Metacognition Metacognition

n o i t i n g IN SPORT o c a t

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SYMPOSIUM June 22, 2011 Aidan Moran, tadhg macintyre, Craig Mahoney, ciaran kelly, derek dorris, Mark Campbell, p.j. smyth, & David Foster Wednesday 22 June 2011

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Metacognition and action: the road less travelled Tadhg macintyre, derek dorris, craig mahoney & aidan moran

Wednesday 22 June 2011

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The road not taken-What is metacognition “Thinking about thinking” - lies at the heart of the construct of metacognition (see Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009). “Metacognition refers to “the scientific study of the mind’s ability to monitor and control itself or, in other words, the study of our ability to know about our knowing” (Van Overschelde, 2008). Halpern (2003) defined it as “our knowledge of what we know” (p. 19) and also as “the use of this knowledge to direct further learning activities” on! gniti IN SPORT! o c a Met 3, 2, 1..what do we know!

thinking about thinking -Ted Hughes

metacognition and action: the road less travelled


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Types of metacognition In general, researchers distinguish between three types of metacognitive processes (Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009, pp. 2-3). (a) metacognitive knowledge - people’s declarative knowledge (“knowing that”) about cognition and beliefs about how their minds work. (b) metacognitive monitoring - refers to people’s ability to assess or evaluate the ongoing progress or current state of a particular cognitive activity. (c) metacognitive control - denotes regulating an ongoing activity – such as stopping the activity, deciding to continue it, or changing it in mid-stream. ! tion ogni IN SPORT! c a t Me 3, 2, 1..what do we know! Wednesday 22 June 2011

metacognition and action: the road less travelled 4

Why choose the road less travelled? Theoretical reasons 1. Just as the link between cognition and action needs more research (see Adam’s, 1987, quote below), so too does that between metacognition and action the investigation of action control is important because historically, cognitive psychology has been “preoccupied with disembodied perceptions … and indifferently concerned with translating perceptions and higher processes into ‘action” (Adam, 1987, p. 66). Historically, metacog research has focused more on intellectual skills rather than perceptual-motor skills (see Augustyn & Rosenbaum, 2005, p. 911) on! gniti IN SPORT! o c a Met 3, 2, 1..what do we know!



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Why choose the road less travelled? Theoretical reasons 2. Can help us to understand expert-novice differences

•

Experts have more insight into, and control over, their own mental processes (Moran, 2004).

• McPherson (2000) found that expert collegiate tennis players generated three times as many planning concepts as novices during “between point” periods in tennis matches.

• In 2009, Bransford and Schwartz argued that "it takes expertise to make expertise" (p. 432)

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Why choose the road less travelled? Theoretical reasons •2. Can help us to understand expert-novice differences •Where they really excel is in finding ingenious ways around their limited cognitive system (Gobet et al., 2011, p.238).

•Ericsson’s research raises the intriguing possibility that

continuous improvement is possible in skill-learning – even among people who have already achieved the proficiency level of experts.

• Ericsson’s theory is controversial because it suggests that “expert performance is not fully automated” (ibid., p. 39)

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Why choose the road less travelled? Theoretical reasons 3. It can help us to understand naturalistic decision making under pressure When team members have accurate and detailed representations of a problem they have developed shared mental models (Mascarenhas & Smith, 2011). Open skills within sport offer a fruitful arena in which to explore SMM, e.g., Barcelona effect-team-mates are able to anticipate one another’s movements and work fluidly together



Why choose the road less travelled? Practical reasons It aids problem solving

PST is essentially an exercise in metacognitive instruction (Moran, 1996) – in order to help athletes to become independent thinkers, we need to know what they know and believe about how their own minds work Metacognitive control processes are especially valuable because they allows people to change their behaviour strategically in accordance with task demands. on! gniti IN SPORT! o c a Met 3, 2, 1..what do we know!



