Detail of gravestone of Samuel Senior Teixeira (1717), Bet ijayyim Ouderkerk. .... Levy's infant son Judah were all noted and then commandeered. According.
Messianism, Secrecy and Mysticism ANew Interpretation of Early American Jewish Life
Laura Arnold Leibman
VALLENTINE MITCHELL LONDON and PORTLAND, OR
First published in 2012 by Vallentine Mitchell
Middlesex House 29/45 High Street, Edgware, MiddiesexHA8 7UU, UK
920 NE 58th Avenue, Suite 300 Portland, Oregon, 97213-3786, USA
Contents www.vmbooks.com
List ofIllustrations Copyright© 2012 Laura Amold Leibman
List ofTables Acknowledgements
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Leibman, Laura Arnold. Messianism, secrecy and mysticism: a new interpretation of early American Jewish life. l. Jews~-UnitedStates~-History~~17th century. 2. Jews~ United States~~History~-18th century. 3. Jews~~Material culture-~United States-~History. 4. Messianism~~United . StatesnHistory. I. Title 305 .8'924'073'09032-dc23
ISBN: 978 0 85303 833 7
Library of Congress Cataloging~in~Publication Data A catalog record has been applied for
All rights reserved. No part 0/ this publication may be reproduced. stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted. in anyfonn or by any means, electronic. mechanical, photocopying. recording or othefWise without the prior written permission ofthe publisher ofthis book
Printed and Bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CRO 4¥Y
Transliterations and Names
List ofAbbreviations Timeline
vii xiii xv xvii xix xxi
Introduction
I.
Friendly Piranhas
25
2.
New Jerusalem
57
3.
Black Jews
83
4.
The World-To-Come
123
5.
Soul Food
181
6.
From Holy Land to New England Canaan
211
7.
The Secret Lives of Men
235
Conclusion
281
Appendix
313
Glossary
317
Select Bibliography
331
Index
369
Illustrations
This book is dedicated to Eric, Lyla and Noah, who have taught me more about Jewish families than I ever thought I would be privileged to know. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. 7.
8.
9.
'A New House', from Tobias Kohen's Ma'aseh ToMah (Venice, 1707), p.106a. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Hebraic Section. Map ofthe Jewish Atlantic World and key places in the Jewish Mediterranean, adapted from Joan Blaeu's Nova et accura!issima to!ius terrarum orbis tabula (Amsterdam, 1664). Courtesy of Library of Congress, g3200 c10002707. Portrait of Moses Levy (ca 1720), painting by Gerardus Duyckinck I. Courtesy of Museum of the City of New York, bequest ofAlphonse H. Kursheedt, 1936. Frontispiece to Tikkun kerioh (Amsterdam, 1666), featuring Shabbetai Z;evi enthroned as the Messiah. Courtesy ofLibrary of Congress, Washington, DC, Hebraic Section. Bottom panel of replica of gravestone of Elijah Nahamias de Crasto (1692) from Bet l;Iayyim Blenheim, Cura,ao, now at Mikve Israel Synagogue Complex, Willemstad. Photograph by the author, 2008. Engraving ofAmsterdam Mikveh, drawn by P. Wagenaar and engraved by C. Philips Jacobsz, 1783. Author's collection. Excavated and restored Great Synagogue Mikveh (1671), Amsterdam. Photograph by Peter Lange, 2006. Courtesy of the collection of the Jewish Historical Museum, Amsterdam. Kahal Kadosh Z;ur Israel Mikveh (1636-54), in Recife, Brazil. Photograph by and courtesy of Joan Glanz Rimmon, Los Angeles, 2006. Nidhe Israel Mikveh (ca 1650s), in Bridgetown, Barbados. Photograph by and courtesy ofStevan J. Arnold, 2010.
vii
4
6
8
12
15 29
39
42 44
Illustrations
10. Neveh Shalom Mikveh building (ca 1719, renovated 1830) in Paramaribo, Suriname. Photograph by the author, 2008. II. Mikve Israel Mikveh (1728) in Willemstad, Curayao. Photograph by the author, 2008. 12. Samuel King, Ezra Stiles (1771). Courtesy ofYale University Art Gallery, New Haven, CT. 13. John Evelyn's plan for rebuilding London (1666), with Sefirot and paths labeled. Courtesy of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, Lib. Shelfmark (E) C 17:70 London 1165. 14. Leon de Templo's drawing of the 'Tempel Salomonis' (1665). Courtesy of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, Lib. Shelfmark 4° R 81(1) Th. 15. Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam (1675). Photograph by the author, 2009. 16. The Divine Proportion of 37:100. Courtesy of John Wilkinson, From Synagogue to Church: The Traditional Design: Its Beginning, its Definition, its End (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2002), p.82, Figure 6.14. 17. Proportion at Bevis Marks (1702): Courtesy of Wilkinson, From Synagogue to Church, p.107, Figure 11.7. 18. Neo-Solomonic Order. Diagram by the author. 19. Touro Synagogue, Newport RI. Photograph by the author, 2007. 20. Map of Jewish Newport by the author, based on William Faden's 1777 A Plan o/the Town o/Newport in Rhode Island Surveyed by Charles Blaskowitz, engraved and publish'd by Willm. Faden [Map] (London: 1777), Map Collections 15002004, American Memory, Library of Congress, 14 August 2007. Data regarding houses from Bernard Kusinitz's 'Jewish Homes Colonial Period', Newport Land Evidence, 1700-79 (NHS), Newport Land Evidence, 1780-1810 (NCH), Newport Probate Records, 1779-1810 (NCH), and 'Maps of Lots on Easton's Point', Land Evidence, Newport, 1725 (NHS). 21. HABS drawing, east elevation, Touro Synagogue (1941). Courtesy of Library of Congress, HABS RI, 3-NEWP, 29-.
