Methodological choices in work-life balance research 1987 to 2006: a ...

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Chang, Artemis and McDonald, Paula K. and Burton, Pauline M. (2009) Methodological choices in work-life balance research 1987 to 2006 : a critical review. International Journal of Human Resource Management

© Copyright 2009 Taylor & Francis

RUNNING HEAD: METHODOLOGICAL CHOICES IN WORK AND LIFE BALANCE

METHODOLOGICAL CHOICES IN WORK-LIFE BALANCE RESEARCH 1987 TO 2006: A CRITICAL REVIEW

Artemis Chang, Paula McDonald, Pauline Burton School of Management Queensland University of Technology GPO Box 2434, Brisbane, Queensland 4001, Australia Tel: (61) 7 3138 2522 Fax: (61) 7 3864 1313 e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Methodological Choices in work and Life Balance

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METHODOLOGICAL CHOICES IN WORK-LIFE BALANCE RESEARCH 1987 TO 2006: A CRITICAL REVIEW

This study reviewed methodological choices (sampling frames, constructs investigated and measures used) in 245 empirical work-life balance papers published in a range of disciplinebased peer-reviewed journals between 1987 and 2006. Results show that work-life balance studies need to establish greater consistency between the conceptualization of constructs and the operationalization of measures. There is also scope for well-designed field experiments to establish clear causal relationships between variables. Sampling choice in previous literature is somewhat constrained and may be enhanced by targeting single and same-sex parent families, manual and lower-skilled service workers, and employees providing eldercare. Researchers should also be more transparent in providing rationales for their choices of organizations or group lists used to target respondents. The findings have significant implications for understanding, interpreting, and utilizing the contemporary work and family literature.


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METHODOLOGICAL CHOICES IN WORK-LIFE BALANCE RESEARCH 1987 TO 2006: A CRITICAL REVIEW Introduction The way individuals balance their work and non-work lives is an area of academic enquiry that has received increasing scrutiny over the past two decades. Theoretical orientations and the operationalization of their related constructs in empirical research have evolved and developed in response to, or at least in parallel with, the progressively higher profile of worklife balance issues and concerns in the media, the rhetoric of political and business leaders, and organizational policy and human resource priorities. These factors in turn have arisen from significant demographic and technological shifts in industrialized societies. Fundamental changes include an increased proportion of women (and particularly mothers) in the paid workforce, greater numbers of dual-earner couples and single parents, demand for workplace flexibility and public support for childcare and eldercare, and the rapid expansion of information technology allowing work portability (Sullivan and Lewis 2001; Greenhaus and Powell 2003; Noor 2002a; Pitt-Catsouphes and Christensen 2004). The expanding literature base and the significant potential human impact of work-life balance as an area of enquiry have also prompted a number of recent reviews. These reviews include meta-analyses of findings related to a construct of interest (Kossek and Ozeki 1999; Byron 2005), monographs that summarize a specific topic (Thornthwaite 2004; Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux and Brinley 2005; Greenhaus and Powell 2006) or more rarely, methodological reviews which explore design, data sources and analytic techniques (e.g. Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1999; Casper, Eby, Bordeaux, Lockwood and Lambert 2007). These studies reflect an increasing emphasis on assessing how researchers investigate real world problems in a given area of study.


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This paper presents a systematic review of the empirical work-life balance literature published between 1987 and 2006. Organizational researchers develop and conduct empirical studies that build on the findings and insights from previous ones, accumulatively building a robust knowledge base that human resource professionals can utilise to inform a range of organizational policies and interventions. The methodological choices that underpin this knowledge base are critical because any foundational understanding of a phenomenon is bounded by these choices. We investigated questions around how variations of work-life balance constructs were conceptualized and operationalized, the characteristics, location and size of study samples and the disciplinary areas where work-life balance research is published. Hence, the paper provides HR researchers and practitioners with a critical lens through which to interpret and utilize the current work-life literature. Despite the significant implications of methodological choices, systematic analyses of various approaches to research methods across the work-life balance literature are scarce. Casper et al.’s (2007) recent methodological review provided a summary of these choices for research papers published from 1980 to 2003 in the industrial and organizational behaviour (IO-OB) literature. However, our paper extends Casper et al.’s (2007) review in a number of ways. First, we included additional studies published from 2003 to 2006, during which time work and family studies increased exponentially. Indeed, 69 percent of the work and family studies reviewed in our study were published during these years. Second, we reviewed constructs and measures as well as sampling choices, whereas Casper et al. (2007) focused on sampling, research design, and analyses. Importantly, we contrasted the use of ‘conflict’ as a central construct that was dominant in earlier work, with ‘balance’ and other constructs that highlight beneficial aspects of the work-life nexus, and which arise more frequently in recent work. Third, we reviewed work and family studies from a wider range of disciplinary areas (e.g. women’s studies, health, labour relations) beyond the IO-OB literature. The paper begins


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with a brief summary of the work and family literature, providing a context for the study and a description of the search strategy and coding systems utilized for data analysis. The findings of the study are presented in two major areas, ‘constructs and measures’ and ‘sampling characteristics’, with recommendations for future research directions.

Constructs and measures in the work-life balance literature We adopt the term ‘work-life balance’ in this paper because it broadly encompasses the array of different constructs that encompass the nexus between, or the day-to-day management of, paid work and other non-work activities. Work-life balance, as an inclusive term, has also become a commonly used descriptor amongst academic researchers in the area, being the subject of recent international, multidisciplinary conferences and commonly appearing in the titles of books and journal articles (e.g., Crooker, Smith and Tabak 2002; Glubczynski, Kossek and Lambert 2003; De Bruin and Dupuis 2004; Lambert and Haley-Lock 2004; Dex and Bond 2005). While they may not exist at opposite ends of the same continuum, two constructs dominate this area of academic enquiry. The first is ‘balance’, which has been defined as harmony or equilibrium between work and life domains (Clarke, Koch and Hill 2004; Comer and Stites-Doe 2006). The second is ‘conflict’ or ‘interference’, which is understood as negative or unbalanced outcomes of combining paid work and non-work activities. Workfamily conflict consists of two separate, though related, concepts: work conflict or interference with family, and family conflict or interference with work (Greenhaus and Powell 2006). Work-life conflict has been an integral part of the overall work-life balance literature and several meta-analyses have explored the antecedents and consequences of this construct (Kossek and Ozeki 1999; Byron 2005). However, it is unclear the extent to which balance versus conflict is utilized as a key construct in the literature and how these terms are


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operationalized as outcome or dependent variables, compared to input or independent variables. Other constructs have also recently emerged as potentially important. These include ‘work-family enrichment’, which is defined by Greenhaus and Powell (2006) as the extent to which experiences in one role improve the quality of life in the other role. Work-life enrichment attempts to re-focus the area of enquiry away from conflict and tension, which has typically characterized the work-family literature (Pitt-Catsouphes and Christensen 2004), towards some of the positive outcomes of work-life participation. The term ‘work-life culture’ has also recently emerged as an area of critical interest. It is defined by Thompson, Beauvais and Lyness (1999, p. 394) as “the shared assumptions, beliefs, and values regarding the extent to which an organization supports and values the integration of employees’ work and family lives”. Work-life culture and its alternative terms have been used in previous research to attempt to explain phenomena such as how organizations develop work-life policies, rates of uptake of flexible work arrangements and the success of work-life programs (Haas and Hwang 1995; Sherer and Coakley 1999; Kim 2001; Wise and Bond 2003). The theoretical underpinnings and dimensions of work-life culture have also been discussed (see Thompson et al. 1999; Allen 2001; McDonald, Brown and Bradley 2005).

Critiques of sampling issues Casper et al. (2007) reviewed a range of socio-demographic characteristics of samples, including sex, marital status, child characteristics, race, hours worked, education and occupation, and reported that much relevant information regarding samples is omitted from descriptions of work-family research. This pattern of results highlights the difficulty of evaluating whether existing research is likely to generalize to workers who are diverse in terms of family configuration or industry (Casper et al. 2007). Where sample characteristics


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were reported, samples were homogenous and excluded several important groups including diverse racial and ethnic groups, distinct cultures and non-traditional families (Casper et al. 2007). Other authors have also argued that much of the work-life balance literature continues to be derived from data collected from dual-earner families while neglecting other groups such as single parents, same-sex couples and extended families (Parker and Hall 1992; McManus, Korabik, Rosin and Kelloway 2002; Noor 2002b; Perrone 2005). Employees in small workplaces, at the expense of large ones (MacDermid, Williams, Marks and Heilbrun 1994), have also been relatively under-sampled. These critiques are useful in identifying where the generalizability of findings might be limited and the types of target samples future research could address (e.g. non-professionals, single parents, same-sex couples). However, they are not substantive in understanding the true extent of focus on specific groups such women, professionals or dual-earning couples because the critiques are rarely empirically based. The location of research which accumulates in any given area of interest has a substantial impact on the kind of information collected over time (Scandura and Williams 2000). The majority of work-life balance research has been conducted in Anglo-Saxon countries that are comparable in nature (e.g. the United States and Canada), with most samples being confined to a single country (Poelmans et al. 2003). The concentration of research conducted in Anglo-Saxon countries is problematic because findings cannot necessarily be extended to other locales or populations of interest, particularly those which are culturally diverse or which have lower female or dual-earner labour force participation rates (Poelmans et al. 2003; Poster and Prasad 2005). Though some recent studies have addressed this problem of investigating work-life balance phenomena in countries which are culturally dissimilar to Western, industrialized ones (Rosenbaum and Cohen 1999; Noor 2002a, 2006; Foley, Hang-Yue and Lui 2005), only a handful have used cross-cultural methods of analysis


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by sampling in countries with obviously different cultures (Joplin, Shaffer, Francesco and Lau 2003; Korabik, Lero and Ayman 2003; Poelmans et al. 2003; Poster and Prasad 2005). PittCatsouphes and Christensen (2004) argue that the concentration of sampling in industrial countries is changing for the better, with recent interest in cross-national and cross-cultural studies challenging work-life assumptions which are both country and culture bound. However, the extent to which cross-cultural studies have become a research focus has not been empirically determined.