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Taxonomy of Constructs

meta-arousal meta-learning meta-memory metacognition & PST

David Foster

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Meta-attention Meta-imagery

Mark Campbell

Tadhg MacIntyre metacognition and action: the road less travelled 10

Example 1-Meta-attention He says he is “looking for a nice key word to keep myself nice and smooth ... My key [word] isn’t working at the moment so we have to figure a way . . . everybody has their way of pulling the trigger and mine, focusing on the target, is very stale at the moment.”

• Metacognitive monitoring is a

when do you know to change your routine?

key element in the revision and adaptation of routines on! gniti IN SPORT! o c a Met 3, 2, 1..what do we know!



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Example 1: Meta-Imagery “In my head I can hit the ideal kick over and over again. In real life I probably can't but I reckon with the right preparation, understanding and conditions, like the ones in my mind, I could get damn close. Practising flawlessly in the mind without even venturing anywhere near a field can actually improve my physical skills and begin to close the gap between imagination and reality.” -Johnny Wilkinson Value of mental practice ! tion ogni IN SPORT! c a t Me 3, 2, 1..what do we know! Wednesday 22 June 2011

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Meta-Learning & Experts Representations image of desired ball trajectory

•Internal representations of

desired performance goal

experts are quantiatively different to non-experts (Ross et al., 2002).

•Ericsson et al., 1998) developed an model of the internal representations of expert golfers.

•Implication is that experts can

rapidly identify their incorrect swings based on very early cueswell before the ball comes to a stop (Ericsson, 2001)

representation for how to execute the performance goal

representation for monitoring one’s performance

execute desired shot

comparison between desired and actual shot


meta-imagery: beyond mental rotations


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Example 2: Meta-learning

positive intrinsic feedback ! tion ogni IN SPORT! c a t Me 3, 2, 1..what do we know! Wednesday 22 June 2011

redundant feedback


New Avenues •

Expert performance approach (Williams & Ericsson, 2005)

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Develop consensus on taxonomy of metacognition in sport

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Move beyond focus on memory and retrospective reports to prospective focus and topics such as planning and imagery.

Catching your thoughts ...and fishing them up at will... -Ted Hughes

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Methodological triangulation from qualitative to laboratory.

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Bridge building between cognitive and sport psychology. on! gniti IN SPORT! o c a Met 3, 2, 1..what do we know!



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Meta-attention in professional skills: beyond routines Mark Campbell & PJ Smyth


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Overview

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Meta-attention and metacognition Professional skills (sport) Routines and PPRs The role of reflection Visual attention; Eye tracking & the ‘quiet eye’

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Cognitive science, psychology, and education


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Historical perspective • •

Everyone knows what attention is… ‘Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration, of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a condition which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed, scatterbrained state which in French is called distraction’ (p. 404)

William James, 1890 The Principles of Psychology Wednesday 22 June 2011

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The effects of attention

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‘The immediate effects of attention are to make us a) Percieve b) Conceive c) Distinguish d) Remember e) Shortens ‘reaction-time’’ (p. 426)

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‘As concentrated attention accelerates perception, so,


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Reflective thinking… meta-attention!

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Analysis and abstraction- reflective thought relies upon reasoning and is central to the problem solving process

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Thinking & reflection as important aspects of learning (Dewey, 1933)…phases of reflective thinking

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P.15- ‘The nature of the problem fixes the end of thought, and the end controls the process of thinking’


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Meta-attention

• Defining Meta-attention? ability of an individual to think about and • The consider carefully the persons own processes of thought (Sternberg, 1996)

to knowledge of factors or processes that • Refers influence ones attention

• Paying attention to your own mental state • Self-regulation and self-awareness Wednesday 22 June 2011

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From attention to meta-attention Aristotle, Dewey, James, Kant, Piaget, Vygotsky, Habermas


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Professional Skills in Sport •

To perform effectively sports performers are required to execute a complex set of skills in a (near) perfect way

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Achieving a psychological state appropriate for executing well learned skills is crucial

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The ability to self-regulate…arousal, confidence, attentional focus, emotions… may be as critical as executing the skills themselves (Singer, 2002)


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Why not ask sportspeople about their routines?