viii
Illustrations
46 49 58
61
64 65
66 68 69 70
71 72
22. Divine Proportions in Touro Synagogue. Divine Proportion of 37: 100, Wilkinson, From Synagogue to Church, p.82, Figure 6.14, superimposed on HABS drawing ofplan of first floor, Touro Synagogue [1941]. Courtesy of Library of Congress, HABS RI, 3-NEWP, 29-. 23. Type of slavery and inclusiveness within the Family. Diagram by the author. 24. Members of the Jewish household: peripheral inclusion in Suriname. Diagram by the author. 25. Grave-marker of Louisa Lobles (1931), Creole Cemetery in Jodensavanne, Suriname. Photograph by the author, 2008. 26. Members of the Jewish household: peripheral inclusion in Curayao. Diagram by the author. 27. Characteristic Sephardic stone from the BergAltena Jewish Cemetery, Curayao. Photograph by the author, 2008. 28. Yu-di Hudiu gravestone of Cira Maduro de Henriquez and Antonio Henriquez, using Sephardi design, Berg Altena Catholic Cemetery, Curayao. Photograph by Kent Coup'" 2008. 29. Members of the Jewish household: peripheral inclusion in Newport. Diagram by the author. 30. Stone of Peter Cranston, Jr, slave of Aaron Lopez (1771), 'God's Little Acre', Common Burying Ground, Newport, RI. Carver William Stevens. Photograph by the author, 2007. 31. Stone ofIsaac Lopez (1762), Touro Cemetery, Newport, RI. Carver John Stevens II. Photograph by the author, 2007. 32. Benjamin Senior Godines, 'Vanitas Picture: A Memento Mori' (1681). Courtesy of the Jewish Museum, London. 33. Detail of gravestone of Samuel Senior Teixeira (1717), Bet ijayyim Ouderkerk. Photograph by the author, 2009. 34. Map of the Old Jewish Cemetery in Curayao, Bet ijayyim Bleinheim, with location of stones marked. Map by the authoL 35. Reproduction of gravestone of Isaac ijayyim Senior (1726) in Snoa Museum, Willemstad, Curayao. Original in Bet ijayyim Bleinheim, Curayao. Photograph by the author, 2008. ix
73 95 100 102 104 108
108 109
111
III liS 131
135
140
Illustrations
Illustrations
36. Reproduction of gravestone ofisaac !:Iayyim Senior (1726) in Snoa Museum, Willemstad, Curayao. Original in Bet !:Iayyim Bleinheim, Curayao. Photo by the author, 2008. 37. Map of Old Jewish Quarter with location of houses of deceased indicated, Willemstad, Curayao. Map based on Jacob Daniel Gebhardt map of Willemstad (1707). Courtesy of Algemeen Rijksarchief at The Hague, Inventaris Leupe 1440. Annotated by the author. 38. Detail from reproduction of gravestone of Isaac !:Iayyim Senior (1726) in Snoa Museum, Willemstad, Curayao. Original in Bet !:Iayyim Bleinheim, Curayao. Photograph by the author, 2008. 39. Mezzotint portrait of Rabbi Isaac Ahoab da Fonseca (1686). Courtesy of the collection of the Jewish Historical Museum, Amsterdam. 40. Reproduction of gravestone of Elijah Raphael Namias de Crasto (1717) in Snoa Museum, Willemstad, Curayao. Original in Bet !:Iayyim Bleinheim, Curayao. Photograph by the author, 2008. 41. Reproduction of Gravestone of Mordecai Hezekiab Namias de Crasto (1716) in Snoa Museum, Willemstad, Curayao. Original in Bet !:Iayyim Bleinheim, Curayao. Photograph by Kent Coupe, 2008. 42. Reproduction of gravestone ofGabriel a Levy (1725) in Snoa Museum, Willemstad, Curayao. Original in Bet !:Iayyim Bleinheim, Curayao. Photograph by the author, 2008. 43. Comparison ofdress from a detail ofAbraham Hulk Pietersz's Screening of the Books ofMoses, on the Day ofAtonement (1783), Gabriel a Levy's gravestone (1725) and Rembrandt van Rijn, Jews in a Synagogue (Pharisees in the Temple), etching with drypoint. Pietersz courtesy of the author's collection; gravestone photograph by the author, 2008; Rembrandt courtesy of the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. 44. La Casa de Rodeos (left) and the House of the Kohenim (right) on the south side of the Bet !:Iayyim Bleinheim Cemetery and adjacent to the Shell Oil Refinery, Curayao. Photograph by the author, 2008. x
141
143
150
151
152
157
164
166
45. 'Ezekiel's Vision' or 'Valley ofthe Bones' from the north wall of the Dura Europos Synagogue, Syria (ca 240-56 CE). Courtesy of Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, CT, Dura-Europos Collection. 169 46. Detail from gravestone of Bella Barrow (1773), featuring the resurrection ofthe dead. Bet !:Iayyim Nidhe Israel, Barhados. Photograph by the author, 2009. 169 47. Detail of reproduction of gravestone of Abraham Moreno Henriques (1726) in Snoa Museum, Willemstad, Curayao. Original in Bet !:Iayyim Bleinheim, Curayao. Photograph by the author, 2008. 170 48. Detail of reproduction of gravestone of Abraham Moreno Henriques (1726), in Snoa Museum, Willemstad, Curayao. Original in Bet !:Iayyim Bleinheim, Curayao. Photograph by the author, 2008. 173 49. Light hardwood confectioner's mould carved with impressions of a lyre (early 1800s). Moulds like these were used to create the elaborate Purim scene described by Azulai. Courtesy ofthe Bowes Museum, Barnard Castle, Co. Durham. 183 50. Detail ofwatercolor ofa sugar-paste ornament in the form of a lyre (early 1800s). Courtesy ofthe Bowes Museum, Barnard Castle, Co. Durham. 184 51. A certificate of Kashrut in Hebrew, signed by Abraham 1. Abrahams of Congregation Shearith Israel, for meat shipped by Michael Gratz to Barbados (1767). Courtesy of the Gratz Family Papers (Philadelphia, PAl, 1753-1916, AJHS Archives, P-8. 188 52. John Hinton, 'A Representation of the SUGAR-CANE and the Art of Making Sugar' (1749). Courtesy ofLibrary of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-7841. 195 53. Teapot (1765) by silversmith Myer Myers of Shearith Israel, New York. Photograph by Katherine Wetzel, 2008. Courtesy ofVirginia Museum ofFine Arts, Richmond, VA. Gift of Mrs Rita R. Gans. © Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. 199 54. Touro Synagogue Matzah board (eighteenth century). Photograph by and courtesy of John T. Hopf. 202
167 xi
Illustrations
55. Illustration of how to slaughter and butcher cows, from the Spanish translation of Moses Rephael de Aguilar, Dinim de Sechita & Bedica [Amsterdam 1681], trans. Aaron Mendoza (London, 1733). Courtesy of the British Library. 56. 'The Spy' from Cesare Ripa, !eonolagia (Florence, 1613), p.253. Courtesy of Internet Arehive and the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA. 57. Alexander Slade, 'A Freemason Form'd Out ofthe Materials ofRis Lodge' (London, 1754). Courtesy of the collection of the Grand Lodge of Masons in Massachusetts at the Scottish Rite Masonic Museum & Library, GL2004.0 141. Photograph by David Boh!. 58. Samuel Lee's drawing of Solomon's Temple from Orbis miraculum (London, 1659). Courtesy ofthe Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, Lib. Shelfmark AA 61 Art. 59. Coat of arms from the Grand Lodge of England inspired by illustration from Jacob Judah Leon de Templo from Laurence Dermott's Ahiman rezon (1764). Courtesy of John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester, UK. 60. Gravestone of David I;layyim Dovale (1827), Bet I;layyim Bleinheim, Cura9ao, with elements labeled. Photo by Kent Coupe, 2008. Labels by the author. 61. Masonic apron thought to have been worn by Moses Michael Hays (American, 1780-1800). Courtesy of the collection of the Grand Lodge of Masons in Massachusetts at the Scottish Rite Masonic Museum & Library, GL2004.l799. Photograph by David Boh!. 62. C. Crepy, engraver; Jacques Chevreau, printer; Assemblee de Francs-Macons pour la Reception des ApprentijS (France, ca 1744). Courtesy ofthe collection of the Scottish Rite Masonic Museum & Library, gift of Charles R. Yeaton, 84.69. 63. Mosaic pavement in the Mikve Israel Synagogue complex. Photograph by the author, 2008. 64. Gravestone of Maximilian Joseph Alvan Adda (1997), Bet I;layyim Nidhe Israel, Barbados. Photograph by the author, 2010.