Methods The following research questions were explored: 1. How has work-life balance research been conceptualized? What key constructs were investigated and how are they operationalized? 2. What sampling strategies have been used in quantitative and qualitative work-life balance research? How were participants accessed and recruited into the studies? 3. What characteristics do samples have? a. What sample sizes were used? b. Which occupations and industries, genders and family characteristics were targeted? c. How do these samples correspond with populations of interest? 4. In which countries / geographic regions were studies typically situated?

Database search and criteria for inclusion A total of 245 journal articles were analyzed. They were included in the review if they met the following criteria:


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a. The abstract was available from the databases of EbcsoHost and/or Proquest. All available databases within Proquest were used, while in Ebscohost, the specific databases of Academic Source Elite, Business Source Elite and Psychinfo were searched. b. The article was an empirical study, that is, it included a sampling process, measurement and analysis. c. The article was published in a peer-reviewed journal, that is, journals with an editorial review board whose academic affiliation is identified, before 31 December 2006. d. The full-text article was published in English (some full-text articles were published in another language with only the abstract available in English). e. The article included at least one of the following terms: work-life balance; work-family balance; work-life conflict; work-family conflict; work-life interference; work-family interference; work-life culture; work-family culture.

The initial search strategy involved identifying key terms in the article’s citation, which yielded 1,133 articles, from which book reviews, conceptual papers and commentary-type articles were deleted. A further 26 studies identified in our initial search were published in a language other than English, which we excluded. Of these studies, 23 were published in European languages (nine German, one Czech, four Spanish, one Serb-Croatian, three Finnish, three French, two Italian) and three were published in an Asian language (one Korean, one Chinese, one Japanese). For pragmatic reasons we also confined our sample to those which included the search terms in their key word lists (N = 245) and excluded articles which used the terms in their titles or abstracts, but not key word lists (N = 118). In order to confirm the representativeness of this strategy in terms of discipline area, we compared our final sample with the second group of studies using the search terms in the title/abstract. Both groups of articles were derived predominantly from journals associated with psychological


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science (39% and 42% respectively) and management (17% and 28% respectively), with similar, smaller numbers from other disciplines (e.g. industrial relations, health, women’s studies). Of the 127 journals which published the final sample of 245 articles, some published papers on work-life balance frequently, such as The Journal of Vocational Behavior (24 articles), Journal of Occupational Health Psychology (14 articles) and Journal of Family and Economic Issues (9 articles). The majority of journals however, only contained one or two publications. The full-text of each article was obtained either electronically (where available) or in hard copy via our library’s access service. The analysis proceeded by systematically coding the articles using an Excel spreadsheet using headings consistent with the research questions.

Coding processes Constructs and measurement Dummy variables were created in the spreadsheet for the following codes: (a) whether the study was conceptualized as ‘work-life’ or ‘work-family’; (b) the key constructs investigated, for example, ‘Conflict /Interference /Spillover /Role Overload’; ‘Balance’, ‘Enhancement/Enrichment’, ‘Fit’ or ‘Other’ (with specification); (c) whether the study conceptualized the key construct(s) as two directional (e.g., work to life and life to work); (d) the instrument used to operationalize key concepts; and (e) whether the key construct was operationalized as the Independent Variable, Dependant Variable, or Mediator. Multiple entries were made when a study examined more than one construct or used more than one instrument. Research constructs were coded according to the operational definition adopted in the study. For example, earlier studies often operationalized ‘balance’ as a dependent variable by using a combination of conflict and satisfaction / functioning measures. Two researchers


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coded all categories of sampling and constructs / measurement and agreement was high (at least 95% for all categories).

Sampling Data related to sampling categories were summarized according to: (a) year of publication; (b) discipline of journal; (c) research design (field versus experimental; cross-sectional versus longitudinal); (d) quantitative versus qualitative methodology; (e) gender breakdown of sample; (f) sampling procedures (e.g., stratified random, purposeful); (g) occupational group(s); (h) country of sample; and (i) industry. Industry was coded according to categories used by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). These categories are similar to those used in other countries (e.g. United States Department of Labor, United Kingdom Office for Statistics) where work-life balance research is commonly situated. Examples of industry codes included Primary industry; Mining; Manufacturing; and Retail trade. Where more than one industry was used to access a sample in a single study, all industries/occupations were counted. Occupational groups were coded as (i) higher skilled professional, technical and managerial occupations (corresponding with the ABS categories Managers and Administrators, Professionals and Associate Professionals); (ii) manual occupations (Corresponding with the two ABS categories Tradespersons and Labourers) and (iii) service type occupations such as retail, hospitality and clerical workers (corresponding with the three ABS Clerical Sales and Service Workers categories).

Results and discussion Overview of studies


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The first study reviewed was published in 1987. The area received only minor scrutiny up to 2000, during which time 10 or fewer studies were published each year. By far the majority of studies--172 of 245 or 69%--was published in the years 2004, 2005 and 2006. This trend was similar for both quantitative and qualitative studies. For example, only three qualitative studies were published prior to 2003. This indicates a sudden explosion of interest in the area early this century1, as opposed to a steady progression of interest over time. The 245 articles in our sample (77.6% quantitative, 22.4% qualitative) were published in 127 different journals from a wide range of different academic disciplines, including health (medicine, psychiatry, dentistry, nursing), law, public administration, sociology, family studies, economics and industrial relations. Table 1 illustrates some of the journals that published our selection of articles and those reviewed in Casper et al’s (2007) review. In comparison to Casper’s paper, our study included non-IO-OB journals, as well as international IO-OB journals such as Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient. The differences between our list and Casper et al.’s (2007) for publications prior to 2003 could be attributed to our use of both Academic Source Elite and Business Source Elite databases to complement our searches of PsychINFO. Table 1 also demonstrates the dramatic, recent increase in published work-life balance research from a range of disciplinary perspectives. Insert Table 1 about here Constructs and measures Work-Family vs. work-life While researchers have called for a better understanding of ‘work-life’ balance, studies which conceptualize their research designs as work-life are relatively small compared to those which use the narrower ‘work-family’ term. Only 9% of quantitative studies and 26% of qualitative 1

Most research published from 2004 onwards would likely have been conducted several years earlier, due to the time taken to collect data, write articles, and the peer review process of journals.


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studies examined work-life issues specifically. Indeed, the first quantitative work-life study was published as late as 2003 (Hill, Ferris and Martinson, 2003), followed by four papers published in 2004, five in 2005, and five in 2006. The first qualitative work-life study was published in 2004, followed by nine in 2005 and two in 2006 . The term ‘work-life’, as distinct from ‘work-family’, is suggestive of issues that extend beyond immediate kin and therefore reflects the concerns of workers with and without dependent children, infirm parents or others requiring care (Lambert and Haley-Lock 2004). Furthermore, while work-family balance encompasses work and home (Clark 2000; McFarland 2004; Lyness and Kropf 2005), work-life (balance, conflict, fit) tends to be broader in scope, encompassing domains such as home, financial security and leisure under the umbrella of ‘life’ (Warren, 2004). PittCatsouphes and Christensen (2004) suggest the nomenclature of the work–family area of study has put boundaries around the issues to be studied, possibly reflecting assumptions about the insularity of work and home life. In contrast, Gurvis and Patterson (2005) suggest that work-life balance involves having sufficient time for all experiences: career, family, friends, community, and leisure pursuits. Crooker et al. (2002) extend the components of work and life further to include personal resources such as family, community, employer, profession, geography, information, economics, personality or values. However, despite these discussions about extending the parameters of focus in balancing paid employment and nonwork domains, to date, published research is largely conceptualized as the nexus between work and family. Insert Table 2 about here

Conflict vs. balance. Quantitative and qualitative studies differed in their research focus. Of the 189 quantitative studies, 140 examined conflict-related constructs. One hundred and thirteen publications


