roots of C. bonduc (F = 8.14 ; P = 0.021 < 0.05), Roots of M. whytei (F = 11.58 ; P = 0.009 < 0.05), Roots of S. latifolius (F = 16.50 ; P = 0.003 < 0.05), Bark of N. xanthoxylon (F = 12.57 ; P = 0.007 < 0.05) and Roots of Z. zanthoxyloides (F = 14.48 ; P = 0.005 < 0.05).
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