xii
206
Tables
241
1.
2. 258
260
3.
4. 263
5.
Timeline. Stages in the death ritua!. Adapted from Robert V. Wells, Facing the 'King of Terrors ': Living with Death in an American Community (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p.15. Levels of the Soul in Kabbalah. Adapted from Simcha Paul Raphael, Jewish Views of the Afterlife (Northvale, NJ: J. Aronson), p.283. Relative values of types of dishes and possible uses in Lopez household (1782). Eighteenth-century Sephardic sermon structures and Carigal's sermon,
264
6. 7.
8. 265
9.
Early Jewish Masons in the Atlantic World. Jewish and Protestant Revival Movements in American Colonies. Approximate populations of Jewish Communities of the Atlantic World, 1600-1820s. Elements ofNeo-Solomonic Order in Jewish Atlantic World Synagogues.
271 273
296
xiii
XXI
138
141 200 223 253 288 304 313
Timeline
Table 1. Timeline. (continued) DECADE EVENTS 1790-99
RABBIS AND WORKS
1793 Yellow Fever epidemic,
Philadelphia, PA 1793 Sephardi Mahamad prohibits Darhe Jesarim, Suriname 1794 Susanna Rowson, Slaves in Algiers
Introduction
1794 Synagogue Beth Elohim completed, Charleston, South Carolina 1795 Rodeph Shalom in Philadelphia, PA, first synagogue in US to follow Ashkenazi rite 1796 Emancipation of Dutch Jews; ends autonomy of Jewish community, limits powers ofparnassim
1796 Kahal Kadosh Mikveh Israel (Ashkenazi) Synagogue, Spanish
Town, Jamaica 1797 Royall Tyler, Algerine Captive
179954% ofSephardim and 87% Ashkenazim dependent upon poor relief in Amsterdam 1800-09
1800 Darbe Jesarim Synagogue,
Sivaplein, Suriname, torn down 1805 Second Jewish Cemetery, New York 1808 US prohibits importation of slaves 181 Q....-19
1802 Solomon Hirschel, first Chief Rabbi of Great Britain 1806 Azulai dies, Italy 1806 Moses Lopez, first American Hebrew calendar (Newport)
1818 Mill Street Synagogue expanded 1819 Hamburg Reform prayer 1818 Only three Jewish families book, omits mention of Messiah or remain in Newport return to Holy Land
xxviii
Most of Newport's grandest Gilded-Age mansions line the cliffs on or just off Bellevue Avenue: The Elms, The Breakers, Marble House, Belcourt, Vinland and Rough Point, to name just a few. Their heavy Beaux-Arts and Italianate colonnades face the ocean spray or embrace elaborately gardened estates. But before Mrs Astor's Four Hundred discovered Newport, back when these sea-cliff plots were pastures, Bellevue was called' Jew Street'. Most ofthe homes along it were at the street's far north and now less fashionable end, near the SpanishPortuguese Jewish Cemetery, for which Jew Street was named. Although Newport is rich in colonial architecture, today these early houses along Bellevue are largely gone, torn down to make way for the clubs, shops and hotels that pandered to late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century vacationers. Under the foundations of Hotel Viking at One Bellevue Avenue, for example, lay the sedimentallayers ofthe house ofMoses and 'Hiam' (I;layyim) Levy, two of Newport's early merchant princes. Like other members of Newport's Jewish elite, they had escaped religious persecution in Europe and embraced the colonies' relative freedom only to be caught in political upheavals that would once again send them on their diasporic travels. This book is the story ofJews like the Levys - the Jews of the Atlantic World, told through the objects ofeveryday life that they used and created. In it, I follow their travels from the port towns ofEurope, to the Caribbean and the Atlantic Seaboard, to the Gold Coast ofAfrica and back again. To understand the variety of religious expression in their world, I focus not only upon the elite writings of men, but the physical spaces and objects used by the less literate and least visible members of their community, such as women, children and Judeo-Africans. Through these objects I weave the fabric of their lives, a material biography of the bodies that
Messianism, Secrecy and Mysticism
Introduction
performed and practiced Judaism in the American colonies. I argue that there are three keys to understanding this embodied world: messianism, secrecy and mysticism. As they traveled throughout the Atlantic World, America's first Jews brought their struggles and dreams with them, and these hopes and fears were heavily reflected in the cultural world they created. Turmoil was the lot ofAmerica's frrstJews. For Hiam Levy, 29 November 1779 began with a loud banging at the door and ended with all ofhis worldly possessions being confiscated by the new Revolutionary government. As ifto add insult to injury, SheriffWilliam Davis was accompanied by Hiam's own brother-in-law, Moses Seixas, who had had the foresightnotto side with the British. When Seixas signed the inventory that listed Levy's goods room by room, he used an ornate