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measured conflict itself, 23 measured interference, 15 spillover and six role overload. Some studies measured more than one of these constructs. Of the quantitative studies which measured conflict, 60 conceptualized and operationalized the construct as two-directional (work to family, family to work). Studies that measured work-family conflict and familywork conflict first appeared as early as the late 80s (Greenhaus and Beutell 1985 for theory; Frone, Russell and Cooper 1992 for measures). However, it was Carlson, Kacmar and Williams’ (2000) paper that triggered a significant increase in the use of this approach because it conceptualized and validated a multi-dimensional instrument for use in subsequent research. Fifty of the 60 studies which measured conflict as bi-directional were published after 2001. Of the remaining 49 quantitative studies which did not conceptualize the research as conflict, 31 studied balance (note that many of these studies operationalized ‘balance’ as low conflict or high satisfaction or functioning in both work and family/life domain), three examined satisfaction, family functioning and well-being and three studied facilitation/enhancement/ positive spillover. The remaining quantitative studies operationalized variables such as fit, culture, policy uptake, attitudes towards women, emotional exhaustion, and health and job outcomes. Thus, although the majority of research appears to situate itself in the positive realm of balance, especially in its discussions of key concepts and use of key words, when it comes to measures, research is in fact dominated by scales operationalizing conflict or interference. This emphasis on conflict is consistent with a recent review of 200 work-family studies published between 1980 and 2002 by Eby et al. (2005). These authors found that more than half (58%) predicted an unfavourable relationship between work and family and only 18% predicted a favourable association, indicating a focus on the negative or conflict area of the literature. The inconsistency between conceptualization and operationalization also suggests inconsistency in the way concepts are theoretically, and


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even rhetorically, discussed and the methods used to investigate them. Findings also revealed that the three dimensional balance measure proposed by Greenhaus, Collins and Shaw (2003) had not yet been adopted to study balance in subsequent research. It is possible that insufficient time has elapsed to assess whether the measure has been taken up, or alternatively, that researchers studying balance continue to favour measures of conflict/interference, as seen historically in the area. Greenhaus and Powell’s (2006) recently published model of work-life enrichment may go some way towards genuinely re-focusing this area of enquiry away from conflict and tension towards some of the more positive outcomes of work-life participation. The majority of quantitative studies measuring conflict used it as a major outcome or dependent variable (96), while 28 studies used conflict as an independent variable and eight studies used the construct as a mediator. A noteworthy finding was that only two out of the eight ‘mediation studies’ both conceptualized and tested the mediation relationships. Four did not specifically conceptualize conflict as the mediator in the model, instead identifying both the antecedents and consequences of work-family conflict, while two other studies conceptualized conflict specifically as a mediator in a schematic diagram but did not test the mediation effect in the analyses. Of the 56 qualitative studies, 24 identified balance as a goal and nine used balance as a DV. Seventeen papers used a conflict related framework (10 conflict, four spillover, two interference, and one role strain). Conflict was studied as a DV in seven studies, as an IV in three studies, and as a framework of inquiry in seven studies. Qualitative papers often began by employing a conflict-type framework, which generally identified and described a range of issues confronted by working parents, and concluded with strategies to manage these difficulties, either as findings reported by the participants, or recommendations for intervention made by the researchers. Thus, the majority of the qualitative studies conceptualized their research using balance as a goal to be achieved.


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Gender issues were often explored in qualitative studies (10 out of 56) in order to understand differential experiences of men and women with regard to conflict and balance.

Instruments used Forty-eight quantitative studies (25%) measured work-life issues using original measures developed specifically for the research. A further 35 studies either did not provide enough information to code measurement or did not specifically measure conflict, balance, fit or culture. The remaining quantitative studies utilized a range of previously published instruments. The most consistently cited measures of work-family conflict were Frone et al. (1992) and Kopelman, Greenhaus and Connolly (1983). Frone et al. (1992) assessed both work to family and family to work interference based on Greenhaus and Beutell’s (1985) conceptualization of work and family conflict, which was also used to develop study specific measures by three other publications in the study period. The measure was on average cited every two years from 1994 to 2002, increasing to one per year from 2003 to 2004, and three times in 2005. Kopelman et al. (1983), who conceptualized work conflict, family conflict and interrole conflict as distinct constructs, were cited eight times between 1989 and 2004, three times in 2005 and twice in 2006. Some studies which adopted Kopelman et al.’s (1983) measure did so only as one of the many measures used to assess work and family issues. For example, three studies adopted Kopelman et al. (1983) to assess work-to-family conflict whereas they used Burley (1989) to assess family-to-work conflict (see Table 3). More recently, Netemeyer, Boles and McMurrian (1996) developed a succinct, 10item measure of work-family and family-work conflict which demonstrated good reliability and validity. Since 2004, researchers have started to adopt this measure, with 14 citations being identified between 2004 and 2006. Also promising in its conceptualization of different types of interference as well as its validity was Carlson et al.’s (2000) multidimensional


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measure of work-family conflict. The instrument distinguished between time based, strain based, and behavior based work-family and family-work interference and was utilized in 16 studies between 1999 and 2006. The less frequently cited measures of work-family conflict were those by Burke, Weir,DuWors and Richard’s (1979) and Bohen and Viveros-Long’s (1981), receiving five and six citations in the last two decades respectively. However, Burke et al.’s (1979) work was cited only in the 1990s, whereas Bohen and Viveros-Long’s (1981) was cited in both decades. Hill et al.’s (2003) measure of work and family fit was used in three of Hill’s own studies. Neither Thompson et al.’s (1999) measure of work-family culture nor Greenhaus, Parasuraman and Collins (2001) multi-dimensional measure of conflict/ balance has had very much impact in the literature thus far. This is a somewhat surprising finding given that they offer new and promising perspectives in the study of work and life issues. A few instruments (e.g. Kopelman et al. 1983; Frone et al. 1992) were utilized more often than others, but there is clearly a need for more consistency and progress in relation to measurement in this area of literature. Netemeyer et al. (1996) and Carlson et al. (2000) offer the two most promising measures of work-family/family-work conflict in recent literature, in that their scales are short and multi-dimensional, yet reliable and valid. This is being reflected in the increasing use and adaptation of these measures in publications, especially from 2004 onwards. However, the development and use of scales to measure key variables such as worklife conflict/interference, balance or culture was rather ad hoc for a substantial number of studies we reviewed. Further, more than 10% of studies did not provide enough information about measurement to ascertain the validity of the corresponding findings. Establishing the relative validity and reliability of different scales is critical in any area of research in order to demonstrate that findings are robust, to establish the ‘best’ instruments for subsequent research and to ensure some consistency across studies for meta-analysis. When we also


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consider the previously identified lack of uniformity between descriptions of concepts, development of models and operationalization of variables, there is clearly a need for future research to consider more carefully the constructs and measures upon which it relies to draw conclusions and recommend changes to management policy and practice. Insert Table 3 about here

Sample characteristics and selection Sample characteristics were investigated to determine patterns in who is the focus of study and the extent to which these are generalizable to populations of interest. Relevant information about family characteristics was available in most studies but 19% of studies did not indicate the gender of respondents, 41% did not indicate occupations and 17% did not indicate industry. In the absence of consistent reporting of sample information, it is difficult to evaluate whether existing work-life balance research is likely to generalize to workers who are diverse in terms of these demographic characteristics (Casper et al. 2007).

Gender and family characteristics The gender breakdown of study samples was investigated to ascertain the degree to which women or men (or both) were the focus of the study. Men-only samples were utilized in only eight studies, while women-only samples arose in 39 publications. This finding is in contrast with Casper et al. (2007), who found an average 50% male participation rate in their sample of studies. This average figure reflected the sampling choices of the ‘survey’ study research design, which dominated Casper’s et al.’s (2007) sample (85%). The disproportionate numbers of female-only samples in our study reflect a greater number of qualitative publications (which were more likely to target women) and the inclusion of journals from a range of disciplines beyond IO/OB, especially in the areas of women’s studies and nursing.


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Nurses and teachers were over-represented in female-only samples. Eleven of the 39 studies using female-only samples included nurses (seven exclusively) and 10 used teachers (five exclusively). Of the male-only samples, five targeted fathers specifically (one quantitative, four qualitative) and of the female-only samples, 21 targeted mothers specifically (12 quantitative, nine qualitative). Only one male-only sample targeted manual workers, while four used groups of men in higher skilled occupations (senior managers, psychologists, professional sportsmen). The remaining male-only samples consisted of mixed-occupational groups. Approximately equal numbers of studies used mainly male samples or mainly female samples (defined as greater than 60/40 percent split, 40 and 39 publications respectively), while 74 studies were approximately gender balanced. Thus, although around half the studies reviewed were either gender-balanced or evenly split in their use of ‘mainly male’ or ‘mainly female’ participant groups, women, particularly mothers and those in traditionally female occupations, remain over-sampled in multi-disciplinary work-life balance research. This may affect the generalizability of questionnaire/interview responses to other groups, such as men or women working in non-traditional or male-dominated employment areas. The majority of quantitative studies (70.3%) utilized diverse samples of parent and non-parent and partnered and non-partnered individuals, whereas only one-third (34.8%) of qualitative studies used this sample composition. Seven qualitative studies (12%) interviewed ‘couples’ to understand how balance was achieved within family units, whereas only 12 out of the 189 quantitative publications (6%) measured work and family issues at the couple level. The few studies which employed direct comparisons of couple responses was in contrast to the larger number of studies which purported to investigate work and family issues at the couple level, again highlighting the inconsistency between conceptualization and measurement in the literature.