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RITUAL or ROUTINE?

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The preparation stage prior to skill execution is crucial in determining whether the performer achieves a peak performance state (Bouthcher, 1990; Campbell & Moran, 2005; Campbell, 2006)


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Pre-Performance Routines •

Moran (1996)- PPRs ‘a sequence of taskrelevant thoughts and actions which an athlete engages in systematically prior to his or her performance of a specific sports skill’ (p. 177).

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Very popular…stemming from the belief that they enable players to concentrate effectively

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Implicit assumption that increasing the consistency of the routine will lead to enhanced performance (Jackson, 2003).


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PPRs assumption has not been consistenly • This substantiated of the suggested functions are based • Inonfact…all observed outcomes relating to performance 1 study to date has sought to explore the • Just individuals understanding of what functions the PPRs fulfilled for them (Cotterill, Sanders & Collins, 2010)


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PPRs (1992)- 5 main benefits that PPRs • Boutcher provide 1. Improving concentration 2. Helping the golfer overcome a tendency to dwell on negatives 3. Allowing the golfer to select the appropriate motor schemata 4. Preventing ‘warm-up’ decrements 5. Preventing the golfer from devoting excessive attention to the mechanics of automatic skills


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Rory Pre Shot Routine


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Anxiety?


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Ctd.


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PPRs

• •

Exactly how do PPRs beneficially effect performance?

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Cotterill et al 2010…‘the dominant function of the PPR that emerged…in this study was the routines’ function in controlling the allocation of attentional resources and, as a result, manipulating and controlling each participant’s attentional focus’ (p.62)

Few studies examining golfers (& SPs) thought processes, what strategies they use, and how they believe the routine aids their performance


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The Role of Reflection a socially mediated process much • Reflection… like Vygotskys notion of internal/ external speech

verbalisation is a reflective, • Internal metacognitive process aiding planning, strategy identification and application

• 3 crucial aspects of skills sporting or otherwise Wednesday 22 June 2011

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Reflection ctd.


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Modified expert-performance approach

Based on Williams & Ericsson, 2005 Wednesday 22 June 2011

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Visual Attention & Routines

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Green Reading (Campbell & Moran) QE & increasing our understanding of visual attention

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Visual attn and motor control

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Perception is not something that specifically only occurs through specific sensory apparatus (vis system) but is a kinaesthetic activity that includes all aspects of the body in action (Gibbs, 2005)

Embodiment- perception and action are not discrete (the role of your body in shaping your everyday cognition is paramount)


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Visual Attentional Control

• The Quiet Eye • Depth of processing • QE- A perception-action variable of QE can lead to increased • Knowledge processing and subsequent improved performance


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The Quiet Eye QE- Vickers- a phenomenon whereby sport performers display a final prolonged steady visual fixation at the target of their aim before executing the relevant motor action.

• •

QE period- 300-2000 m/s depending on the sport. Thought to reflect the performers attempt to establish cognitive control of relevant visual parameters prior to skill execution.


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What next?

• Think aloud protocols focus on the (cogn) • Greater processes & preparation strategies methodologies- qualitative & • Mixed methodological triangulation taxonomy needed for • Ametacognition Wednesday 22 June 2011

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Think Aloud Protocols In-depth Interviews: May lead to grounded theory, where researchers build a conceptual model inductively from data yielded from participants rather than deductively Think aloud verbal protocols: Required to talk about or give running commentary on their thoughts and actions as they tackle a problem Some limitations: Editing problem from sheer volume of data Protocols limited to consciously attributable processes People more self conscious / guarded?