Spanish handwriting. Personal possessions like the 'toilet table' from the middle chamber, the 'old' pictures in the closet, the six china cups and saucers in the parlor and even the crib belonging to Levy's infant son Judah were all noted and then commandeered. According to the official records, Levy's wife Grace (nee Mears) stood by and watched. When Hanukkah started four nights later, she must have identified with the besieged Jerusalemites. l Hiam Levy was 40 years old when his estate was seized: a hard age to have to begin again. Like many others of Newport's elite, he had backed the wrong army. Although some members ofNewport's Touro Synagogue had either sided with the Revolutionaries or at least hedged their bets, others - including five men of the Hart family, along with Myer Polock, Hiam Levy and Hiam's brother Simeon - supported the Loyalists and lost everything as a result. Comparatively speaking, even these men were lucky: during Newport's Stamp Act Riots, Martin Howard and two other Loyalists were burned in effigy and barely escaped with their lives. Any Loyalists who didn't flee Newport in 1779 were banished.' Today, Levy's estate inventory and those ofthe other congregants from the Touro Synagogue are housed in the harshly lit rooms of the Rhode Island State Archives.' Like crude oil produced over time from the decaying bodies of plants and animals, what was once a heart-felt disaster for colonial Jews is now a rich historical resource. Thanks to the Preservation Society of Newport and money from donors like tobacco heiress Doris Duke, Newport has a relatively large collection of Jewish colonial houses, matched only by their less well-preserved cousins in the Dutch
colonies of Curavao and Suriname. Lists ofgoods from confiscated estates flesh out these houses and allow us to imagine how people lived within them. Such details are crucial, as we know comparatively little about the daily lives ofAmerica's first Jews, whether it is the houses they inhabited or the objects that mattered most to them. These objects and spaces are crucial to our understanding ofAmerica's first Jews because, more than other religions ofthe era, Judaism was an embodied religion. The role of the body was determined in part by Jewish law and rituaL During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a large range of books was published in Amsterdam, Venice and Constantinople that helped laypeople understand and perform the minutia of these obligations, ranging from what one could eat, to which shoe should be put on first in the morning. Likewise, a large number of Sephardic luminaries traveled the Atlantic and Mediterranean worlds in order to ensure normative religious practice in the Diaspora. To think ofearly American Jews as a 'people of the body' as well as a 'people of the book', however, is not merely to recognize the importance of ritual practice in Judaism, as opposed to the centrality of faith for Christianity. To think about how Judaism was embodied is to consider the variety of ways specific physical spaces and anatomies influenced Judaism in the Diaspora. The Judaism ofthe Diaspora was one enacted by and through the bodies and spaces of children, women and JudeoAfricans, as much as through the elite bodies, practices and writings of men. Just as rabbinical sermons and decrees proclaimed the limits of Jewish practice and identity in the colonies, so too this wide range of bodies helped define who and what was a Jew. This book is a 'material biography' of that world' This biography is necessarily diasporic, not only in the sense that Jews are removed from their ancestral homeland (Israel) but also that it is a biography of bodies in motion. One reason for the cohesiveness of the culture of the Jews of the Atlantic World is that its citizens rarely stayed put: as they traveled, they carried their culture with them. Yet in each location they were also forced to create their identities anew in the context of local geographies and practices. On a certain level, the body is itself a home for the soul a fact underscored by Tobias Kohen's illustration from Ma 'aseh tobiah (Venice, 1707) in which the organs ofthe body are allegorically compared to the elements of a house (Figure I). In the Diaspora, however, the body
2
3
Index Aboab, Isaac de Matatia (1631-1707), 91-2, 97, 114-15; £1 perseguido dichoso, 114, 116, 121,213,335; Orden de Benediciones, 91-2,114,116,118,335 Abaah, Mataria (alias Manoel Dias Henriques; 1594-1667), 114-15 Abaah da Fonseca, Isaac (1605-93), xxi-xxii, xxiv, II, 55, 78,124--7,133,140,146, 150--2, 155, 189, 299; Nishmat J:layyim, 124-7,133,175,331; Parafrasis, xxiv, ISO-I; in Recife, xxii, 42,125; messianism,
11, 16. 41, 62, 124, 148; salary, 42 Abaab Lopes. Rebecca (d. 1709),309