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Studies which specifically targeted parents or married/co-habiting couples (but in fact gathered data from only one member of the couple) constituted a minority of quantitative studies (16.8 and 9.9% respectively), but more than half of qualitative publications (52.2% and 6.5% respectively). Two studies (one quantitative, one qualitative) targeted single parents as a specific group or used them as a comparative group with partnered parents (McManus et al. 2002; Spencer-Dawe 2005). Only one study (quantitative) targeted same-sex parents (Tuten and August 2006). This focus on women, parents and/or married, co-habiting and dual earning couples, may be related to the historical emphasis on family responsibilities as opposed to broader ‘life’ concerns. It may even be appropriate given the continued gendered division of labour in most households and the resulting difficulties women face in balancing work and non-work responsibilities. However, if we accept that research should address the most compelling problems in society, there is clearly a need for a greater representation of, and in diverse samples a focus on, single and same-sex parents. That is, these sub-groups of parents are likely to experience unique difficulties in achieving work-life balance, not least because they often receive lesser instrumental support from a partner (in the case of single parents) and/or lesser acceptance of their roles from the community. Single parents also constitute a significant proportion (over one-fifth) of families with children (ABS 2001). Samples of individuals responsible for eldercare were similarly scarce (two quantitative studies: Gignac, Kelloway and Gottlieb 1996; Barrah, Shultz, Baltes and Stolz 2004), while five other studies (Buffardi, Smith, O'Brien and Erdwins 1999; Wang, Lawler, Walumbwa and Shi 2004; Dilworth and Kingsbury 2005; MacDonald, Phipps and Lethbridge 2005; Heymann, Penrose and Earle 2006) investigated the effects of eldercare in addition to other independent variables such as childcare. The impact of eldercare on employees’ ability to balance paid employment and caring commitments is clearly an area for future research. Around one-third of the 600,000 Australians who provide principal care for older relatives or


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friends are employed, while in the United States, individuals responsible for eldercare constitute approximately eight percent of the workforce (Buffardi et al. 1999; Greenhaus et al. 2003). To date, little work has attempted to identify whether the needs of employees who are responsible for eldercare, or the relationships between conflict, balance and their antecedent variables, differ from employees with other types of caring commitments (e.g. childcare, disability care). However, factors such as difficulty accessing aged care services (home-based and residential) and significant disruptions to the paid work patterns of carers, such as frequent absences from the workplace, reductions in hours worked and leaving employment altogether (ABS 2005), suggest that aged carers’ needs for work-life balance initiatives are not well catered for or understood.

Occupations and industries Of the 59% of studies where occupational group could be coded, professional, managerial and other skilled jobs (e.g. registered nurses, doctors, business executives, academics) predominated in sample selections. Around half (44.9%) collected data from these occupations exclusively and a further 37.2% combined high-skilled professionals/managers in addition to other occupations. In contrast, only 7.5% of publications used samples from manual occupational groups exclusively (e.g., assembly or automotive workers), although a further 37.2% used manual occupations in conjunction with professional/managerial or service-type workers. Like manual occupations, lower skilled, service/clerical workers were infrequently used in participant groups (10.4% of codable studies). Even where mixed occupational groups were utilized, such as panel surveys, few specifically controlled for, or compared findings for, different occupational groups. Several studies referred to distinctions between blue and/or white collar workers in describing the study’s sample, but none defined how these terms were understood or clarified how they impacted on the study’s findings.


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Despite their increasing complexity, work-life balance studies have substantially limited the types of samples typically generated and the organizations from which research participants are derived. The predominance of professional/ managerial workers, particularly occupations such as teachers, university academics and registered nurses, is problematic in terms of drawing overall conclusions about how employees balance work and non-work responsibilities. The finding is also consistent with Casper et al. (2007) in that 68% of participant groups in their review were managers or professionals. Though the overall proportion of manual workers (e.g. butcher, gardener, dressmaker, machinist) has been decreasing in industrialized countries, they still constitute around one-fifth of the workforce (ABS 2001). Further, elementary and intermediate clerical, sales and service workers (e.g. accounts clerk, bar attendant, child-care worker, enrolled nurse) constitute 26.7% of all employees (ABS 2001), yet very few studies targeted these groups as potential respondents. The constraints associated with the timing and location of many manual occupations and lower skilled, service-type jobs, such as fixed working hours, lack of choice in number of hours worked, casual or fixed-term employment, the necessity for customer/client contact (e.g., retail worker) or for the work to be conducted at a particular site (e.g., mechanic), suggest these workers have less control over how they balance work and non-work domains. Indeed, Pocock (2005) argues that work-life issues are not about policy initiatives on the incidental sidelines of human resource management, but go to basic issues like hours worked. The shortfall in rights and benefits associated with casual, low-skilled or semi-skilled work in particular, compared with permanent employment, is particularly sharp because it lacks tenure, offers no career path, and is associated with low present and uncertain future income (Junor 1998; Harley and Whitehouse 2001; Pocock, Buchanan and Campbell 2004). This lesser personal control over the timing and location of work may lead to a reduced emphasis on these occupations as sources of data because there is less scope to recommend changes to


22

HRM policies and practice which would improve opportunities for work-life balance. A similarity bias may also be operating, whereby the terrain of these jobs is unfamiliar to academic researchers who are usually high skilled, professional workers themselves, and who may therefore tend to conduct research on occupational groups similar to their own. Indeed, tertiary education sector employees (mainly academic/faculty staff, not including students or alumni samples) were used as respondents in around 10% of reviewed studies. Even in random, population samples which (presumably) did include groups of more vulnerable employees, few studies compared work-life balance outcomes specifically for different occupational or industry groups. Rather, analyses were more likely to focus on differences in parental status, caring commitments or employment attitudes. Clarke et al. (2004) argue that perceptions of work-family balance are more influenced by psychological factors such as job satisfaction which may be more relevant to employees in professional jobs, whereas structural factors such as working hours and the household division of labour tend to influence other constructs such as work-family fit, which may be more relevant to the low skilled labour force. Thus, although the potential for furthering understanding of salient worklife balance issues for professional/managerial groups is unlikely to be exhausted, future research should be more even-handed in its examination of precarious and vulnerable employees who often find it more difficult to achieve balance than those in more privileged jobs. In a similar way to the use of high-skilled occupations in participant groups, studies that selected specific organizations for enquiry (i.e. not population-based surveys), tended to include those in sectors where office workers and professionals predominate. The most frequent industry category identified was Education, which was targeted for sample selection in one-fifth of all studies using organization-based samples. Samples in the category Government, administration and defence were also frequently accessed (one-sixth of all


23

studies), while the industries Health and Community, Finance and Insurance, Communication, Manufacturing, and Property and Business were moderately targeted. Samples derived from the remaining industry categories were much less frequent (see Table 4). In sum, samples of organizations employing relatively larger proportions of professional employees were overrepresented in study samples at the expense of organizations employing a low-skilled or semiskilled workforce. This suggests that the organizations sampled in much work-life balance research are not representative of the population of organizations to which they purport to generalize. Insert Table 4 about here

Geographic regions Data for the majority of studies (N = 227) were collected in one of 36 different countries. More than half of these studies (58.3%) were carried out in North America (mainly the United States and to a lesser extent, Canada). The next most represented regions were Australia and the South Pacific, the United Kingdom and Ireland, Western Europe and the Nordic countries. Less than 5% of studies were conducted in Asia and no samples were drawn from South America or Africa (See Table 4). Hence, work-life balance continues to be studied predominately in industrialized countries and that there is ample scope for broadening worklife balance research to politically and culturally diverse areas, particularly Africa, South and Latin America and the Middle East. The paucity of research arising from these regions, even in non-English publications, reflects a significant bias, and more importantly, findings which only apply to workers in those countries. This Western-centrism has also been identified in reviews of other disciplines and areas of interest (e.g. Suzuki 2004). In contrast to single-country studies, fifteen publications (6%) collected data from multiple countries, 12 of which compared and contrasted variables across culturally diverse


24

regions such as India, Indonesia, Mexico and Taiwan. The remaining three cross-national studies compared data from two or more similar countries (e.g. England and Scotland). The few cross-cultural studies provide exemplars for future research. For example, Poster and Prasad (2005) explored trans-cultural work-family relations between the United States and India, to address what they argued were several shortcomings in the literature, including socio-historical located trends and institutions, and systems of power and inequality that shape their enactment and implementation. Barnett, Del Campo, Del Campo and Steiner (2003) also critiqued the focus on middle-class Anglo-American samples and explored the ability of working class Mexican-Americans to balance work and family. Cross-cultural comparisons of work-life balance issues address not only the problems faced in diverse regions themselves, but may also better illuminate the types of structures that differentially impact on work-life balance in industrialized nations. That is, the greater contrast in political, economic, cultural and employment variables than those in single-country studies may provide important insights into hypothesized relationships between the phenomena investigated.