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• Thank you • Any questions? • Contact• [email protected] Wednesday 22 June 2011

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meta-imagery: beyond mental rotations tadhg macintyre, ciaran kelly & Aidan Moran


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Mental Imagery Defined Mental imagery -the cognitive simulation process by which we can represent perceptual information in our minds in the absence of appropriate sensory input (Munzert et al., 2009) 1. Is PP + MP > PP? 2. Is it better to imagine an action from your own-eyes view, than from a video-camera view?

Questions for You

3.Do we typically imagine movements in real time? ! tion ogni IN SPORT! c a t Me 3, 2, 1..what do we know! Wednesday 22 June 2011


The Big Picture • History of imagery research • The turning point • What is meta-imagery • New paradigms • Meta-imagery findings • Implications & New Horizons


Over 200 studies have been conducted investigating the role of imagery in just sport settings alone. -Short et al., (2006)



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Century of Individual Differences Research • Do you experience imagery across the senses? (Betts, 1909)

• Is your visual imagery vivid? (Marks, 1973)

• What do you use imagery for? (Hall et al., 1990)

• How easy is it to see/feel imagery of movement? (Hall & Martin, 1997)

•Do you use imagery for motivation and cognitive purposes? (Hall et al., 1998)


Imagery lets you swim in Winter... -William James (1890)


Paradigm Shifts • Early structuralist approach relied upon introspection of “experts”

• Behaviourist manifesto led to

imagery being banished as a topic of study

• Cognitive revolution & IPP focused on measuring RT etc.

• Sport Psych: Mental Practice paradigm in sport

• Sport Psych: Imagery use (Who?

Behaviourism ultimately had a salutary effect on the study of imagery; it made it rigorous...the computer metaphor encouraged a kind of disembodied approach. -Kosslyn & Rabin (2001)

When? Where?)




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The Imagery Debate •

One criticism of the emergence of findings supporting the analogical account of imagery by Kosslyn (1980, 1994) was the tacit knowledge issue.

• Pylyshyn (1981, 2003) suggested that mental scanning & mental rotation findings were influence by the subjects explicit and implicit knowlege.

• Denis & Carfantan (1985) developed

Tacit knowledge is the knowledge a participant has about how their perceptual systems work, which isn’t always consciously available -Denis & Carfantan (1985)

a post-experimental questionnaire to check if subjects could predict imagery effects.



The Turning Points • Conflict in studies of MRT and debriefing of subjects led to the possibility of different strategies being used.

both Same

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Kosslyn et al., (2001) in PET study asked participants to imagine the objects rotated by either an external source or by themselves.

• motor areas were activated even

when participants mentally rotated non-body objects.

Different mechanisms can be used in mental rotation

• seminal study in motor cognition as opened avenue to motor imagery




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History of Meta-Imagery Individual differences in the use of imagery in cognition, besides encoding preferences and visuo-spatial skills, depend on metacognition (Katz, 1983) Antonietti (1999) suggested that sensitivity about knowing when imagery might be useful leads a person to succeed in representing and processing visually the problems which he or she face. Subsequent discussion by Cornoldi et al. (1996), Moran (2002) and first study by Weinberg et al., (2003) were among the first researchers to explore athletes’ beliefs about the relationship between imagery use and imagery effectiveness. ! tion ogni IN SPORT! c a t Me 3, 2, 1..what do we know! Wednesday 22 June 2011


What is Meta-Imagery Meta-imagery processes or athletes! knowledge of, and control over, their own mental imagery skills and experiences (Moran 2002) (a) meta-imagery knowledge - includes understanding MP effect, mental travel. (b) meta-imagery monitoring-refers to people’s awareness of their imagery and how if incorrect (e.g., missed putt) they can re-wind their image and re-edit the image. (c) meta-imagery control-includes any strategy that enables the athlete to adapt their imagery e.g., recall a prior successful putt to block out the examples of a missed putt. on! gniti IN SPORT! o c a Met 3, 2, 1..what do we know!



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Meta-Imagery Example 1 Visualising things is massively important. If you don!t visualise, then you allow other negative thoughts to enter your head. Not visualising is almost like having a satellite navigation system in your car, but not entering your destination into it. The machinery can only work if you put everything in there. Golfer Darren Clarke (2005)



Meta-Imagery Example 2 I imagine a little hoop between the sticks, like a gymnasium hoop, and I picture the ball going through that. -Ronan O!Gara

Imaginary augments perception on! gniti IN SPORT! o c a Met 3, 2, 1..what do we know!



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Meta-Imagery Example 3 Whether we're two points down, or we need this kick to pull eight points ahead, I put the tee down, look at the posts and eventually, mentally, return to the training ground where I've done this thousands and thousands of times -Jonny Wilkinson


context imagery meta-imagery: beyond mental rotations 52

Meta-Imagery Example 4 & 5

Context Imagery

I try to imagine that I’m in the closing stages of the marathon in London … I just visualize myself running up The Mall -Paula Radcliffe

My perception is that a good image is everything, a bad image is nothing -Richard Fox

Facilitative vs Debilitative




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Neglect of Meta-Imagery • Preponderence of pencil and paper measures (see Morris et al., 2005) and lack of conceptual clarity surrounding metacognition has stymied test development.

• Morris et al. (2005) bemoaned the fact that "research has focused largely on studies using novice of beginner performers! (p. 316).

• Few qualitative investigations of imagery processes in athletes (see MacIntyre and Moran 2007a,b; Munroe et al., 2000; White & Hardy 1998).

•As a result, a great deal remains to be discovered about the complexity and flexibility of athletes! use of imagery. ! tion ogni IN SPORT! c a t Me 3, 2, 1..what do we know! Wednesday 22 June 2011


Framework for Exploring Meta-Imagery Converging methods approach with qualitative and quantitative measures employed (Kosslyn, 1994) Motor cognition paradigm (Jeannerod, 2006) which aims to understand action rather than the traditional movement/motor control paradigms. Research questions were bridge between cognitive neuroscience and sport psychology (Moran et al., 2011) Expertise approach with pre-selected samples in order to access information rich expert accounts of metaimagery on! gniti IN SPORT! o c a Met 3, 2, 1..what do we know!



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Natural Laboratory of Sport • Elite athletes are not just

experts in movement execution but arguably are also experts in planning, metacognition and reflection.

• Sport samples selected on the basis of task demands of the activities.

• Typically semi-closed skills with high skill to effort ratio.

• Golf, place-kicking in rugby & canoe-slalom.


Canoe slalom is chess on water meta-imagery: beyond mental rotations 56

Mental-Imagery in Action




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Meta-imagery control • Any strategy that a person uses in attempting to regulate and/or improve his or her imagery

(a)

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Athletes reported holding their implements (e.g., golf club) during imagery

(b)

•Moving physically during imagery • Quasi movements (Nikulin et al., 2008)

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Tentative support for holding implements during imagery (Guillot et al., 2005) ! tion ogni IN SPORT! c a t Me 3, 2, 1..what do we know! Wednesday 22 June 2011

(a) asynchronous movements (b) synchronous movements


Meta-Imagery knowledge • Role of Imagery- “I always had a good first run and most people

don’t have a good first run, because they are still missing the practice run and I don’t miss it, because I imagine it.

• Role of Kinaesthetic Imagery- “Feeling rather than actual

mental images, or the typical imagery, you must feel the movement, my heart rate always goes up doing imagery.” that much because I imagine it.” • Context images- “You see the course for the first time, you can start seeing different gate combinations, you can imagine what the bleachers are going to look like, what the set-up is, we try to imagine, how you've never been to Australia, what the surrounding are going to be like.” on! gniti IN SPORT! o c a Met 3, 2, 1..what do we know!



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Meta-Imagery-monitoring & control When athletes experience a debilitative image (e.g., a missed putt) they, by monitoring their imagery content, can choose to stop the imagery, rewind it, and attempt to imagine the desired action or outcome (i.e., a successful putt). Athletes in our studies gave accounts of this process of ‘‘rewinding’’ their images if they experienced debilitative imagery. Some deliberately engaged in imagery of undesirable outcomes (e.g., an errant drive in golf) to facilitate the generation of an appropriate response, a type of ‘‘what-if’’ imagery. ! tion ogni IN SPORT! c a t Me 3, 2, 1..what do we know! Wednesday 22 June 2011


Meta-Imagery Model




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Implications & Conclusions

• Clarity of taxonomy of metacognition in sport

• Development of a valid test of meta-imagery

1. Is PP + MP > PP?

• definition of imagery expanded to

2. Is it better to imagine an action from your own-eyes view, than from a video-camera view?

• Interdisciplinary

3.Do we typically imagine movements in real time?

• Research with other expert samples

include quasi-movements (practice swing?) research programme with sport & cognitive psychology ! tion ogni IN SPORT! c a t Me 3, 2, 1..what do we know! Wednesday 22 June 2011

Yes

No Yes


Resources




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Metacognition in Psychological Skills Training within Sport David Foster


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After this session you should be able to reflect upon: • The nature of metacognition • The disparity between metacognitive research in education vs. sport • What is Psychological Skills Training (PST)? • Possible frameworks for applying metacognition to PST • Engagement issues and PST: a metacognitive perspective. Wednesday 22 June 2011

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What is metacognition? Metacognition is… • ‘Thinking about one’s own thoughts’ ! ! al, 1998, p. 3)

(Hacker et

• ‘Having knowledge or awareness of one’s own ! cognitive processes’ (Statt, 1998, p. 57 ) • ‘Knowledge & cognitions about cognitive, ! affective, perceptual and motor human ! characteristics’ (Flavell, 1987, p. 21).


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What is metacognition? ‘Meta’ and ‘object’ levels and suggested flow of information in metacognitive processes

Nelson & Nahrens (1990) Wednesday 22 June 2011

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Metacognition and education Karen is learning to use a computer. She spends a lot of time sitting at the machine. She reads the instructions for the program and uses trial and error to find her way through the procedure. When she makes a mistake, she repeats the sequence, and then repeats it with different input, testing alternative possibilities. No one has taught her this, but she is intrigued by the machine and is resolved to explore its operation. She is working thoughtfully and systematically according to a mental plan... Taken from Nisbet & Shucksmith (1986, p. 5)


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Metacognition and education • Metacognition has been studied extensively in education. Areas include: ! -Problem solving ! -Maths ! -Reading ! -Self-regulated learning ! -Teaching (c.f. Hacker et al, 1998; Hartman, 2002)


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Metacognition and sport Sally practiced three days a week to improve her golf skills. Over the next few weeks, Sally set daily goals and monitored her progress in all aspects of the game to see how she improved. When she needed help with her short game, Sally asked Lynne for help and took lessons. She began to watch LPGA tournaments on television with her mom, who also took Sally to the driving range and practice green to work on her skills. Sally watched her mom-a former collegiate playerpractice her swing; then she tried to imitate many of her mom’s swing mechanics... Sally was motivated to learn more about the game of golf, and she looked forward to playing in future golf tournaments. Taken from Petlichkoff, L.M. (2008, p. 269)


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Metacognition and sport •

Athletic expertise depends on ‘the consistent successful use of self-regulated cognitive strategies’....where successful athletes are performers ‘who constantly monitor themselves from level of physical conditioning to mental preparation’ (Chen & Singer, 1996, p. 244)

•

Very few studies of metacognition related to sport contexts

•

Some studies have examined aspects of metacognition – e.g. awareness of sport specific knowledge (French & McPherson, 2003); self regulation (Kirschenbaum, 1984, 1987), etc.


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Applying metacognition to Psychological

Skills Training (PST) within Sport

What is Psychological Skills Training (PST)? • • •

Vealey, (1988) made the distinction between psychological skills and psychological methods Psychological skills are aptitudes which help performers in sport – e.g. confidence, optimal levels of arousal and attention, self-awareness, etc. Psychological methods are techniques often taught by sport psychologists as part of PST. These include: selftalk, goal setting, imagery and performance profiling (Hemmings & Holder, 2009).


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Applying metacognition to PST Frameworks for applying metacognition • Schraw (2002) argues that there are two components to metacognition: ! (1) Metacognitive knowledge - is knowledge about own and other’s cognitions and include ! - declarative knowledge (knowing “about” things) ! - procedural knowledge (knowing “how” to do things) ! - conditional knowledge (knowing the “why” and ! “when” aspects of cognition). Wednesday 22 June 2011

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Applying metacognition to PST Frameworks for applying metacognition continued (2) Regulation of cognition – the activities that control cognitive enterprises. These include: ! - planning (selection of strategies and allocation of ! resources to a task) ! - monitoring (real time awareness of task ! performance) ! - evaluating (appraisal of aspects of task ! performance) • Both metacognitive knowledge and regulation of cognition are related to each other (Schaw, 1994).


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Applying metacognition to PST: Flavell’s notion of Variable

Definition

Example

Person •

Intraindividual

•

Knowing yourself as a performer

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Knowing you are better at tennis than football

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Interindividual

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Comparing ability between individuals

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Knowing than Jill is better than John at tennis

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Universal

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Knowing a commonly held belief about performance

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Knowing that people with strong hand-eye co-ordination are likely to excel in hitting games

Task

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Knowing the characteristics, constraints, parameters and demands of a task

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Knowing that taking a penalty requires a different type of concentration to running a marathon

Strategy

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Knowing how to proceed to perform a specific task

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Tactical awareness


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Applying Flavell’s Framework Sally practiced three days a week to improve her golf skills. Over the next few weeks, Sally set daily goals and monitored her progress in all aspects of the game to see how she improved. When she needed help with her short game, Sally asked Lynne for help and took lessons. She began to watch LPGA tournaments on television with her mom, who also took Sally to the driving range and practice green to work on her skills. Sally watched her mom-a former collegiate playerpractice her swing; the she tried to imitate many of her mom’s swing mechanics... Sally was motivated to learn more about the game of golf, and she looked forward to playing in future golf tournaments.

Task variable

Person variable

Strategy variable Wednesday 22 June 2011

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Applying metacognition to PST Cognitive regulation • Many PST techniques involve the regulation of cognition in addition to increasing metacognitive knowledge • Performance profiling (Butler & Hardy, 1992) involves athletes evaluating their strengths and weaknesses as a performer • Goal setting (Locke & Latham, 1990) involves skills of both skills planning and monitoring. Wednesday 22 June 2011

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Performance Profiling / Goal setting

Generation of concepts = metacognitive knowledge of person/task; scoring concepts = evaluation Wednesday 22 June 2011

Generation of goals = metacognitive knowledge of task/strategy; Goal maintainance = planning/monitoring. 78

Engagement issues and PST Age-related issues • It has been proposed that youngsters may not have the metacognitive apparatus to engage fully with PST (Foster & Weigand, 2008) ! - Luke & Hardy (1999) found little metacognitive ! ability shown in P.E. Lessons by 11-14yr. olds • Possible link between Piaget’s Formal Operational stage of cognitive development and metacognitive ability.


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Engagement issues and PST Mature athletes • Anecdotal evidence suggest that some mature athletes also struggle with PST • Is this due to a lack of metacognitive knowledge? Or cognitive regulation? Or both? • Possible role for sport psychologists to scaffold both youngsters and mature athletes in metacognitive aspects of psychological skills/methods • Much scope for research in all these areas.


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[email protected] References available on request


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