Abbott, Elizabeth, 188, 207-9, 331, 335 Abrahams, Judah (18th century), 198 Abraham-Van der Mark, Eva, 105, 118, 120,
335
Abrahams, Abraham (son of Kitty and Isaac; 1758-1819),305-6 Abrahams, Abraham L (1720-96), xi, 188 Abrahams, Isaac (1756-1813), 305 Abrahams, Kitty (nee Pollock; 1756--1821), 305-6,311 Abudiente, Gidon (d. 1660), 172,309 Abudientc, Moses (d. 1688), 148 Adda, Maximilian Joseph Alvan (1985-97), 295-6,309 Adret, Solomon ben Abraham (1235-1310), 185,207 Africa, 1,7.22,51,96,104, HI, 175, 194, 2~, 307, 321, 329, 338; Africans, 18, 88-91,94,96--8,100--1,104-5,107, 1l0, 113, 114-15, 117, 194,298,318,324,326; Algiers, xxviii, 235-7, 239, 243-5, 275, 317, 319; Gold Coast, I, 6; La Mamora, 246; Morocco, 246; North Africa, 218, 235, 244,246; Tripoli, 235, 243, 317, 319; see also Barbary Wars, Judeo·Africans African·Ameriean, xxvi, 1, 3, 17-18, 83-122,
198,236,298,306,318,322,324,326, 328-9,338,358,364; see also
Afro..curayaoan, Afro-Surinamese, Cemeteries, Euro~African, Judeo·Africans Afro.-Curayaoan, 91, 95,101-7, 322;yudi hudiu, 91,103,105,107-8,114,329 Afro.-Surinamese, 96-10 I afterlife, 18, 124--7, 132, 136--8, 141-5, 147, 152,162,168,171,176,289,291-2,295-9, 308,325,358; damnation, 36, 247; Gan Eden. 141-2, 144,320,321; Gehinnom, 141; lower Gan Eden, 141,320; olam ha~ba (world-to"come), 14, 18, 87, 123-7, 130, 132,134,141,155, 16Q.--2,167, 172,236, 299,322,325 Aguilar see also d' Aguilar Aguilar, Moses Rephacl de (d. 1679), xxii, 205; Dinim de Sechita & Bedica, 205-6, 210,229,335 alcohol, 195, 197; brandy, 195, 196,208; Madeira wine, 193, 196,208--9,335,347; port, 197,201; raisin wine, 197,209,361; remedy for contaminated waler, 194-5; rum, 7, 193-6,208,301; sherry, 201; wine, 47, 92, 185-6, 191, 193, 195-7,202,208-9, 226,302,324,327,329,335,347,361 a Levy see Levy Allyon, Solomon (ca 1660/4--1728), xxiv Altmann, Alexander, 125, 174,308,335 Alvares see Alvares Correa and Baruch Alvares Alvares Correa, Esther (d. 1747), 177 Alvares Correa, Rachel (d. 1705), 177 American nation, 235, 237, 245; United States, 35,69,104,234,237,243-4,284,301-2, 306,317 Amersfoort mikveh. xxv, 37, 38, 46, 54, 55 Amsterdam, xvi, xxi-xxviii, 3, 5-7,11-13,17, 21,26,28-31,34,37-42,45,48,51,54,55,
369
Jndex
56, 59,
61~~3,
65-6, 70, 72, 75, 77-81, 82,
87,89,91-3, llO, 114,118,120,123-5,
128,130,133-5,138,140,142,143,145, 148,
151~3,
157-8, 160, 163, 165, 166, 168,
171,174,175,177,178, 181-2, 187, 192, 193, 197-8,203,205-7,210,211,212,214, 217-18,228,229,231,232,234,241-2,
246,251-3,255-7,262,267,276,277,285, 288-91,293-5,297-300,304,308-10,314, 319; Jewish population, xxvi, 42, 89, 304; see also DriH Shul, E? I;fayyim Yeshiva.
gravestones, Great Synagogue, Ncderlandsch-Israelitische Hoofsynagoge, Ncveh Shalom Synagogue ofAmsterdam, New Synagogue, Obbcne Shul, Portuguese Synagogue, Talmud Torah angels, II, 16, 18,35, 110, 127~30, 132, 134,
138,141,145-6,158-62,175-6,295-6, 300,309,310,318,321-3,326-07,353; Angel ofBethesda, 35, 53, 355; angel of death, 129,321; cherubim, 66-7, 129, 131, 159-60, 176,262,318; cherubs, 130-2, 160,
176,295,309,326,342; melakhim, 129, 323; putti, 129, 155, 159-61,326; three ministcringangels, 141, 145-6, 155, 158~61 Antigua., 261,303 Antinomianism, II, 13,317 Anti-Semitism, 235-48, 277; Adonah Ben Benjamin, 244--6, 274; Ben Hassan, 235-7, 239,245,274; Jewish spy, 19,236,239-48, 251,275-6,338,341; Semitic invasion, 243 apocalypse see eschatology Arbcll, Mordechai, 55, 56, 176, 309-11, 336 architecture, I, 17,20,22,47,59--82,85,93, 120,121, 178,259-63,268-70,277-·9,308, 328,331,339,341,343,348,350,351,356, 360, 363-6; Church architecture, 17, 59-64, 66,70,77,79,81,178,279,314,320,361, 366; Georgian architecture, 72; house of Hiam and Moses Levy, 1-2, 7, 20; landhuizen, 103,323; Penha building, 81; see also synagogue architecture Ark of the Covenant, 66, 159-60, 176,261-2, 266,317,318 Anninianism, 132, 176, 317 Ashkenazi Synagogue of Kingston, Jamaica, xxvii Ashkenazim, xxii, xxv-xxviii, 5-6, 11,21-3, 38,45,51,56,69,78,81,82,89-90,99, 101,117,124,127,163,175,179,204,214, 216-18,227-8,289-90,295,300,307,317,
Jndex
338,350; marginalized status, 6, 21, 56, 89-90, 117,216--17; tudesco, 89, 117; see also cemeteries. Ashkenazi Synagogue of Kingston, Great Synagogue, Kahal Kadosh Mikveh Israel, Neveh Shalom Synagogue of Paramaribo; Rodeph Shalom asiento. 95, 103, 317; see also slave trade, slavery Athias, Joseph (ca 1635-1700), xxii avodah zarah (idol worship), 129,317; see also gravestone symbols awakenings, 19--20,211,281-90,307-8,317, 319,326,355; Era ofShabbctai Zevi, xxii-xxiii, 278--9, 290-3, 319; First Converso Migration, xx.i-xxii, 287-90, 299, 319; First Great Awakening, 281-2, 286. 288, 319; Puritan Awakening, 286, 288, 290, 326; Quotidian Interlude, xxvi-xxv, 288; 294-7, 326; Second Converso Migration (Shalial) Movement), xxv~-xxvii, 135,288, 295,297-300,327; reshuvah movement, 283-4,288,328 Azulai, I;Iayyim Joseph David (1724-1806), xxv-xxviii, 175, 181-3, 193,198,207,209, 211,297.337; diaries (Ma'agal rov), xxvi, 175, 181-2, 198,207,209,211,337; and sugar sculpture, 181-3,211 banadeira see mikvch Barbados, xvi, xxii-xxiv, 5, 7, 26, 30, 40, 41,