Sampling strategies Equally as important as the characteristics of the samples was how they were chosen. Sampling for quantitative studies consisted mainly of probability techniques (random sampling, stratified random sampling) from sources including (i) sub-samples of larger, national data sets (e.g. the US ‘National Study of the Changing Workforce (NSCW)’, the ‘Finnish 10 Town Study’); (ii) one selected organization (e.g., non-academic university staff); (iii) a group of organizations in the same industry (e.g., nurses working in different hospitals); or (iv) a comparison of different organizations (e.g., information technology, finance). Other quantitative papers generated samples from groups gathered together for a specific purpose, or


25

from membership lists of people who shared a common qualification or interest. These samples included tertiary student classes (e.g. part-time MBA students), professional development groups (e.g., plenary session attendees), parent lists (e.g. from schools or care facilities), professional memberships or university alumni lists (see Table 4). Non-probability sampling strategies were more common in qualitative publications, with the exception of snowball sampling, which was used in nine quantitative studies and three qualitative studies. Four qualitative papers stated that they used a convenience sampling technique whereby at least one of the authors approached known contacts to participate in the research. No quantitative studies referred to the use of convenience sampling, even for student samples; however, few described how organizations or group lists were identified or chosen to be the sample of interest. Twenty-five qualitative studies utilised purposeful (or theoretical) sampling, where potential respondents were individually chosen from a larger group and contacted to be part of the sample because they were thought to be theoretically relevant to the phenomenon in question. The other sampling strategy utilized in qualitative studies was a self-selection process whereby the researchers advertised the study at certain venues such as shopping centres and in newspapers, requesting potential respondents to volunteer to participate in the research (N = 8). Three additional qualitative studies contacted potential respondents via a pre-existing list such as members of a professional organization (N = 3). Qualitative research has attracted substantial criticism for its use of non-probability sampling techniques which limits the generalizability of findings (Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran 2000; Mason 2002). More fundamentally, a misunderstanding prevails that qualitative research methods are at best preliminary to real science (Frommer and Rennie 2006). However, while the vast majority of quantitative studies reviewed for this paper referred to the use of probability sampling (e.g., random, stratified-random) in their methods sections, few described how organizations or group lists were identified or chosen to be the


26

location of interest. This choice of organization and location constitutes a first stage of sampling, before the selection of potential respondents within the organization itself, yet most studies are silent on this process. By necessity, many organizations targeted for work-life balance research, indeed, most work-related research, are chosen because the researchers have known contacts within the organization or because they are conveniently located. We argue that this convenience aspect to the selection of organizations for employment research should be more transparent, giving the reader a more honest account of all stages in the sampling process.

Limitations of the study The limitations of this review are related firstly to the parameters applied to the selection of material used for analysis and secondly, to the components of the studies investigated. In relation to the parameters used, we only reviewed journal articles and not published books, conference papers or other refereed or non-refereed sources. Our findings and conclusions, therefore, are confined to published journal articles and it is possible that the same sampling strengths and limitations are not applicable to other scholarly material. The search strategy was also limited to certain terms (work-life balance, work/family interference and so on) employed as key words and within two widely-used, electronic academic databases. Inevitably, any search strategy will exclude a range of articles which could potentially encompass the broader work and family/life literature. Indeed, the overlap in articles included in two recent reviews in the area and published in the same journal (Ford, Heinen and Langkamer 2007; Casper et al. 2007) was less than 28%. However, our search strategy was meticulous within the parameters defined and similar trends were found in this and previous studies, suggesting a substantial degree of generalizability across the literature as a whole.


27

We also excluded articles not written in English, which resulted in the majority of publications being derived from English-speaking countries. This practice of excluding publications that are not published in English is referred to by Gregoire, Derderian and Le Lorier (1995) as the ‘Tower of Babel Bias’. The term is derived from a biblical narrative in Genesis and refers to the differential outcomes of meta-analyses that use English-only articles compared to those that include all articles in the area of interest. Although we did refer to additional articles published in other languages and found relatively few additional papers, and even fewer non-European language studies, it is acknowledged that other non-English articles are likely to be published in journals which may be peer-reviewed but are more localized in their readership, and were therefore not available on the databases used for this study. Thus, our conclusions about the Anglo-centric nature of work-life balance research are limited to publications having an international readership. The research questions were limited to sampling and measurement issues at the expense of other potentially important aspects of the work-life balance literature, such as the theoretical orientations used as a framework for each publication, analytic techniques utilized and the findings of the research. This strategy of limiting the scope of the study was necessary to comprehensively address strengths and weaknesses of the selected categories while meeting the length requirements of a single publication. However, it would be useful in future work to compare any differential impacts of choices in methods, such as sample characteristics and selection and/or the types of constructs operationalized, on work-life balance outcomes across the literature.

Conclusions This study reviewed methodological choices in empirical work-life balance papers published in a range of discipline-based peer-reviewed journals between 1987 and 2006, extending the


28

current understanding of methodological choices beyond those reported elsewhere (Casper et al. 2007; Eby et al. 2005). For example, the results of our study demonstrated the dramatic increase in research interest since 2003, as well as the wider knowledge base of workfamily/life research across multi-disciplinary areas beyond the North American IO-OB literature. International journals and disciplinary areas outside IO-OB have favoured qualitative approaches with a stronger emphasis on the perspectives of women. Despite these distinctions in focus, work-life balance research has the potential to be further expanded and developed, particularly in non-industrialized countries with a greater emphasis placed on cross-cultural comparisons of phenomena. Further, even with the recent increase in studies across more diverse disciplinary areas, we know relatively little about work and family issues for single and same-sex parent families, for manual and lower-skilled service workers, and for employees providing eldercare. Targeting these under-researched samples, applying research to cross-cultural contexts and undertaking more specific comparative analysis in large, diverse samples would better identify the conditions under which work-life balance theories operate, and would address the over-generalization which exists in the majority of research to date. Finally, researchers should be more transparent in providing rationales for their choices of organizations or group lists used to target respondents. The results of our study showed that the literature is dominated by studies employing a ‘conflict’ approach, with few employing a ‘balance’ perspective, even if this was the overarching aim, thereby demonstrating that establishing consistency between the conceptualization of constructs and the operationalization of measures requires greater attention. ‘Work-family’ in contrast to ‘work-life’ interactions remained strong in the review studies, despite the use of ‘work-life’ in key words. These foci should be considered distinct research areas as they imply different emphases and measures. Results also showed that research employing positive frameworks such as balance and enrichment have so far been


29

studied mainly using qualitative methods, possibly because of a lack of strong theoretical frameworks and validated instruments. Recent publications in the area (Greenhaus et al. 2003; Greenhaus and Powell 2006) should mark the beginning of more quantitative studies of work-life/family balance in the future. For quantitative research on work-family conflict, Netemeyer et al. (1996) offer a short and valid measure of work-family/family-work conflict, and Carlson et al. (2000) offer a sound multidimensional instrument. Finally, the scarcity of well-designed experimental or quasi-experimental research suggests ample scope for welldesigned field experiments to establish more clearly causal relationships between variables. Addressing these limitations in the application of research methodology in the future will strengthen the empirical evidence base of work-life balance research from which policy and practice are developed.


30

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Table 1. Frequencies of articles by journals over time

38 Dramatic Increase since 2003

Total 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 Year of Publication Journals NOT Selected by Casper et al. 2007 Career Development International 3 Construction Management and Economics 3 1 1 Human Relations 3 New Zealand Journal of Psychology 3 1 2 Community, Work and Family 1 4 1 International Journal of Stress Management 4 1 1 1 Journal of Marriage and Family 4 Women in Management Review 4 Equal Opportunities International 6 2 1 Journal of Family and Economic Issues 6 Journal of Family Issues 8 195 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 2 3 2 0 10 4 15 TOTAL Journals Included in Both the Current Study and in Casper et al., 2007 1 1 Journal of Applied Psychology 5 1 Journal of Business and Psychology 3 Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 3 2 5 1 Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 14 Journal of Vocational Behavior 24 1 2 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 1 1 Grand Total 50 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 1 0 8 1 2 2 5

04 05 06

1

1 2 2 1 1 1 1

2 1 1 1 3 4 2 2 1 6 2 41

62

44

2 1

1

1

2

3 1

3

1

2

5

3

6

8

Note: Only journals that published more than threework and family articles during 1987 and 2003 are listed in this table. Total number of articles reflects the entire collection of articles, including those journals that published one work and family article during this period.