43-5,48,75,83,84,88,94,103,116, 126, 129,130,134,170,175, 176, 187~90, 194, 208,209,211-13,215,228,231,243,253, 270,279,291,292,293,295,296,300,301, 303,304,309,315,332,333,365,366; Bridgetown, xvi, xxiv, 44, 116, 129, 175,
176, 194,208,304,309,332,333,365,366; Jewish population, xxiv, 304; slavery, 88, 94, !O3, 194,208,301-3; see also Nidhe Israel Synagogue Barbary Wars, 235, 243-4, 275, 3J7, 357 Barnett, Daniel, 253 Barnett, Lionel, 309, 337 Barrios, Daniel Levi de (alias Miguel de Barrios; 1625-1701), 11, 142,291 Barrow, Bella (ca 1720-73), 169-70 Baruch Alvares, David (d. 1692),309 bathing, 30, 35-7, 52, 54, 348; public baths, 36, 198; linen~eentered cleanliness, 36; see also mikva 'ot, spa culture, water cures Beckles, Hilary, 88, 117,337
370
Belisario, Moses (l8th-19th century), 253 Ben Israel, Manasseh (alias Manuel Dias Sociro; 1604--57), xxi-xxii, 16,23,29,34, 53,62-3,69-71,78-9,81,87-8,125-7,
133,165,175,232,299,337,350,359,361, 365; De Resurrectione Mortuornm, xxii, 175,337; Mikveh Israel, xxii, 23, 34, 53, 62-3,70-1,78,81,232,337; Seier Nishmat ijayyim,xxii, 125-7, 133, 175,337 Benveniste, Yael (d. (717), 172 Beneviste, Sarah de Jacob (d. 1740),267 Benoit, P.l, (Voyage Ii Surinam), 51, 338 Ben-Ur, Aviva, xvi, 10,22.23,51,53,56,93,
103,118,120,172,175,176,179,180,282, 307,309,338 bentshers, 205-6, 318; Bendicion Despues de Comer, 206 Berak,ha ve-Shalom Synagogue of Jodcnsavanne, 25, 50, 294, 316 Bernal, Abraham (16th-17th century), 253 Bet Tahara see House of the Rounds Bevis Marks Synagogue (Kahal Shaar ha~Shamayim) of London, xxiv, 5, 61, 63, 66-8,70, 74, 116.294,314,316,architec~, 66; records, 309,337 Bible, 64,147-8,176,212,216,224,234,239, 346; Ferrera Bible, 212; see also Torah Blackwell, Christopher. 306 bodies see embodied religion Boston, Massachusetts, xxv, xxvii, 81, 112, 231,244,273-4,301 Brandon see Abigail del Castil0 and Rodriguez Brandon Bravo, Abraham (d. 1706), 309 Bravo, Moses de Jacob (d. 1697), 309 Brazil, xvi, 41-2, 55,116,123,194,229,349, 359, 366 see also Magen Abraham of Maurica, Recife, ZUf Israel Synagogue British colonies, xxiii, xxvi-xxvii, 2, 5-6, 40, 96,106,1I7-18, 177, 194,214-15,219, 221,228,231,232,237.243,301-4,310, 340,358,360,362,365; see also Barbados, Charleston, Jamaica, Philadelphia., Newport, New York, Savannah Brown, Kathleen, 35, 53-4, 339 Brown, Vincent, 177,339 Buena Bivas, Isaac Hczekiah (d. 1660), 309 Bueno de Mesquita, Rachel (1807-37), 172 Buddingh, Bernard, 176, 339 Bullock, Steven, 251, 254, 276, 277, 339 burial societies see lzevra kaddisha
Campanal, Abraham (d, 1718), 136 Campos., Gracia (wife of Abraham Levi Vltoria; d. 1723), 163 Cardoso, Isaac (ca 1604-1683),205,210,339; Las e:xcelencias de los Hebreos. 205,210,
339 Cardozo, Rebecea(d. 1777), 177 Carilho see CariIho de Marchena, Marchena Carilho Carilho de Marchena. Sarah (d. 1730), 142 Caribbean, 1, 7, 34, 40-50,55-6,57,91, 96--108,110,117,118,120,123,126-7,
133-74,176,177,187-8,190-194,197-8, 200, 202, 208, 228, 230, 232, 270-2, 300-6, 309-11,321,329,332,335,336,337,345, 349,353,358,366; see also Barbados, Curayao, Jamaica, Martinique, Recife, St Eustatius, Suriname CarigaI, Raphael JJayyim Isaac (1733-77), xv. xxvi-xxvii, 19,57--9,74,76,82,145,147, 189, 2lt-34, 257, 297, 298, 345, 350, 352, 358; education, 213, 232; famity, 217; gravestone, 227; portrait, 213, 257; relationship with Ezra Stiles, 57-9. 76, 212-13,228,230; sermon, xxvii, 19, 74, 76, 82,211-34 Carlebach, Elisheva, 23, 82, 275, 309, 340 Cas.sard, Jacques (1679-1740),153,159,161,
165 Cassipora, Suriname, xxiii, 130, 176, 179,292, 309; see also cemeteries Castellano see Spanish language Castello, Josiah Raphael (d. 1699),130,176 Castilo, Abigail del (nee Brandon; ea
1778-97), 176 cemeteries, xv, xvi, xxi-xxiv, xxvii, I, IS, 18, 22,25,49-51,55,83,86,89,100-2,104, 106-8,110-11,113-14,120-1.123,126,
128,129-35,137,140-1,143,150,152, 153,157-9, 162,164,167-8,170,171,173, 174-9,264.266-7,271,273,279,285, 289-91,292-3,295-7,299~300,305,
307-11,318,321,327,334,338,340,343, 353,360,364,366; Afro-Curaryaoan cemeteries, 107-8, 114; Ashkenazi Bet JJayyim ofZeeburg (Netherlands), xxv, 295; Ashkenazi Cemetery of Kingston (Jamaica), xxvii; Barton Heights Cemeteries (the Burying Ground Society of the Free People of Color of Richmond), 113, 121; Hamburg Betahaim(Gennany), 126, 140, 157, 158,
371
Index
172,177.179,180,267,292-3,295,309. 366; Berg Altena Catholic Cemetery (Cura~o), 107-8,
114,271; Berg Altena
Jewish Cemetery (Curayao), 106-8, 267,
271, 279; Bel I;Iayyim Bleinheim (Curat;:Ro).
xxiii, 15, 104, 107, 123, 126, 133-5, 137, 140-1,143,150,152.157, 164, 167~8, 170, 173,178,264,266-7.279,292-3,366; Bet
I:Iayyim Jodensavanne (Suriname), xxiv, 25, 100-1,295-6; Bet I;Iayyim Ouderkcrk (Netherlands), xv, xxi~xxii, xxiv, 22, 55, 89,
114,126,128,131,143,153,157,158,168,
177.179,203,289-90,293,295,297,299, 308,309,334,340,365; Cassipora Cemetery (Suriname), xxiii, 126, 130, 176, 179,292,309; Chatham Square Cemetery
(New York), xxii, 126,285,300,305; Common Burying Ground (Newport),
110-11, 120,332,364; Coro Jewish Cemetery (Venezuela), 127, 175, 310, 353;
Creole Cemetery ofJodensavanne (Suriname), 101-2, 114,296; Da Costa Family Cemetery (Charleston, sq, xxvi; Dutch Protestant cemeteries, 158; Eastern European Jewish Cemeteries, 130; First Bet I:Iayyim of Spanish Town (Jamaica), xxiv, 295,296,309; First Cemetery at St James Place (New York), xxiv, 295; God's Little Acre (Newport), 110--11,364; Hunts Bay Cemetery (Jamaica), 168,292,296,309; iconographic program, 133, 174; Jewish cemetery ofOranjestad (8t Eustatius), xxvi, 49~50; Masonic cemetery (Curalfao), 266, 271; Mikveh Israel Cemetery (Philadelphia), xvi, 295, 343; Muiderburg Cemetery (Netherlands), xxii, 289; Nidhe Israel Cemetery (Barbados), 83, 126, 129, 134, 169, 176,292,295-6; Novo Bet f;Iayyim (London), 300; Old Ashkenazi Cemetery of Paramaribo (Suriname), xxv, 100,176,179; Old Kingston Jews' Cemetery (Jamaica), xxv, 295; Old Sephardi Cemetery of Paramaribo (Suriname), xxv, 100,134,176,179,180; Protestant cemeteries, 132, 157-9, 271; Second Bet l:Iayyim (Ashkenazi) of Spanish Town (Jamaica). xxvii; Second Jewish Cemetery (New York). xxviii; Touro Cemetery (Newport), xxiv, 1, 110-11, 126, 134,273, 285,295; Velho Cemetery (London), 126, 179,292,296,300,310; see also
gravestones, House of the Rounds. Castro see also Namias de Crasto, Orobia de Castro Castro, D.H. de, 22. 177, 278, 340 census, 90, of Newport (Rhode Island), 117, 306,347 Cesarani, David, 21,120.231,340,361,363 Chaplin, Joyce, S7, 117, 118,340 Charleston (South Carolina), xxvi-xxviii, 304. 316; Jewish population, 304; see also Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim children, xvii, 1. 3, 5, 17,25-6, 36, 47. 52, 83, 86. 97~99, 103, lOS, 106, 110,117, 124, 142,144-5.158,171,172,177,194,224, 238,303,306,362; death, I to, 144-5, 158, 177,306 childbirth, 26, 27, 32, 98 chocolate, 181, 198-201,209,340,362; chocolate bowls, 200--1; chocolatiers, 198 Christianity, xxv, 3, 5-6,10-11,20,21,23,35, 53,59-61,75,77, 78, 85~7, 95, 98,101, 110, 1I4, 148, 158-60, 175-6, 178.204-5. 213,224,227,235-8,242,245,252,254, 274,279,281-2,284.286,292,299.324-5, 336,337,350,357,359-61.365; Anglicans, 117, 247. 249; Catholicism. 5, II, 34, 62, 64,79,81,95,104,107-8,114,123-4, 126-7,160,217,221,225,227-8,241-3, 246-7,251,271,275,287,318,324-6,345; Congregationalism, 20, 249, 286-7. 318; Dutch Refonned Church, 95; Half-Way Covenant, 286, 320; Invisible Saints, 292, 321; myth of crypto~Christianity,59, 127; New Christians, xxv, 6, 21,114,160,204-5, 325,360; new Israelites, 59; New Testament, 148,226,278,281,357; Old Christians, 5, 87. 279; Pope, 247; Protestants, 19~20, 30, 33, 35-6, 59-62, 64. 75,77,79-80.86,91,106,109,120,130, 132,153,157-9,211-12,214-16,218,221, 222,225-6,230,247.250.271,281-2, 286-8.299,317-19,326.341,345; see also conversos, Protestant Church architecture, Puritans Chyet, Stanley, 207, 229, 230. 340 circumcision, 34, 91-5, 97-9,103,118,119, 123,126,136,186,224,229; circumcising slaves, 91~5, 97-9, 103, lI8, 119 cleanliness see bathing. impurity, mikva 'of, purity clothing, 9, 47, liS, 165-6,240,242,244'-5;
372
Index
Masonic apron, 265, 267-8, 270, 274; hats, 165-6,212; robes, 52, 165-6,212,245; vest, 245 clubs, I, 197,248-52,255; see also Masons coffee houses, 197~8, 249, 251, 261; rabbinical censures against, 197 Cohen see also Kohen, Kohenim Cohen, Robert, 56, 98,119,120,179,310,341 Cohen Lobatto, Judith (d. 1686). 172 Cohen Peixotto, Daniel {d. 1769),253 concubinage, 99, 103, 106-7, 112, 118. 120, 322,328,335; see also sex, Suriname marriage Constantinople, 3, 28, 241 conversion to Judaism, 33, 99,101,105,118, 119, 338; converting slaves, 91, 95. 99, 119 conversos, xxi-xxii, xxv-xxvi, 5, 11, 14,28, 34,59,62,69,75.87,114,117,118,124-6, 135,136,160-1,182,194,204,205,217, 219-22,224-5,227-8,233,236-8,241, 246,250,284,287-90,295,297-9,318~19,
327, 338; anusim, 124, 317; Queen Esther, 155, 160--1, 181,233; Jethro, 222~3; meshumadim, 124,324; marrano, 21,148, 174,323,357.360 convivencia, 182,203-4,319 cookbooks, 193. 204; The Complete Confectioner, 193; Experienced English House~Keeper. 193; Jewish Manual or Practical Information in Jewish & Modern Cookery, 193,208,210.356; recipes, 182, 184-5,193.203-4,207-10,345,356,359 Coro, Venezuela, xvi, lOS, 120, 127, 175, 198, 310,341,343,353 Coronado Reyes, Abclardo, xvi, 175,310,341 Coronel, Sarah (d. 1660). 309 COlTea see also Alvares Correa Correa, Esther daughter of Jacob Mendes (d. 1761),310 Costa see also cemeteries, Moses Curiel Costa,Isaacda{ca 1721-83),253 Costa, Uriel da (ca 1585-1640), xxii Coupe, Kent, xv, 107-8, 113, 120, 121, 157, 178,264,279,310,341 Coutinho, David (d. 1706), 309 Coutinho, Rebecca (ca 1676-1710),309 Crane, Elaine Ponnan, 20, 21, 120,230,306, 310,341 Cranston, Peter Junior (d. 1771), 110-11; parents, 111; master, III Creechurch Lane Synagogue of London, xxiii,