39

Table 2. Summaries of constructs over time for qualitative and quantitative Studies

QUANT QUAL 189

56

work/family

172

41

work/life (first published in 2003)

17

15

140

17

Work/Family or Work/Life

Conflict/Spillover/ Interference (Total) Conflict

113

Interference

23

Spillover

15

Role Overload

6

Two directional conceptualization of conflict

60

as a framework

7

IV

28

3

DV

96

7

construct development

2

construct Validation

2

correlates

2

Mediator (Conceptualised not tested)

2

Mediator (Truly tested)

2

Studied of both Antecedents and Consequences, but not conceptualized as a true mediator

4

Scale development and validation

2

Balance (including those measures as satisfaction, wellbeing and 31 functioning) as a goal IV

4

DV

22

construct development

1

DV-work and family satisfaction, well being, functioning

4

Facilitation/enrichment/positive spillover

3

33 24 9


40

Table 3. Sample characteristics and strategies Category

Codable Studies

N

% (of codable studies)

Gender of sample

200 (81%)

Female-only

39

19.5

Male-only

8

4.0

Mainly female

39

19.5

Mainly male

40

20.0

Gender balanced

74

37.0

146

62.2

Family Characteristics

233 (95%)

Mixed family types Parents (targeted specifically)

61

26.2

Partnered, with or without

23

9.9

Single parents

2

.9

Same-sex parents

1

.4

65

44.9

15

10.4

Manual workers

11

7.5

High skilled + low skilled

11

7.5

43

29.7

Education

39

19.1

Gov, admin, defense

32

15.7

Health and community

24

11.8

Finance and insurance

23

11.3

Communication

19

9.3

Manufacturing

18

8.8

Property and business

15

7.3

children

Targeted Occupations

145 (59%)

High skilled professional, technical or managerial Lower skilled service/ clerical workers

service/clerical workers Manual + high skilled + low skilled Industries

204 (83%)


41

Retail trade

9

4.4

Personal and other services

7

3.4

Construction

5

2.4

Accommodation, cafes, restaurants

5

2.4

Wholesale trade

2

1.0

Transport and storage

2

1.0

Cultural and recreational

2

1.0

Primary Industry

1

.5

Mining

1

.5

Electricity, gas and water

0

0

Geographic region

242 (98%)

Single Country North America

141

58.3

Australia/Sth Pacific

24

9.9

UK and Ireland

19

7.9

Western Europe

16

6.6

Nordic Countries

10

4.1

Asia

11

4.6

Middle East

5

2.1

Mexico/Central America

1

0.4

Cross-cultural studies

12

4.9

Cross-national studies

3

1.2

37

14.9

104

41.9

Sampling strategy

240 (98%)a

Probability Population Organisation/industry sample Non-probability Contact list or student group

59

23.8

Snowball

12

4.8

Purposeful/theoretical

25

10.1

Convenience

4

1.6

Self-selection

8

3.2

a

Note. Ns equal greater than total as some studies used more than one sampling strategy


42

Table 4. Measures used Measurement Used Grand Total

Total 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 190

developed for paper

48

not specified

35

Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams, 2000

17

Netemeyer et al. 1996

14

Frone, Russel and Cooper (1992)

10

Greenhaus and Beutell 1985 Kopelman, Greenhaus and Connolly (1983)

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

5 2

Burley 1989

1

Gutek et al. 1991

6

Bohen and Viveros-Long 1981

6

Burke et al. 1979

5

Small and Riley 1990

5

SWING (SurveyWork /home Interaction Nijmegen; Geurts et al., 2005).

5

Hill

5

Thompson et al. (1993 and 1999)

4

Sloan Work–Family Researchers Electronic Network (MacDermid, 2000).

3

Kelloway et al. 1992; 1999

3

3

1

3

9

1

4

1

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

8

6

15

34

49

41

2

1

2

10

12

12

2

3

8

10

8

1

4

1

1

8

5

7

2

1

3

1

1 1

1

1

10 3

4

1

3

Kopelman et al. 1983 and Burley 1989

4

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

1 1

1 1 1

1

1 1

Note. Only measures cited more than 3 times are summarized in this table.

1

1

1 1

1

2 2

1

1

1

1

1

2

3 1

1

1

2 2

1

3 1 1

1

1

2


43

APPENDIX A: REFERENCES FOR ARTICLES REVIEWED Adams, G.A., and Jex, S.M. (1999), ‘Relationships Between Time Management, Control, Work-Family Conflict, and Strain’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4(1), 72-77. Adams, G.A., King, L.A., and King, D.W. (1996), ‘Relationships of Job and Family Involvement, Family Social Support, and Work-Family Conflict with Job and Life Satisfaction’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 411-420. Albion, M.J. (2004), ‘A Measure of Attitudes Towards Flexible Work Options’, Australian Journal of Management, 29(2), 275-294. Allen, T.D., and Armstrong, J. (2006), ‘Further Examination of the Link Between Work-Family Conflict and Physical Health The Role of Health-Related Behaviors’, American Behavioral Scientist, 49(9), 1204-1221. Armenti, C. (2004), ‘Women Faculty Seeking Tenure and Parenthood: Lessons from Previous Generations’, Cambridge Journal of Education, 34(1), 65. Aycan, Z., and Eskin, M. (2005), ‘Relative Contributions of Childcare, Spousal Support, and Organizational Support in Reducing Work-Family Conflict for Men and Women: The Case of Turkey’, Sex Roles, 53(7/8), 453-471. Balmforth, K., and Gardner, D. (2006), ‘Conflict and Facilitation between Work and Family: Realizing the Outcomes for Organizations’, New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 35(2), 69-76. Barnett, K.A., Del Campo, R.L., Del Campo, D.S., and Steiner, R.L. (2003), ‘Work and Family Balance Among Dual-Earner Working-Class Mexican-Americans: Implications for Therapists’, Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 25(4), 353-366.


44

Barrah, J.L., Shultz, K.S., Baltes, B., and Stolz, H.E. (2004), ‘Men’s and Women’s Eldercare-Based Work-Family Conflict: Antecedents and Work-Related Outcomes’, Fathering, 2(3), 305-330. Beeny, C., Guthrie, V.L., Rhodes, G.S., and Terrell, P.S. (2005), ‘Personal and Professional Balance Among Senior Student Affairs Officers: Gender Differences in Approaches and Expectations’, College Student Affairs Journal, 24(2), 137. Berg, P., Kalleberg, A.L., and Appelbaum, E. (2003), ‘Balancing Work and Family: The Role of High-commitment Environments’, Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 42(2), 168-188. Biggs, A., and Brough, P. (2005), ‘Investigating the Moderating Influences of Gender upon Role Salience and Work-Family Conflict’, Equal Opportunities International, 24(2), 30. Bird, G.W., and Schnurman-Crook, A. (2005), ‘Professional Identity and Coping Behaviors in Dual-Career Couples’, Family Relations, 54(1), 145. Blair-Loy, M., and Wharton, A.S. (2004), ‘Organizational Commitment and Constraints on Work-Family Policy Use: Corporate Flexibility Policies in a Global Firm’, Sociological Perspectives, 47(3), 243. Boles, J.S., Johnston, M.W., and Hair, J.F.J. (1997), ‘Role Stress, Work-Family Conflict and Emotional Exhaustion: Inter-Relationships and Effects on Some Work-Related Consequences’, Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 17(1), 17-28. Bolino, M.C., and Turnley, W.H. (2005), ‘The Personal Costs of Citizenship Behavior: The Relationship Between Individual Initiative and Role Overload,


45

Job Stress, and Work-Family Conflict’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4), 740-748. Bolton, C. (2005), ‘The Role of Mentors in Our Personal and Professional Lives’ College Student Affairs Journal, 24(2), 180. Bond, S. (2004), ‘Organizational Culture and Work-Life Conflict in the UK’, The International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 24(12), 1. Boyar, S.L., Maertz, J., Carl P., and Pearson, A.W. (2005), ‘The Effects of WorkFamily Conflict and Family-Work Conflict on Nonattendance Behaviors’, Journal of Business Research, 58(7), 919-925. Bragger, J., Rodriguez-Srednicki, O., Kutcher, E., Indovino, L., and Rosner, E. (2005), ‘Work-Family Conflict, Work-family Culture, and Organizational Citizenship Behavior Among Teachers’, Journal of Business and Psychology, 20(2), 303-324. Brennan, E.M., and Poertner, J. (1997), ‘Balancing the Responsibilities of Work and Family Life: Results of the Family Caregiver Survey’, Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 5(4), 239-249. Britt, T.W., and Dawson, C.R. (2005), ‘Predicting Work-Family Conflict from Workload, Job Attitudes, Group Attributes, and Health: A Longitudinal Study’, Military Psychology, 17(3), 203. Brotheridge, C.M., and Lee, R.T. (2005), ‘Impact of Work-Family Interference on General Well-Being: A Replication and Extension, International Journal of Stress Management, 12(3), 203-221. Brough, P. (2005), ‘A Comparative Investigation of the Predictors of Work-Related Psychological Well-Being within Police, Fire and Ambulance Workers’, New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 34(2), 127-134.


46

Brough, P., O'Driscoll, M.P., and Kalliath, T.J. (2005), ‘The Ability of “Family Friendly” Organizational Resources to Predict Work-Family Conflict and Job and Family Satisfaction’, Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 21(4), 223-234. Bruck, C.S., and Allen, T.D. (2003), ‘The Relationship Between Big Five Personality Traits, Negative Affectivity, Type A Behavior, and Work-Family Conflict’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63(3), 457-472. Bruck, C.S., Allen, T.D., and Spector, P.E. (2002), ‘The Relation Between WorkFamily Conflict and Job Satisfaction: A Finer-Grained Analysis’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60(3), 336-353. Buffardi, L.C., Smith, J.L., O'Brien, A.S., and Erdwins, C.J. (1999), ‘The Impact of Dependent-Care Responsibility and Gender on Work Attitudes’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4(4), 356-367. Bullock, H.E., and Waugh, I.M. (2004), ‘Caregiving Around the Clock: How Women in Nursing Manage Career and Family Demands’, The Journal of Social Issues, 60(4), 767. Burke, R.J. (1988), ‘Some Antecedents and Consequences of Work-Family Conflict’, Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 3(4), 287-302. Burke, R.J. (1998), ‘Work and Non-Work Stressors and Well-Being Among Police Officers: The Role of Coping’, Anxiety, Stress and Coping: An International Journal, 11(4), 345-362. Burke, R.J., Burgess, Z., and Oberrlaid, F. (2004), ‘Do Male Psychologists Benefit from Organizational Values Supporting Work-Personal Life Balance?’, Equal Opportunities International, 23(1/2), 97.


47

Burke, R.J., and Greenglass, E.R. (1999), ‘Work-Family Conflict, Spouse Support, and Nursing Staff Well-Being During Organizational Restructuring’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4(4), 327-336. Burke, R.J., and Greenglass, E.R. (2001), ‘Hospital Restructuring Stressors, WorkFamily Concerns and Psychological Well-Being Among Nursing Staff’, Community, Work and Family, 4(1), 49-62. Burke, R.J., Oberklaid, F., and Burgess, Z. (2003), ‘Organizational Values, Work Experiences, and Satisfactions Among Australian Psychologists’, International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 11(2), 123. Buzzanell, P.M., Meisenbach, R., Remke, R., Liu, M., Bowers, V., and Conn, C. (2005), ‘The Good Working Mother: Managerial Women's Sensemaking and Feelings About Work-Family Issues’, Communication Studies, 56(3), 261. Byron, K. (2005), ‘A Meta-Analytic Review of Work-family Conflict and Its Antecedents’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67(2), 169-198. Cannon, D.F. (1998), ‘Better Understanding the Impact of Work Interferences on Organizational Commitment’, Marriage and Family Review, 28(1), 153-166. Carlson, D.S. (1999), ‘Personality and Role Variables as Predictors of Three Forms of Work-Family Conflict’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 55(2), 236-253. Carlson, D.S., Derr, C.B., and Wadsworth, L.L. (2003), ‘The Effects of Internal Career Orientation on Multiple Dimensions of Work-Family Conflict’, Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 24(1), 99-116. Carlson, D.S., and Frone, M.R. (2003), ‘Relation of Behavioral and Psychological Involvement to a New Four-Factor Conceptualization of Work-Family Interference’, Journal of Business and Psychology, 17(4), 515-535.


48

Carlson, D.S., Kacmar, K.M., Wayne, J.H., and Grzywacz, J.G. (2006), ‘Measuring the Positive Side of the Work-Family Interface: Development and Validation of a Work-Family Enrichment Scale’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(1), 131. Carlson, D.S., Kacmar, K.M., and Williams, L.J. (2000), ‘Construction and Initial Validation of a Multidemensional Measure of Work-Family Conflict’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56(2), 249-276. Cinamon, R.G. (2006), ‘Preparing Minority Adolescents to Blend Work and Family Roles: Increasing Work-Family Conflict Management Self Efficacy’, International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 28(1), 79-94. Cinamon, R.G., and Rich, Y. (2005), ‘Work-Family Conflict Among Female Teachers’, Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(4), 365-378. Clark, S.C. (2002), ‘Employees’ Sense of Community, Sense of Control, and Work/Family Conflict in Native American Organizations’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61(1), 92-108. Clarke, M.C., Koch, L.C., and Hill, E.J. (2004), ‘The Work-Family Interface: Differentiating Balance and Fit’, Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 33(2), 121-140. Connell, R.W. (2005), ‘A Really Good Husband: Work/Life Balance, Gender Equity and Social Change’, Australian Journal of Social Issues, 40(3), 369. Cousins, C.R., and Tang, N. (2004), ‘Working Time and Work and Family Conflict in the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK’, Work, Employment and Society, 18(3), 531. D'Abate, C.P. (2005), ‘Working Hard or Hardly Working: A Study of Individuals Engaging in Personal Business on the Job’, Human Relations, 58(8), 1009.


49

Dallimore, E., and Mickel, A. (2006), ‘Quality of Life: Obstacles, Advice, and Employer Assistance’, Human Relations, 59(1), 61. Damiano-Teixeira, K.M. (2006), ‘Managing Conflicting Roles: A Qualitative Study with Female Faculty Members’, Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 27(2), 310. Day, A.L., and Chamberlain, T.C. (2006), ‘Committing to Your Work, Spouse, and Children: Implications for Work-Family Conflict’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(1), 116-130. De Bruin, A., and Dupuis, A. (2004), ‘Work-Life Balance?: Insights from NonStandard Work’, New Zealand Journal of Employment Relations, 29(1), 21. De Cieri, H., Holmes, B., Abbott, J., and Pettit, T. (2005), ‘Achievements and Challenges for Work/Life Balance Strategies in Australian Organizations’, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(1), 90-103. de Luis Carnicer, M.P., Sanchez, A.M., Perez, M.P., and Jimenez, M.J.V. (2004), ‘Work-Family Conflict in a Southern European Country: The Influence of Job-Related and Non-Related factors’, Journal of Managerial Psychology, 19(5), 466. Delgado, E.A., and Canabal, M.E. (2006), ‘Factors Associated with Negative Spillover from Job to Home Among Latinos in the United States’, Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 27(1), 92. Delgado, E.A., Canabal, M.E., and Serrano, E. (2004), ‘Work and Family Balance Among Latinos in the U.S.: Barriers and Facilitators’, Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 96(3), 26.


50

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A.B., and Bulters, A.J. (2004), ‘The Loss Spiral of Work Pressure, Work-Home Interference and Exhaustion: Reciprocal Relations in a Three-Wave Study’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64(1), 131. Demerouti, E., Geurts, S.A.E., Bakker, A.B., and Euwema, M. (2004), ‘The Impact of Shiftwork on Work-Home Conflict, Job Attitudes and Health’, Ergonomics, 47(9), 987. Demerouti, E., Geurts, S.A.E., and Kompier, M. (2004), ‘Positive and Negative Work-Home Interaction: Prevalence and Correlates’, Equal Opportunities International, 23(1/2), 6. Dex, S., and Bond, S. (2005), ‘Measuring Work-Life Balance and Its Covariates’, Work, Employment and Society, 19(3), 627-637. Dilworth, J.E.L., and Kingsbury, N. (2005), ‘Home-to-Job Spillover for Generation X, Boomers, and Matures: A Comparison’, Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 26(2), 267. Dixon, M.A., Bruening, J.E., Mazerolle, S.M., Davis, A., Crowder, J., and Lorsbach, M. (2006), ‘Career, Family, or Both? A Case Study of Young Professional Baseball Players’, Nine, 14(2), 80. Drew, E., and Murtagh, E.M. (2005), ‘Work/Life Balance: Senior Management Champions or Laggards?’, Women in Management Review, 20(3/4), 262. Duxbury, L., and Higgins, C. (1994), ‘Interference Between Work and Family: A Status Report on Dual-Career and Dual-Earner Mothers and Fathers’, Employee Assistance Quarterly, 9(3), 55-80. Elloy, D.F., and Smith, C. (2004), ‘Antecedents of Work-Family Conflict Among Dual-Career Couples: An Australian Study’, Cross Cultural Management, 11(4), 17-27.


51

Elloy, D.F., and Smith, C.R. (2003), ‘Patterns of Stress, Work-Family Conflict, Role Conflict, Role Ambiguity and Overload Among Dual-Career and SingleCareer Couples: An Australian Study’, Cross Cultural Management, 10(1), 55-66. Emslie, C., Hunt, K., and Macintyre, S. (2004), ‘Gender, Work-Home Conflict, and Morbidity Amongst White-Collar Bank Employees in the United Kingdom’, International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 11(3), 127-134. Estes, S.B. (2004), ‘How Are Family-Responsive Workplace Arrangements Family Friendly? Employer Accommodations, Parenting, and Children's Socioemotional Well-Being’, Sociological Quarterly, 45(4), 637. Fagnani, J., and Letablier, M.-T. (2004), ‘Work and Family Life Balance: The Impact of the 35-hour Laws in France’, Work, Employment and Society, 18(3), 551572. Foley, S., Hang-Yue, N., and Lui, S. (2005), ‘The Effects of Work Stressors, Perceived Organizational Support, and Gender on Work-Family Conflict in Hong Kong’, Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 22(3), 237-256. Forret, M., and de Janasz, S. (2005), ‘Perceptions of an Organization’s Culture for Work and Family: Do Mentors Make a Difference?’, Career Development International, 10(6/7), 478. Fox, G., Schwartz, A., and Hart, K.M. (2006), ‘Work-Family Balance and Academic Advancement in Medical Schools’, Academic Psychiatry, 30(3), 227-234. Fox, M.L., and Dwyer, D.J. (1999), ‘An Investigation of the Effects of Time and Involvement in the Relationship Between Stressors and Work-Family Conflict’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4(2), 164-174.


52

Frame, M.W., and Shehan, C.L. (2005), ‘The Relationship Between Work and WellBeing in Clergywomen: Implications for Career Counseling’, Journal of Employment Counseling, 42(1), 10. French, S., and Daniels, G. (2006), ‘Work-Life Balance: The Limits of Practice and Legal Regulation’, European Industrial Relations Review, 38(7), 25-29. Frone, M.R., Barnes, G.M., and Farrell, M.P. (1994), ‘Relationship of Work-Family Conflict to Substance Use Among Employed Mothers: The Role of Negative Affect’, Journal of Marriage and Family, 56(4), 1019-1030. Frone, M.R., Russell, M., and Barnes, G.M. (1996), ‘Work-Family Conflict, Gender, and Health-related Outcomes: A Study of Employed Parents in Two Community Samples’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1(1), 5769. Frye, N.K., and Breaugh, J.A. (2004), ‘Family-Friendly Policies, Supervisor Support, Work-Family Conflict, Family-Work Conflict, and Satisfaction: A Test of a Conceptual Model’, Journal of Business and Psychology, 19(2), 197-220. Fu, C.K., and Shaffer, M.A. (2001), ‘The Tug of Work and Family: Direct and Indirect Domain-specific Determinants of Work-Family Conflict’, Personnel Review, 30(5), 502-522. Fujimoto, T. (2006), ‘Preferences for Working Hours Over Life Course Among Japanese Manufacturing Workers’, Career Development International, 11(3), 204. Gatta, M.L., and Roos, P.A. (2004), ‘Balancing Without a Net in Academia: Integrating Family and Work Lives’, Equal Opportunities International, 23(35), 124.


53

Gignac, M.A.M., Kelloway, E.K., and Gottlieb, B.H. (1996), ‘The Impact of Caregiving on Employment: A Mediational Model of Work-Family Conflict’, Canadian Journal on Aging, 15(4), 525-542. Gjerberg, E. (2003), ‘Women Doctors in Norway: The Challenging Balance Between Career and Family Life’, Social Science and Medicine, 57(7), 1327. Golden, T.D., Veiga, J.F., and Simsek, Z. (2006), ‘Telecommuting’s Differential Impact on Work-Family Conflict: Is There No Place Like Home?’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(6), 1340-1350. Grandey, A.A., Cordeiro, B.L., and Crouter, A.C. (2005), ‘A Longitudinal and MultiSource Test of the Work-Family Conflict and Job Satisfaction Relationship’, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78(3), 305-323. Greenhaus, J.H., Bedeian, A.G., and Mossholder, K.W. (1987), ‘Work Experiences, Job Performance, and Feelings of Personal and Family Well-Being’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31(2), 200-215. Greenhausm J.H., and Beutell, N.J. (1985), ‘Sources of Conflict Between Work and Family Roles’, Academy of Management Review, 10, 76-88. Greenhaus, J.H., Collins, K.M., and Shaw, J.D. (2003), ‘The Relation Between WorkFamily Balance and Quality of Life’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63(3), 510-531. Greenhaus, J.H., Parasuraman, S., and Collins, K.M. (2001), ‘Career Involvement and Family Involvement as Moderators of Relationships Between Work-Family Conflict and Withdrawal from a Profession’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(2), 91-100.


54

Greenhaus, J.H., Parasuraman, S., Granrose, C.S., and Rabinowitz, S. (1989), ‘Sources of Work-Family Conflict Among Two-career Couples’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 34(2), 133-153. Greenhaus, J.H., and Powell, G.N. (2003), ‘When Work and Family Collide: Deciding Between Competing Role Demands’, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90(2), 291-303. Grzywacz, J.G., Frone, M.R., Brewer, C.S., and Kovner, C.T. (2006), ‘Quantifying Work-Family Conflict Among Registered Nurses’, Research in Nursing and Health, 29(5), 414-426. Guendouzi, J. (2006), ‘“The Guilt Thing”: Balancing Domestic and Professional Roles’, Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(4), 901-909. Guthrie, V.L., Woods, E., Cusker, C., and Gregory, M. (2005), ‘A Portrait of Balance: Personal and Professional Balance Among Student Affairs Educators’, College Student Affairs Journal, 24(2), 110. Haar, J.M. (2004), ‘Work-Family Conflict and Turnover Intention: Exploring the Moderation Effects of Perceived Work-Family Support’, New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 33(1), 35-39. Haar, J.M., and O'Driscoll, M.P. (2005), ‘Exploring Gender Differences in Employee Attitudes Towards Work-Family Practices and Use of Work-Family Practices’, Equal Opportunities International, 24(3/4), 86. Haddock, S.A., and Rattenborg, K. (2003), ‘Benefits and Challenges of Dual-Earning: Perspectives of Successful Couples’, The American Journal of Family Therapy, 31(5), 325.


55

Haddock, S.A., Zimmerman, T.S., Ziemba, S.J., and Current, L.R. (2001), ‘Ten Adaptive Strategies for Family and Work Balance: Advice from Successful Families’, Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 27(4), 445-458. Haddock, S.A., Zimmerman, T.S., Ziemba, S.J., and Lyness, K.P. (2006), ‘Practices of Dual Earner Couples Successfully Balancing Work and Family’, Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 27(2), 207. Hamilton, E.A., Gordon, J.R., and Whelan-Berry, K.S. (2006), ‘Understanding the Work-Life Conflict of Never-Married Women Without Children’, Women in Management Review, 21(5), 393. Hammer, L.B., Allen, E., and Grigsby, T.D. (1997), ‘Work-Family Conflict in DualEarner Couples: Within-Individual and Crossover Effects of Work and Family’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50(2), 185-203. Hammer, L.B., Cullen, J.C., Neal, M.B., Sinclair, R.R., and Shafiro, M.V. (2005), ‘The Longitudinal Effects of Work-Family Conflict and Positive Spillover on Depressive Symptoms Among Dual-Earner Couples’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(2), 138-154. Hammer, L.B., Neal, M.B., Newsom, J.T., Brockwood, K.J., and Colton, C.L. (2005), ‘A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Dual-Earner Couples’ Utilization of Family-Friendly Workplace Supports on Work and Family Outcomes’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4), 799-810. Hammer, T.H., Saksvik, P.O., Nytro, K., Torvatn, H., and Bayazit, M. (2004), ‘Expanding the Psychosocial Work Environment: Workplace Norms and Work-Family Conflict as Correlates of Stress and Health’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 9(1), 83-97.


56

Hanson, G.C., Hammer, L.B., and Colton, C.L. (2006), ‘Development and Validation of a Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Work-Family Positive Spillover’, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11(3), 249-265. Hart, M.S., and Kelley, M.L. (2006), ‘Fathers’ and Mothers’ Work and Family Issues as Related to Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior of Children Attending Day Care’, Journal of Family Issues, 27(2), 252-270. Hattery, A.J. (2001), ‘Tag-team Parenting: Costs and Benefits of Utilizing NonOverlapping Shift Work in Families with Young Children’, Families in Society, 82(4), 419-427. Havice, P.A., and Williams, F.K. (2005), ‘Achieving Balance: Lessons Learned from University and College Presidents’, College Student Affairs Journal, 24(2), 128. Heymann, S.J., Penrose, K., and Earle, A. (2006), ‘Meeting Children’s Needs: How Does the United States Measure Up?’, Merrill - Palmer Quarterly, 52(2), 189. Hill, E.J. (2005), ‘Work-Family Facilitation and Conflict, Working Fathers and Mothers, Work-Family Stressors and Support’, Journal of Family Issues, 26(6), 793-819. Hill, E.J., Ferris, M., and Martinson, V. (2003), ‘Does It Matter Where You Work? A Comparison of How Three Work Venues (Traditional Office, Virtual Office, and Home Office) Influence Aspects of Work and Personal/Family Life’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63(2), 220-241. Hill, E.J., Hawkins, A.J., Martinson, V., and Ferris, M. (2003), ‘Studying “Working Fathers”: Comparing Fathers’ and Mothers’ Work-Family Conflict, Fit, and Adaptive Strategies in a Global High-Tech Company’, Fathering, 1(3), 239261.


57

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