78,291 Cromwell, Oliver (1599--1658). xxii, 63 crypto-Jews, 27. 51, 59,118.179,220-1,233, 238,338,345,349; see also COllversos Culi, Jacob, xxv, 29, 31, 51-6,179,209,233, 297, 341, 351; see also Me-Am La 'ez Curayao, xvi, xxii-xxvi, 3. 5. 7,15,22,26. 33-4.40, 41. 47~50, 56, 75, 81, 82, 85, 90-1,93-5,101-14,118,120,121,123, 126-7,133-50,152-68,170-4,176,178, 187,190-2,198,203-5,207,211-12,214, 218,231,234,243,253,257,264,266,267, 270-2,278,279.291-3,295,297,298,300, 301,303-5,309,315,322,332,335,337, 339,341,343,346,347,357.359,366; asiento, 95, 103,317; Jewish population, 48,56,91,105,135,297,304-5,310; landhuizen,'103, 323; Puoda neighborhood, 143.153,165; slaveI}' in, 85, 90-1, 93-5, 101-14,118,303; taxes, 153; Willemstad, 7, 15,47,49,81,134,140-1,143, ISO. 152, 157,164,170,173,176,207,279,339,346, 359, 366;yu di hudiu, 91, 103, 105, 107-8, 114,329; see also De Vergenoeging Masonic Lodge, 19ualdad Lodge. Mikve Israel-Emmanuel Synagogue, Roi Canarije Plantation, Tempel Emanu-El Curiel, Jacob de David (d. 1663),309 Curiel, Moses {alias Jeronimo Nunez da Costa; 1619-97),13,23,290,308 Curtin, Philip, 121,341 cutlery, 199 d'Aguilar, Shabbetai {d. 1783),23 d'Argens, Marquis (1704-71), 239-42, 246, 247,275,276,341,342; The Jewish Spy, 239-42,245,275,338,341 Darhe Jesarim of Suriname, ~xvi. xxviii, 101, 298;godhuis,10I,320 De Vcrgenoeging Masonic Lodge, 272 . death, xvii, xxvii. 10-11, 13, 18,20,22,26, 27,32,52,89,98, Ilo-Il, 113, 118, 124, 127-34, 136-8, 140-6, 153, 155-62, 167. 168, 173, 174, 176-8, 195,204,213,225, 247,250,268,273,284,290,291,293-6, 299,300,305,309,310,319-21,329,339, 342,358,366; death impurity, 32, 52-3, 167; death of children, 98, 110-11, 145, 295; pangs ofthegrave, 132, 137, 141, 156, 178,292,299,321; stages, 136-74; see also afterlife, cemeteries, disease, gravestones,
373
Index
life expectancy Dclevante, Marilyn, 277, 342
Deetz, James, 132. 176, 178,342 Delbanco, Andrew, 20, 23, 308, 342, 348 Delvalle see also Davalc Delvalle, Daniel (l7th~ 18th century), 253, 262 democracy, 237, 250
embodied religion, 3, 9; corporeality of God, 16, 130; embodied Judaism, 3, 9, 16; Protestant conceptions of the early modern body, 35-6; separation ofthe soul from the body, 140-1, 161 emancipation, xxviii, 86, 117, 119, 355, 363 Emmanuel, Isaac and Suzanne, 22, 118, 120,
Diner, Hasia, 207, 307, 342 disease, 35, 144, 177, 190,244,296; see also
doctors. plague, water cures, yellow fever dishes. 186, 199-200, 205, 209; china, 2, 199-200; cups and saucers, 2, 199-200; plates, 200; teapots, 199-200 doctors, 35, 144,244-6
Douglas, Mary, 32 Dovale. David f::{ayyim, 264, 266--9 Dowry, 123, 136; Santa Companhia de Dolar Orphas, 136 Dritt Shul ofAmsterdam, xxiv; New Dritt Shul, xxvii
Dubin, Lois. 227, 234, 343 Duke's Place Synagogue of London, xxvii, 77,
343 Dura Europos Synagogue afSyria, 169-70,
179 Dutch, xxi-xxiii, xxviii, 2, 6, g, 21, 29, 30, 34, 40-2,47,51,62,64,68-9,75,77,79,95, 96,103,106,107,114,116,120,121,158, 165,166,189,194,203,209,243,246,289. 300,302-3,308,311,337,340,347-9,358, 365; Dutch cQlonics, xxii-xxiii, 2, 6, 21, 40-2,47,51, 55, 68~9, 75, 77, 96,194,203, 243, 302-~3, 365; Dutch language, 29. 62, 289; Dutch Reformed Church, 95; see also Amsterdam; Beit Haim Ouderkerk, Dutch West India Company, Suriname, Cural;':ao, Netherlands, St Eustatius Dutch West India Company, xxi, 103, 165 Duyckinck. Gerardus 1(1695-1746), 8 Duym, Lily, xvi, 45 earthquakes, xxiv, xxvi, 225, 287, 296-7, 299; Lisbon earthquake of 1755, xxvi, 225, 297; Port Royal earthquake of 1692, xxiv, 296 education, xxv, xxvi, 7, 9, 86, 89, 99,101,107, 165,213,217,218,231,232,250,281,325, 329,343; religious education in Cural;':ao, 101, 165,218,231,343; religious education in Suriname, 99; see schools, yeshiva Elior, Rachel, 220, 232, 343 Elizer, Isaac(ca 1718/20-1807), 253
Index
143, 168,174,176-80,231,234,276,278, 309,343 Endelman, Todd, 176,231,309,310,343 English language, xvii, xxvi, 28, 29, 62, 63, 76,79,208,213-14,218,229-30 Enlightenment, 33, 75, 89, 117,227,255-6, 285,321,323,344; Haskalah. 227, 234, 321, 323; project of comparative religion,
255-6 Erasmus, 76 eschatology, 13-14,85-6,155,159,161,166, 172,259,266,282,290-1,319,320 Esnoga see Portuguese Synagogue of Amsterdam estate inventories, 2, 7, 20, 21, 199-200, 208, 209,33 I Ettin, Miriam Gratz (1807-78), 309 Euro-African, 93, 96,100,318; see also African-American, Afro-Curayaoan, Afro-Surinamese, Judeo-Africans E:
