Methodological Variations in Guided Imagery

doi 10.1515/jirspa-2012-0005

Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity 2013; 8(1): 1–22

Sam J. Cooley*, Sarah E. Williams, Victoria E. Burns and Jennifer Cumming

Methodological Variations in Guided Imagery Interventions Using Movement Imagery Scripts in Sport: A Systematic Review Abstract: Imagery studies have varied widely in the methods used to deliver guided imagery interventions. This variation has led to difficulties comparing studies and uncertainty as to what methods should be followed. A review is needed to evaluate the interventions to date to inform applied recommendations. The aim of this systematic review was to (1) assess the quality of intervention design, (2) investigate the extent to which interventions vary, (3) highlight the different methods that should be considered in the design and implementation of future interventions, and (4) investigate adherence to some of the current theories and models of imagery use. A total of 20 interventions administered between the years 2001 and 2011 were compared over 17 main areas, including imagery ability, duration, script development, delivery method, and adherence to the PETTLEP model and the bio-informational theory. The results of this review found evidence of many inconsistencies between interventions and demonstrate a need for more comprehensive practical guidelines. Recommend-ations are offered for the design of future interventions, including increasing imagery practice time and the use of personalised imagery scripts. Numerous questions are raised to strengthen and direct future research such as the need for continued modification of scripts throughout an intervention. Keywords: mental imagery, bio-informational theory, PETTLEP model *Corresponding author: Sam J. Cooley, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK, E-mail: [email protected] Sarah E. Williams: E-mail: [email protected], Victoria E. Burns: E-mail: [email protected], Jennifer Cumming: E-mail: [email protected], School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston Birmingham, West Midlands B15 2TT, UK

Introduction Mental imagery, described as a mental experience that replicates a real experience (White & Hardy, 1998), is a

key area of sport psychology literature and applied practice. Early research concluded that using imagery to mentally practice a sport can improve both physical performance and its associated emotions (Feltz & Landers, 1983). Due to its various benefits, imagery features in most mental skills training programs (e.g. Fournier, Calmels, Durand-Bush, & Salmela, 2005; Sheard & Golby, 2006; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2003), where it is commonly used by sports coaches and practitioners as a supplement to athletes’ physical practice. However, incorporating imagery into physical practice does not always provide outcomes above and beyond physical practice alone (e.g. Smith & Holmes, 2004). Research has investigated why some individuals benefit from imagery use more than others and, in particular, the effect a person’s imagery ability has on the desired outcomes of imagery use. Imagery ability is “an individual’s capability of forming vivid, controllable images and retaining them for sufficient time to effect the desired imagery rehearsal” (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005, p. 37). It is believed that most people have the capability to image, but that individuals differ in their ease and vividness of imagery use (Paivio, 1986). Goss et al. (1986) provided an early indication that those with better imagery ability benefit more from imagery use than those with poorer imagery ability. This finding has been supported by more recent studies such as Robin et al. (2007), in which better imagers experienced greater improvements in tennis serve return accuracy following an imagery intervention compared to those with lower imagery ability. In addition to imagery ability, the outcomes of imagery use may be blunted, or even detrimental to performance, if the imagery content selected is inappropriate to the situation or the athlete (Holmes & Collins, 2002). For example, an athlete who uses relaxation imagery before a sprint race may reduce arousal levels below his/her individual zone of optimal functioning (Hanin, 2000). Further, a person lacking control over an image could allow debilitative emotions and negative performance outcomes to enter their imagery producing detrimental effects (Nordin & Cumming, 2005).

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S.J. Cooley et al.: Methodological Variations in Guided Imagery Interventions

Despite these potential barriers to correct and successful imagery use, researchers often assume participants possess sufficient imagery ability to independently generate appropriate images and provide little guidance for its use. For example, when looking at the effect of imagery use on basketball performance, Etnier and Landers (1996) instructed participants to image a free throw for 2 min, prior to actually performing the shot. Participants were required to form an image that was “thought by the subject to be appropriate” (p. 52). Whilst some may have found it easy to generate and maintain a vivid and detailed image of a successful basketball throw, others may have found this difficult or may have generated inappropriate, distorted, or inaccurate images. For example, these images could have included insufficient detail, negative emotions, and even inaccurate skill execution or unsuccessful outcomes. As an alternative to these less structured imagery interventions, guided imagery interventions are often implemented, whereby participants follow a script whilst imaging. Imagery scripts are pre-planned descriptions of complete imagery scenarios, developed with the desired outcome of the imagery use in mind. Using imagery scripts can help to ensure that the correct imagery is being used to achieve the desired outcome, and the level of detail described makes it easier for individuals to develop vivid and lifelike images (Cumming & Anderson, 2013). Scripts can also describe an “ideal” quality of image that an individual can aim to reach through continual inspection and transformation of their imagery during repeated practice. Due to the widespread use of imagery scripts, this review focuses on the methods involved in the development and delivery of imagery scripts during guided imagery interventions. Although models such as Paivio’s (1985) framework and the applied model of imagery use (Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999) are often used to inform the specific content of an imagery script to serve the desired function(s), these models should still be used alongside other theories and models of imagery use, to fully inform the development and delivery of an imagery script. Lang’s bio-informational theory (Lang, 1977, 1979; also see Ahsen’s triple code theory (1984) for similar concepts) describes three types of information that are used when generating a vivid and emotional image. Based on this theory, an imagery script should first include stimulus propositions, which are details describing the environment and the movement that is being executed (e. g. sprinting on a running track, with other competitors and the crowd cheering). Second, the script should include response propositions, which are details about how the body physically responds to the stimulus propositions (e.g.

increased heart rate and respiration). Finally, the script should include meaning propositions, which are details regarding what the stimulus and response propositions mean to the person and the emotions associated (e.g. feeling excited and determined to win). It has been proposed that an image incorporating all three propositions will be more vivid and effective (Calmels, Holmes, Berthoumieux, & Singer, 2004). Lang also suggested that images containing personalised propositions will result in more vivid and meaningful imagery that is easier to recall from memory. Wilson, Smith, Burden, and Holmes (2010) recently provided empirical support for greater physiological responses and imagery ability following personalised scripts. Bio-informational theory also recommends stimulus response training (SR-training; Lang et al., 1980) as a technique to assist participants in their recollection of these propositions to aid the ease and vividness of imagery generation. Participants verbally recall as many of the propositions as they can remember from previously physically performing or imaging a particular scenario. These propositions are then reinforced into the participant’s subsequent imagery, which is repeatedly practiced as additional propositions are included in the image (e.g. Wright & Smith, 2009). A second predominant theory that underpins guided imagery is the functional equivalence explanation, which suggests that the imagery process appears to share some neural pathways to those of movement planning and execution (Jeannerod, 1994; Kosslyn et al., 2001). It is proposed that, through these shared pathways, imagery can improve motor performance. An image that is loaded with stimulus and response propositions is thought to elicit more similar neural activity to that of the movement execution, thus strengthening the associated motor programme to a greater extent than imagery containing just stimulus propositions (Smith, Holmes, Whitemore, Collins, & Devonport, 2001). To create functional equivalence at a neural level between motor imagery and execution, Holmes and Collins (2001) proposed seven elements, known by the acronym PETTLEP, that are also used to inform guided imagery. These elements also incorporate stimulus, response, and meaning propositions into imagery use. The P element stands for physical where, for example, a cricket batsman imaging a shot, should include a physical aspect to the imagery by wearing pads, holding a cricket bat, and adopting the same stance as if he/she were actually about to physically perform the stroke (Cumming & Ramsey, 2008). The other elements of the PETTLEP model are environment, task, timing, learning, emotion, and perspective. A definition and example of each element can be found in Appendix 1. Incorporating PETTLEP during imagery can improve performance more effectively



than traditional imagery use (e.g. Smith, Wright, Allsopp, & Westhead, 2007). Although these theories and models offer valuable guidance for the development and implementation of guided imagery interventions, to date there is no conceptual model or empirically-grounded set of practical guidelines to advise how best to structure an entire imagery training intervention (Holmes & Collins, 2002; Wright & Smith, 2009). There is also a lack of research into the optimal delivery of imagery interventions to inform such guidelines. Therefore, numerous decisions are left to the researcher or practitioner, including the intervention length, the duration of imagery practice, and how the script is delivered. This lack of criteria means variations exist between interventions, making comparisons difficult (Cumming & Ramsey, 2008), as well as uncertainty as to which methods should be followed. Consequently, there is an increased risk of interventions failing to maximise the benefits of imagery, or misusing imagery leading to detrimental performance effects (Holmes & Collins, 2002). To address this issue, it is necessary to review the methodologies used in studies to investigate the degree of variation between interventions and highlight areas for improvement in future research. It is also important to address the quality of intervention design, something that is often overlooked within the sport psychology literature. This review will systematically compare the methods used by guided imagery interventions, with the overarching aim of informing the design and implementation of future interventions in both research and applied practice. The specific aims are fourfold: (1) to assess the quality of intervention design; (2) to provide evidence for the variation in intervention design; (3) to investigate the variety of methods used by researchers, providing examples of different methods to be considered in the development and implementation of future imagery interventions; and (4) to examine adherence to the bio-informational theory and the PETTLEP model.

Method Search strategy Studies included in the review were required to meet the following inclusion criteria: ● A sport-based, guided imagery intervention. ● An aim(s) to improve either a psychological skill or emotion or a motor skill (e.g. the athletes’ performance), allowing a comparison to be made regarding the success of the intervention.

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● Guided imagery was delivered using an imagery script, allowing comparisons to be made regarding the development, content, and delivery of the imagery scenario. ● A minimum duration of 5 days, to distinguish between laboratory experiments, where imagery is used as a shortterm manipulation, and intervention studies, where imagery is more commonly used as a long-term, ecologically valid training aid to enhance performance. ● Baseline imagery ability was screened via a validated imagery ability questionnaire. This criterion ensured that findings were not confounded by differences in imagery ability and enabled comparisons to be made regarding participants’ baseline imagery ability and the methods used to deal with individual differences. Further to these inclusion criteria, studies were excluded based on the following: ● Implemented in conjunction with other mental skills training. ● Clinical or special populations used. ● Participants with a mean age of less than 13 years, due to motor imagery ability having been shown to be poorly developed below this age (Choudhury, Charman, Bird, & Blakemore, 2007; Skoura, Vinter, & Papaxanthis, 2009). ● Published in a language other than English. ● Insufficient detail provided about the methods used, resulting in an inability to measure five or more of the comparison areas targeted. ● Non-peer reviewed publications. Electronic searches were conducted through the bibliographic databases PsycInfo, Sport Discus, Medline, and Embase. To provide an indication of the number of potential articles, when searching for the term “imagery” on the PubMed online library, the number of results reached 7,972 (11 February 2012); due to this high number of articles and the multiple search terms that may depict imagery, it was necessary to compose a search strategy that was broad enough to cover all the potential imagery terms, yet narrow enough to include the types of imagery studies that may have implemented an imagery intervention. Therefore, a title search was conducted comprising the keywords: imagery, mental practice, mental simulation, visualisation, or mental rehearsal, each used in turn in conjunction with: training, routine, PETTLEP, intervention, practice, ability, personalisation, stimulus response, SR-training, or program. With no prior restrictions applied, the total number of studies located within each of the four databases was 221, 569, 279, and 349, respectively. After imposing the aforementioned inclusion and


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exclusion criteria, a total of 13 studies remained. A manual search through bibliographies of selected studies, together with an automated search of relevant online journals, yielded a further two studies. This resulted in a total of 15 studies, which dated from 2001 to 2011, collected during the last week of February, 2012. Of these 15 studies, four used two or more variations of imagery intervention. Thus, in the analysis these were considered as separate interventions resulting in a grand total of 20 imagery interventions included in the review.

Analysis The interventions were systematically assessed based on 17 areas of comparison displayed in Table 1. To increase the validity of the data extracted, the lead author of each study was sent an Excel spreadsheet containing the

information that was drawn from their particular intervention(s). The authors were requested to confirm or amend this information as necessary. Further to this, copies of the imagery scripts used in the intervention(s) were requested from authors, allowing for further extraction and validation of information. Data was checked and returned by authors for 18 out of the 20 interventions (90%). Imagery scripts were only provided by authors for two interventions, a full script was published for one intervention and script sections were published for a further two interventions. Interventions were also rated on their strength of methodological design, using either the physiotherapy evidence database (PEDro) scale (Maher et al., 2003) or the single-case experimental design (SCED) scale (Tate et al., 2008), depending on whether the studies were randomised control trials (RCT) or single sample, respectively. The PEDro scale was devised from a list of quality assessment criteria following a consensus of international experts,

Table 1 Methodological comparisons made between the interventions. Comparison Quality of design PEDro and SCED score

Imagery ability Baseline Monitoring

Duration Intervention Imagery sessions Single image Total imagery use

Question addressed

How did interventions score when assessing the quality of methodological design using the PEDro and SCED scales?

Why was a baseline measure of imagery ability administered? Was there a required level of imagery ability to participate in the study? What tools were used to monitor the quantity and/or quality of imagery use? To what extent was the imagery use supervised?

What was the total duration of the imagery intervention (weeks)? What was the duration of a single imagery session? How many imagery sessions were implemented per week? What was the duration of a single image? How many times was the imagery script repeated within a session? What was the total time that a participant was engaged in deliberate imagery use; calculated as follows: Duration of a single image X the number of repetitions in a session X the number of sessions each week X number of weeks.

Script development Content SRM-propositions Personalisation Modification

What informed the content of the imagery script? Did imagery scripts include stimulus, response, and meaning propositions? Were the imagery scripts tailored to suit each participant or generalised across participants? Was the content changed throughout the intervention?

Delivery SR-training Script delivery format Integration of script and imagery Timing Instructions PETTLEP

Was an SR-training exercise used? How was the script delivered to the participants? Was the script followed prior to imagery use or during imagery use? Where and when was the imagery script used? What specific instructions were given to the participants before imaging? What individual elements of PETTLEP were followed?



carried out by Verhagen et al. (1998). The scale offers 11 assessment criterions and states that if a criterion is not clearly stated upon a literal reading of the article, a score cannot be awarded. Similar to the PEDro scale, the SCED scale also contains 11-items and was developed and tested by experts in methodological design. In the current study, these ratings were independently carried out by two reviewers before being analysed for reliability using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). There was a strong agreement between these scores, with an ICC of 0.89 ( p ¼ 0.73) for the PEDro scale and 0.80 ( p ¼ 0.37) for the SCED scale. A non-significant F value and an ICC of 0.70 or above is considered acceptable (Vincent, 1999). To provide a marker for success, each intervention was coded as having either a full, moderate, or no-change in the dependent variable(s) measured. The criteria for classifying intervention success are described in Table 2. Table 2 Method of coding for intervention success. Code

Definition

Full-change

▪ All of the dependent variables (DVs) are positively and significantly changed from pre- to post-intervention. And ▪ All changes are significantly greater than any control conditions.

Moderate-change

▪ One or more DVs positively and significantly changed from pre- to postintervention (significantly greater than any control conditions). And ▪ One or more DVs did not change, changed negatively or did not differ from a control, from pre- to post-intervention.

No-change

▪ None of the DVs positively or significantly changed from pre- to post-intervention. Or ▪ Changes are not significantly greater than any control conditions.

All of the methodological variations outlined in Table 1 were compared with intervention success using non-parametric statistical analysis (chi-squared test for independence and the Spearman’s correlation coefficient). Further statistical comparisons were made based on methodological variations observed by the first author during the manual reading process. For example, when a pattern appeared to emerge across studies, this was subject to an appropriate statistical test to verify whether it was significant.

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Results and discussion1 Descriptive characteristics A total of 20 guided imagery interventions were implemented in 15 studies ranging from 2001 to 2011. Despite there being no date restrictions applied, no intervention prior to 2001 met the inclusion criteria. Common reasons for non-inclusion were a lack of imagery scrip usage, intervention shorter than the duration required in the inclusion criteria, lack of valid imagery ability measures, and insufficient detail regarding the methods used. There was a total of 183 participants across the 20 interventions (M ¼ 9.15), with a grand mean age of 20.84 (SD ¼ 3.55). There was an even distribution between male and female participants (53% males), with four interventions involving females only, seven involving only males and seven studies with mixed sex (two interventions did not describe the participants’ sex). The majority of interventions (n ¼ 14) followed a RCT design, five used a singlesubject design, and one intervention followed a withinsubject design. All of the interventions used an imagery script based on a scenario within a sporting setting. These included individual closed skills (n ¼ 12; e.g. volleyball serve, golf putt, penalty shot), individual sports (n ¼ 2; e.g. horse riding and badminton), and team sports (n ¼ 6; e.g. football, rugby, basketball). The majority of the interventions (n ¼ 16) were implemented in the athletes’ own respective sports (ranging from novice to professional). The other four interventions used a sporting task (e.g. penalty flick) paradigm to test the effects of the imagery intervention in sport students with no previous experience of the task. Interventions aimed to achieve one of two outcomes: (1) increasing one or more measures of physical performance (n ¼ 10), or (2) benefiting one or more psychological skills and/or emotions (e.g. increased imagery ability and reduced performance anxiety; n ¼ 6). Four interventions aimed to achieve both outcomes. Within these different outcomes, 10 interventions measured one DV, six measured two DVs, and four measured three DVs. There was no pattern observed between the type of outcome measured and the number of DVs. With regard to the success of the interventions, eight were coded as having a full-change, nine as having a moderate-change, and three as having no-change in the measured DVs. 1 See Appendix 2 for a summary of the main details drawn from each of the 20 interventions and Appendix 3 for a summary of the main results.


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Main comparisons Quality of design The PEDro scale. The reviewers began by scoring the methodological design of each study. This scoring was used to highlight any patterns of weakness and provide recommendations to strengthen future interventions. In the ten studies that employed a RCT design, including one involving a within-subject design, scores ranged from 4/11 to 8/11 with a mean score of 6.40 (SD ¼ 1.43) on the PEDro scale (Maher et al., 2003). Studies were scored highly for using random assignment, taking measures at baseline to ensure there were no significant betweengroup differences, obtaining outcome measures from the majority of participants, making sure participants completed their condition as allocated, and carrying out between-group statistical analysis. Very few studies were awarded scores for stating specific participant inclusion criteria, where participants were recruited from, and what incentives, if any, were given. There was also a lack of double blinding, which requires both the participant and the person delivering the intervention to be unaware of the different treatment conditions and aims of the study (Thomas, Nelson, & Silverman, 2005). No researchers explicitly stated participant blinding. This may be due to studies involving participants from the same sport teams and interventions lasting a number of weeks. Therefore, diffusion and imitation of the intervention across conditions could occur, where participants discuss and influence each others’ intervention strategies or become aware of their expected outcomes (Marczyk et al., 2010). This risk could be reduced by having attention matched conditions, using deception to mask the true nature of the study, or by ensuring the sample has minimal interaction outside of the study period (Marczyk et al., 2010; Dunbar-Jacob, 2012). Further, none of the studies adopted a blinding of the researcher who administered the intervention. This can only be achieved if the person carrying out the intervention is independent of the study and unaware of the particular outcome measures and treatments given in other conditions. An additional PEDro score required blinding of the person assessing the intervention outcome(s), so they are unaware to which group participants were allocated. Outcomes were often assessed by the researcher who implemented the intervention. Where self-reported assessment is used, the assessor can be considered blind providing that participant blinding is followed; however, this could not be awarded to the current set of studies as participant blinding was not confirmed.

Finally, researchers occasionally did not report a measure of effect size or an indication of variance in the analysis. PEDro requires that where variance is displayed graphically, the specific measure of variance displayed must be indicated (e.g. standard deviation or standard error). The SCED scale. Five studies adopted a single subject design and were assessed for the quality of their methodological design using the SCED scale (Tate et al., 2008). Scores ranged from 7/11 to 8/11, with a mean score of 7.40 (SD ¼ 0.55). Studies scored highly in adequate demographic information, operationally defined target behaviour, study design allowing the inference of cause and effect, multiple measures of the target behaviour at baseline and post-intervention, providing participants’ raw data scores, and the replication of findings across multiple cases. The first main reason that studies were not awarded scores on the SCED scale was due to outcome measure(s) not being assessed by multiple researchers and analysed for inter-rater reliability. It must be noted that the SCED scale was originally designed for observed assessment of behaviour change, rather than participant self-report questionnaires. Nevertheless, inter-rater reliability measures can be used when self-report and observed measures are taken together. Second, a number of points were lost because an assessment bias was not reduced by employing someone not involved in the study to assess the outcome measure(s). Again this assessment bias was often not applicable due to self-report questionnaires being used. However, it could have been enforced on occasions when data was supplemented with qualitative interviews, or a visual inspection method used for the analysis of quantitative data. Third, although the SCED scale states that a point is awarded for a statistical comparison of data points over time (e.g. interrupted time-series analysis), in two studies authors only used a visual inspection when analysing the data. Finally, none of the studies received a point for demonstrating the benefits of the intervention extended beyond the specific outcome measures into other areas of life. This could have been shown through measuring how the intervention affected their life outside sport, or how the intervention had transferable impacts to other sporting scenarios not included in the specific imagery scenario that was practiced. In summary, this evaluation highlighted a number of areas in need of improvement, such as explicit inclusion criteria, blinding, where possible, of participants and researchers, thorough reporting of statistical measures for variability and effect size, reducing assessment bias, and providing evidence for the generalisation of findings. These



improvements would increase the quality of research in this field. Consequently, researchers should be encouraged to follow quality design scales when planning their research to ensure appropriate guidelines are followed. It should be noted, however, that as the PEDro and SCED scales were not developed for use in sport psychology research, studies were occasionally penalised in areas that were not relevant.

Imagery ability Baseline imagery ability. Interventions differed in the reason for measuring imagery ability at baseline. First, consistent with the literature regarding potential moderating and mediating effects that imagery ability can have on the outcomes of imagery use (Cumming & Williams, 2012; Martin et al., 1999), in five interventions researchers measured imagery ability to control for individual differences. Second, in two interventions, researchers measured pre-to-post changes in imagery ability, whilst also controlling for individual differences (i.e. Calmels et al., 2004; Cumming & Ste Marie, 2001). Third, in the majority of interventions (n ¼ 13), researchers screened participants for at least a moderate level of imagery ability (e.g. between “neither easy nor hard to image” and “easy to image”) for admission to the study. Of these 13 interventions, only in one did researchers offer additional training to participants who scored below this criterion before allowing them to take part in the intervention (i.e. Callow, Hardy, & Hall, 2001). In the other 12 interventions, researchers excluded participants who scored below this level meaning results are often biased towards “good imagers”. When looking more closely at the interventions that screened participants’ imagery ability, a total of 12 individuals were excluded from the 181 screened (6.63%). In addition, in six interventions researchers did not remove any participants as all were above moderate imagery ability. This finding complies with previous research demonstrating the vast majority of athletes possess a good level of imagery ability prior to receiving structured imagery training (e.g. Cumming & Ste-Marie, 2001). However, the finding also enforces a need to explore imagery interventions in populations considered to have lower imagery ability, such as nonexercisers or clinical populations. This research would also increase the ecological validity of imagery interventions, allowing imagery training to be implemented by practitioners in populations likely to contain both poor and effective imagers. There was no association found between intervention success and whether or not

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participants were excluded: χ2 (2, n ¼ 20) ¼ 1.59, p ¼ 0.922, phi ¼ 0.09; although this is expected due to the small number of participants with relatively low imagery ability. Monitoring imagery ability. In only two interventions, researchers measured changes in imagery ability as a DV using a valid and reliable questionnaire; in both, imagery ability was found to significantly increase following the intervention (i.e. Calmels et al., 2004; Cumming & Ste Marie, 2001). Alternatively, imagery ability was monitored using a combination of qualitative interviews (n ¼ 10), training diaries (n ¼ 11), and single-item questionnaires (n ¼ 10); researchers in one intervention used all three of these methods to monitor imagery ability, 11 interventions used two, and seven interventions used one. There was no association between the degree of monitoring and intervention success: χ2 (6, n ¼ 20) ¼ 4.61, p ¼ 0.598, phi ¼ 0.48. However, a pattern was observed between the degree of monitoring and the level of supervision given to participants whilst using imagery. Participants used their imagery scripts either supervised by the researcher (n ¼ 4), independently (n ¼ 11), or a combination of both supervised and independent imagery use (n ¼ 5). Interventions using independent imagery use were significantly associated with a greater degree of monitoring than interventions using supervised-only imagery: χ2 (6, n ¼ 20) ¼ 13.50, p ¼ 0.036, phi ¼ 0.82. It was apparent that imagery ability was more often monitored to ensure that imagery scripts were being used correctly, rather than to statistically control, or determine changes in, participants’ imagery ability. Imagery ability increases at different rates between individuals throughout an intervention (e.g. Cumming & Ste-Marie, 2001; Rodgers, Hall, & Buckolz, 1991). Therefore, a baseline measure of imagery ability may not be sufficient to adequately control for individual differences in imagery ability. As studies comparing multiple variations of imagery interventions increase, the threat of between-group comparisons being confounded by individual differences in the change in imagery ability should be controlled for using validated measures of imagery ability before, after, and potentially during interventions. This threat is of particular importance as interest grows in nontraditional participant groups with potentially more variation in their imagery ability. Repeated measures of imagery ability would also allow the optimal methods for developing imagery ability to be more transparent.


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Durations Intervention. Interventions ranged from 3 to 16 weeks in length (M ¼ 6.45, SD ¼ 2.8). A Spearman’s correlation coefficient showed a strong, positive correlation between the intervention length and intervention success (r ¼ 0.670, n ¼ 20, p ¼ 0.001), where longer interventions demonstrated greater success. Imagery sessions. The number of individual imagery sessions ranged from one per week to one per day (M ¼ 4.08/week, SD ¼ 2.19). No correlation was found between the frequency of imagery sessions and intervention success (r ¼ 0.072, n ¼ 20, p ¼ 0.380). The total duration that participants engaged in imagery within a single session ranged from approximately 1 min 40 s to 11 min (M ¼ 5 min 43 s, SD ¼ 3 min 11 s). This duration was estimated for the majority of interventions based on the content and length of the script and the number of repetitions within a single session. A moderate, positive correlation was found between the total imagery use within a single session and intervention success (r ¼ 0.380, n ¼ 20, p ¼ 0.048). Single image. The number of times the same image was repeated within a single training session ranged between 1 and 95 (M ¼ 12.95, SD ¼ 20.95). There was no significant correlation between the number of repetitions and intervention success (r ¼ −0.228, n ¼ 20, p ¼ 0.174). The duration of a single image ranged from 2 s to 10 min (M ¼ 3 min 21 s, SD ¼ 4 min 12 s). A near significant, moderate, positive correlation was found between the duration of a single image and success of the intervention (r ¼ 0.370, n ¼ 20, p ¼ 0.057). Similar to the duration of an imagery session, the duration of a single image was also only estimated for the majority of interventions. The need for estimation was largely due to participants being in control of the exact amount of time they spent engaged in the image, particularly in interventions where the imagery script was presented to the participants prior to imagery use. Total imagery use. The total time the participants were engaged in imagery use throughout the intervention ranged from 9 min to 12 h 50 min (M ¼ 2 h 39 min, SD ¼ 2 h 49 min). A moderate, positive correlation was found between total imagery use and intervention success (r ¼ 0.460, n ¼ 20, p ¼ 0.021). When looking at the total time participants engaged in imagery use per week, interventions ranged from 3 min to 1 h 10 min (M ¼ 23 min, SD ¼ 17 min 33 s). This duration had a moderate, positive

relationship with intervention success, although not statistically significant (r ¼ 0.331, n ¼ 20, p ¼ 0.083). To summarise the findings for duration, a wide variation was evident within all areas of comparison, highlighting an uncertainty over the dose-response effect of imagery training. The positive relationship found between the duration of time spent engaged in imagery and the intervention success is in line with previous research. For example, Schick (1970) found that 3 min of imagery practice a day provided greater benefits than only 1 min per day, and Wakefield and Smith (2009) found that three imagery sessions a week provided greater benefits than only one or two sessions per week. Consequently, it is recommended that the amount of imagery use participants engage in throughout the intervention is maximised. However, despite the same question being raised numerous times in earlier research (e.g. Hinshaw, 1991), it is still unknown how much imagery practice is enough or too much, or if the dose-response of imagery practice should be considered in the same way as physical practice. In a meta-analysis, Hinshaw found that imagery sessions lasting under 1 min, or between 10 and 15 min, had greater effect sizes than sessions lasting 3–5 min. This non-linear relationship is in contrast to the present review, whereby the duration of imagery practice and the outcome of imagery use follow a positive linear relationship. One confounding factor in this association may be the nature of the task being imaged. For example, an image of a single closed skill such as a golf putt may inevitably be shorter than an image of open match play during a team sport. This may help explain some of the variation in the associations between duration of a single image and outcomes. It is possible that the majority of interventions in this review implemented doses of imagery that were all within a comfortable range of durations, neither being too infrequent, nor overloading the participants. Further research needs to establish the dose-response of imagery practice, whilst controlling for the type of activity being imaged, before more precise recommendations can be made. Incorporating independent practice of an imagery script into supervised imagery interventions may be a useful way of increasing the overall imagery practice time.

Script development Content. Interventions were compared on how the content of the imagery script was conceived during its development; specifically, what informed the particular



Physical task

Description of the physical task being imaged The location of the physical task being imaged Technical description provided by an expert performer

Research

Details guided by Paivio’s (1985) model of imagery functions Incorporating visual and kinaesthetic imagery perspectives Incorporating stimulus, response and meaning propositions (Lang, 1979) Details taken from imagery scripts used in previous research

Experience (of the physical task and imagery use)

The researcher’s own experience The experience of elite coaches The experience of elite performers

Participants

The participants’ personal role or performance aims The participants’ choice of equipment and environment Participants’ experience of physically performing the action The participants’ experience of imagery use Details obtained from SR-training (Lang et al., 1980)

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Figure 1 Sources of information for the development of imagery scripts.

scenario described and the details included. Following the acronym PREP (Figure 1), four main sources emerged that informed content: the Physical task (i.e. content based on descriptive information about the task and the environment), Research (i.e. content based on models, theories, and previous studies), Experience (i.e. content based on the researcher and elite sports peoples’ experience of imagery and/or the physical task), and Participants (i.e. content based on the participants own experience of the task and/or imagery use). Interventions varied in the degree that these sources of information were used. However, utilising all of the informants outlined in Figure 1 may ensure that imagery script content is accurate, detailed, and appropriate.

Stimulus, response, and meaning propositions. In terms of the extent to which aspects of bio-informational theory were followed (Lang, 1979), researchers in five interventions used scripts that contained stimulus and response propositions, whereas the majority (n ¼ 13) of interventions incorporated stimulus, response, and meaning propositions (SRM). Researchers in a further two interventions intentionally designed scripts to include only stimulus propositions (i.e. Ramsey, Cumming, Edwards, Williams, & Brunning, 2010; Smith et al., 2001). No significant association was found between the inclusion of the three propositions and the success of the interventions: χ2 (4, n ¼ 20) ¼ 4.72, p ¼ 0.319, phi ¼ 4.72. This finding suggests that the three types of propositional information may not be equally important in obtaining

successful outcomes. However, this finding could also be due to a lack of range in the use of SRM and confounds such as the number of propositions used and the different skill and emotional outcomes measured. Lang (1979) supports the inclusion of all three propositions for obtaining emotional-based outcomes of imagery use. Further, Smith et al. (2001) found that scripts incorporating stimulus and response propositions led to significantly greater motor performance outcomes than scripts containing only stimulus propositions. Interestingly, there was an observed pattern indicating that the interventions with performance outcome measures only were less likely to incorporate meaning propositions than interventions that included emotional outcome measures. Excluding interventions directly manipulating the propositions used as an aim of the study, this association neared significance: χ2 (1, n ¼ 17) ¼ 3.66, p ¼ 0.056, phi ¼ −4.64. This questions the importance of including meaning propositions in the attainment of motor performance outcomes, especially as bio-informational theory is centred on imagery use for emotional-based outcomes (Lang, 1979). In measuring the effects of imagery use on penalty kick accuracy, Ramsey et al. (2010) found similar improvements in motor performance for both stimulus only and SRM scripts; in contrast to Smith et al. (2001), this finding also suggests that response and meaning propositions are less beneficial in gaining motor performance outcomes. However, the theory of functional equivalence proposes that an image more reflective of an actual performance (i.e. including the relevant response propositions) would increase neural activity during


10


imagery and result in greater benefits to actual performance (Kosslyn et al., 2001). Further, PETTLEP (Holmes & Collins, 2001) recommends that interventions should include all three propositions within imagery scripts to benefit performance directly and provide indirect benefits through emotional outcomes. Future research should compare the effects of SR- and SRM-laden scripts to isolate the effect of meaning propositions specifically on motor performance outcomes. If the SRM propositions required in the script are dependent on the required outcome of the imagery use, additional propositions could result in less optimised imagery time. Finally, also notable was the significant association between the propositions included and the duration of a single image: χ2 (4, n ¼ 20) ¼ 9.79, p ¼ 0.044, phi ¼ 0.70; the SRM scripts had the longest durations. This suggests that the length, and number of script propositions, may be an underlying factor that should be carefully controlled in future studies. Notable, however, is that investigation into the precise number of script propositions was not possible due to the majority of imagery scripts not being available to make this comparison. Personalisation. Imagery script content was often developed from information given by participants as a main source of information (Figure 1). Researchers used personalised imagery scripts in over half of the interventions (n ¼ 12), whilst in the other interventions a generic imagery script was applied in the same way to all participants (n ¼ 8). The association between personalised and generic imagery and intervention success was nearing significance: χ2 (2, n ¼ 20) ¼ 5.24, p ¼ 0.073, phi ¼ 0.51. If the no-change and moderate-change interventions were collapsed and compared with the fullchange interventions, the association between personalised imagery and intervention success is statistically significant: χ2 (1, n ¼ 20) ¼ 4.20, p ¼ 0.040, phi ¼ 0.46. Whilst this finding provides support for the use of personalised imagery (Wilson et al. 2010; Lang, 1979), it must be noted that the degree of script personalisation varied between interventions. Some appeared extensively personalised, with the participant’s own SRM propositions. Other scripts appeared to be only moderately personalised, and sometimes based on a generic script with a few personalised stimulus propositions added. The comparisons made in this review were unable to take into account the degree to which scripts were personalised. This was due to the unavailability of imagery scripts and occasional lack of description regarding the precise methods used to personalise scripts. While personalised imagery scripts are recommended,

additional research needs to determine the level of personalisation needed for a script to have benefits over a generic script. Modification. The Learning element of the PETTLEP model suggests that an imagery script should be continually updated due to ongoing changes in emotion, performance environments, skill level, and participants’ imagery ability (Holmes & Collins, 2001). In support, researchers modified the script in five of the interventions, and this was done via one of the three methods. The first involved amending the original script through a series of intermittent consultations with the participants, who were asked if they would like to make any additions or modifications to enhance the imagery experience and the individual meaning of the imagery (i.e. Smith, Wright, & Cantwell, 2008; Shearer, Mellalieu, Thomson, & Shearer, 2008). Second, a method known as layering was used to modify scripts (Nordin & Cumming, 2005; Calmels et al., 2004), whereby new layers of detail were added to the imagery scenario in stages, to increase the vividness and details within the image (i.e. Calmels et al., 2004). Layering often begins with a script containing basic details (first layer), allowing an inexperienced imager to master generating a fairly simple image. Additional details are then added layer by layer, as the participant becomes more experienced. Layering can also incorporate Lang’s (1979) bio-informational theory, whereby the first layer could be made up of stimulus propositions, with response and meaning propositions added in subsequent layers (e.g. Cumming, Olphin, & Law, 2007; Williams, Cumming, & Balanos, 2010). Imagery ability has been found to significantly increase following an intervention where a layering technique is used (Calmels et al., 2004). Lastly, rather than modifying an existing script, the final method involved introducing entirely new scripts. These described the same physical task, but in a differed scenario, or game situation (i.e. Callow et al., 2001). It is plausible that modifying the script may benefit the outcomes of imagery use. As imagery is considered to be a trainable skill, it seems intuitive that imagery interventions should progress in a manner similar to the progressive training found when learning a physical skill. For example, as a beginner footballer increases in their level of skill, the exercises used in training sessions would be expected to increase in difficulty to encourage greater improvements. In contrast, if an individual’s imagery ability is improving, but the level of detail within an imagery script remains the same, further improvements



in imagery ability, and the outcomes of imagery use, may not be optimised. In this review, no significant association was found between the modification of scripts and intervention success χ2 (2, n ¼ 20) ¼ 1.70, p ¼ 0.430, phi ¼ 0.29). It is possible that modifying scripts provides no additional benefits or, alternatively, participants may automatically modify their imagery to match their physical performance throughout an intervention, despite following the same imagery script. Further research is required to compare techniques of modifying scripts, to that of static imagery training.

Delivery SR-training. Researchers in less than half of the interventions (n ¼ 8) used a SR-training exercise prior to the intervention commencing (Lang et al., 1980). There was no significant association found between the use of SR-training and intervention success: χ2 (2, n ¼ 20) ¼ 0.56, p ¼ 0.758, phi ¼ 0.17. This unexpected result could suggest that SR-training is not actually beneficial. However, this result could also be explained by the fact that interventions comprised “good” imagers, thus reducing the potential scope for imagery ability to be increased. In addition, the nature of using an imagery script guides participants to include various propositions within their image, which is one of the objectives of using SR-training. It is likely that an SR-training exercise would have greater benefit when imagery ability is initially lower and when using unguided imagery. However, additional research is required to systematically test the effects of SR-training on imagery ability. It is also important to note that while many researchers did not implement a specific SR-training exercise, there were other methods used to increase imagery ability prior to the intervention commencing. In two interventions (i.e. Velentzas, Heinen, & Schack, 2011; Cumming & Ste Marie, 2001) researchers used breath control and relaxation exercises as recommended by Hall (2001) and Orlick (1990). Others incorporated educational sessions (i.e. Mellalieu et al., 2009; Callow et al., 2001; Calmels et al., 2004; Cumming & Ste Marie, 2001) to explain imagery functions and perspectives, and provide examples of imagery ability including the generation, controllability and vividness of imagery use. A 15 min workshop, designed by Hardy and Fazey (1990) to increase correct and effective imagery use through a series of progressive imagery practices, was implemented in two interventions (i.e. Shearer et al., 2008; Callow & Waters, 2005). Similarly, in one intervention participants were given

11

practice imagery scenarios that were devised by the researcher (i.e. Callow et al., 2001). Regardless of the chosen method, spending time before an imagery intervention to increase participants’ awareness of imagery use and their imagery ability is likely to facilitate subsequent imagery use (see Goss et al., 1986).

Script delivery format. The method used to deliver the scripts to participants varied between interventions in the following ways: written scripts read either aloud to participants (n ¼ 4) or by participants themselves (n ¼ 10), audio recorded scripts (n ¼ 2), a choice between having the script read aloud to them or reading it themselves (n ¼ 2), and a choice between audio and written scripts (n ¼ 2). No significant association was found between these delivery methods and degree of intervention success (χ2 ¼ 6.38, p ¼ 0.605), suggesting that delivery format may have little effect. However, theoretically the method of presentation could impact the effectiveness of imagery use. For example, greater imagery ability is associated with shorter latencies in the retrieval of information from long-term memory, as well as faster imagery generation (Hishitani, 1991; Denis, 1995). Imagery ability could also affect the speed at which an individual would be able to inspect their image once generated, and make any necessary modifications (Cumming & Ramsey, 2008). Therefore, imagery scripts that are self-paced, where participants are able to pause and resume the script when necessary, may allow for these individual differences and result in better quality imagery compared to scripts of a fixed pace. Of the ten interventions that used fixed paced scripts (e.g. audio or researcher read) only three reported incorporating pauses into scripts, allowing participants time to follow the script.

Integration of script and imagery. In 13 interventions, participants either read or listened to the imagery script before generating their imagery. In the other seven interventions, participants performed their imagery while they read or listened to the imagery script. There was no association between whether or not the imagery was integrated with the script delivery and intervention success: χ2 (2, n ¼ 20) ¼ 1.44, p ¼ 0.494, phi ¼ 0.27. Following an observed pattern, a significant association was found between the integration of the imagery and the method of script delivery format: χ2 (4, n ¼ 20) ¼ 9.67, p ¼ 0.046, phi ¼ 0.70, where the scripts that were read aloud to participants, or read by the participants themselves, were more often used prior to image generation, compared to the audio scripts that were all used during imagery.


12


A significant association was also found between the integration of the imagery and the duration of a single image: χ2 (2, n ¼ 20) ¼ 12.47, p ¼ 0.002, phi ¼ 0.79; showing that imagery integrated with scripts was associated with longer images, whereas scripts used before imagery use tended to be shorter in duration. This difference is likely to be due to the scripts used during imagery requiring participants to engage in the scenario throughout the duration of the script, whereas imagery generated after an imagery script allows the participant to determine when they have completed the image.

scenario throughout the intervention. No association was found between the inclusion or exclusion of physical practice and intervention success: χ2 (2, n ¼ 20) ¼ 0.90, p ¼ 0.642, phi ¼ 0.21). Numerous studies have shown that imagery can lead to both performance and psychological benefits whether implemented alone or alongside physical practice (e.g. Smith et al., 2001; Callow & Waters, 2005; Shearer et al., 2008). Therefore, imagery use can provide performance benefits when physical practice is not possible, such as when travelling or during periods of injury.

Timing. The three main time points in which imagery practice was incorporated into participants’ daily lives were during physical training sessions (n ¼ 5), before competition (n ¼ 1), away from both physical practice and competition (n ¼ 11), and a combination of all three times points (n ¼ 3). No association was found between the time point at which imagery was used and intervention success: χ2 (10, n ¼ 20) ¼ 14.64, p ¼ 0.146, phi ¼ 0.86). This supports recommendations that imagery can have successful benefits when used at home, during physical practice, and before competition (Nordin & Cumming, 2005; Hall, 2001). Researchers in the majority of interventions (n ¼ 16) implemented imagery alongside participants’ normal physical training of their sport, while four interventions allowed no physical practice of the specific imagery

Prior imagery instructions. Researchers in the majority of interventions did not report the specific instructions that were given to participants before using the imagery script (n ¼ 14). Taken from those that did (n ¼ 6), Figure 2 displays examples of instructions, which appeared to follow elements of the PETTLEP model (Holmes & Collins, 2001). Although the prior imagery instructions may be more essential during non-guided interventions when how and what is imaged can be more varied between individuals, it is still important to provide clear instructions for guided imagery use. Instructions can determine the perspective, agent, function, modality, functional equivalence, and how engaged and comfortable a participant is during their imagery use. All of these factors could affect the outcome of the imagery experience (Holmes & Calmels, 2008).

Physical

Don’t actually perform the physical movement Allow small body movements to help make the image more realistic Wear the same sports clothing as you are wearing in the image Hold the sporting equipment as you are holding in the image Feel the body’s sensations

Environment

Stand in the same environment as the image

Task

Image what you would see and feel as if actually performing the action

Timing

Perform the imagery in real time

Perspective

Combine visual and kinaesthetic imagery Maintain your preferred visual perspective You may switch visual perspectives Perceive the movements as if a camera was in your head

Other

Have your eyes closed Image in the most comfortable way for you Image as vividly as possible

Figure 2 Instructions given to participants prior to imagery use.



PETTLEP. Comparisons for adherence to the PETTLEP model (Holmes & Collins, 2001) excluded two studies (five interventions) (i.e. Ramsey et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2007) that aimed to manipulate the number of PETTLEP elements included. Table 3 displays the frequency of the different elements that were found to be explicitly or implicitly followed in the remaining interventions, which ranged from 2 to 7 elements (M ¼ 4, SD ¼ 1.73). Table 3 Frequency count of the PETTLEP elements followed. Element Physical Environment Task Timing Learning Emotion Perspective

13

Conclusion Imagery studies have varied widely in the methods used when delivering guided imagery interventions. This variation has led to difficulties comparing studies and uncertainty as to what methods should be followed. A systematic review was required to evaluate the interventions to date to inform applied recommendations for effective imagery use. The key aims and our findings are discussed below; for further details, see the Results and Discussion section and the summary table of main findings in Appendix 3.

Number of interventions (N = 15) 7 8 15 7 5 11 7

Previous research suggests that an increased use of PETTLEP elements maximises the success of an imagery intervention (Smith et al., 2007, 2008; Wright & Smith, 2009). Thus, Smith (2011) advises that for maximum benefit, the PETTLEP model should be integrated as a whole, rather than in part. Contrary to this recommendation, the present review found no correlation between the total number of elements included and intervention success (r ¼ −0.059, n ¼ 15, p ¼ 0.828). Furthermore, no individual PETTLEP element correlated with intervention success despite speculation that some elements might be more important than others (Smith et al., 2007). A relationship was found, however, between adherence to the Physical and Environment elements: χ2 (1, n ¼ 15) ¼ 11.48, p ¼ 0.001, phi ¼ 0.88. This was expected as these two elements are easily combined; for example, many of the interventions used imagery during physical practice or competition, which, sometimes incidentally, resulted in participants wearing their sports clothing and being in the same environment as the imagery scenario. Further, a Spearman’s correlation coefficient showed a strong, positive correlation between total PETTLEP elements and year of the study (r ¼ 0.603, n ¼ 15, p ¼ 0.017), indicating that more recent studies incorporate a greater number of PETTLEP elements. This suggests a growing acceptance of the model among researchers.

Aim 1: assess the quality of intervention design By scoring studies using available standardised scales (PEDro and SCED), the review highlighted a range of potential methodological issues to consider when designing future interventions. Highlighting areas of current strengths and weaknesses will hopefully encourage researchers to pay attention to a range of considerations when planning their studies. It is notable that not all aspects of the PEDro and SCED scales are entirely relevant to all areas of applied sport psychology research (i.e. double blinding). However, until a bespoke sport psychology-specific checklist is developed in the future, PEDro and SCED are widely recognised across a range of research disciplines and may still serve as a useful reference for researchers to follow.

Aim 2: provide evidence of the variation in imagery training intervention design The systematic review revealed that interventions varied greatly, particularly regarding the duration, doseresponse of imagery practice, modification of imagery scripts, imagery training prior to intervention, method of script presentation, timing of script use and imagery generation, and the instructions given to participants prior to imagery use. Subsequently, strong support is provided for the necessity of sufficient guidelines to inform the development and implementation of imagery training interventions. Not only would this ensure that future interventions are more standardised, but it may also encourage an even more frequent and successful use of imagery interventions.


14


Aim 3: highlight the different methods to consider when designing an imagery intervention Overall, this review highlighted a range of methods to be considered when designing an imagery intervention. Coding interventions by degree of success also provided an interesting comparison between the different methods used, such as comparing the success of personalised and generic imagery scripts. However, the relationship between intervention success and a particular method used may be confounded by a number of uncontrolled methodological differences between the studies, as well as the different DVs measured. Thus, although the results of these comparisons supplement and question previous literature, more rigorous and controlled testing is required in future studies. In comparing the different methods used, this review also established a number of questions that need researching, such as the minimal and maximal imagery use dosage required before the benefits of imagery are lost or plateau, the benefits of modifying imagery scenarios and progressive imagery training, the use of self-paced vs. fixed-paced imagery scenarios, and imagery use following a script vs. imagery use during a script.

Aim 4: investigate the adherence to current theories and models of how imagery should be used The extent to which interventions followed existing theories and models of imagery use varied greatly. Despite the literature in favour of using SRM propositions and SR-training exercises (Lang et al., 1980), many interventions were not informed by this bio-informational theory (Lang, 1977, 1979). Further, although more recent interventions include more PETTLEP model elements (Holmes and Collins, 2001), on average only four out of seven elements are used. Many of these elements were implicitly incorporated, rather than researchers showing explicit awareness of the potential benefits. Personalised imagery use also varied, with 40% of interventions using generic scripts. In addition, the methods used to personalise imagery scripts, and the extent to which scripts contained personalised details also varied. A set of guidelines could pull together existing theories and models to encourage awareness and adherence, along with recommending additional methods to promote more effective imagery.

Comparing adherence to these theories and models also raised a number of questions in need of further investigation, such as the benefit of meaning propositions in motor performance outcomes, generic vs. personalised scripts matched in length and number of propositions included, and the potential for some elements of the PETTLEP model to be more beneficial than others. Whilst some of the questions raised in this review have previously been raised by other authors, more definitive answers are still required, particularly for the areas of the review that are contrary to typical recommendations or conclusions about imagery research.

Future research and applied recommendations A number of suggestions can be made for future imagery interventions. First, researchers should be encouraged to measure imagery ability both pre- and post-intervention through validated self-report questionnaires such as the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 (Williams et al., 2012) or Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire (Williams & Cumming, 2011), and through objective measures (e.g. brain imaging, chronometric assessment, physiological responses, or mental rotation tasks; Collet, Guillot, Lebon, MacIntyre, & Moran, 2011). Not only could this assessment of imagery ability be used to measure and control for imagery ability changes, but it would also help to further establish effective methods for measuring imagery ability and allow for direct comparisons between the efficacy of the imagery training interventions in developing imagery ability. Second, the duration of the intervention and amount of imagery use should be maximised where possible to provide greater benefits. As shown in this review, longer interventions and greater time spent engaged in imagery practice were associated with more successful interventions. Imagery time could be increased by incorporating independent imagery use alongside supervised imagery sessions. Third, researchers should make use of all available sources when preparing the content of an imagery script. This may be done by following the PREP acronym (Figure 1), which suggests that content is based on the Physical task, Research, Experience, and the Participants. Lastly, a range of methods should be considered when designing an intervention, such as the use of personalised imagery scripts, modification of scripts throughout the intervention, script delivery format, and whether imagery scripts are used before or in combination with imagery use.



This review has also highlighted ways to strengthen the dissemination of imagery research. Research articles should provide extensive details regarding the methods followed when implementing imagery training interventions. Unfortunately, a number of studies were excluded from this review due to a lack of detail provided and some studies that were included at times lacked sufficient detail. This was evident from the number of details that were estimated or added through author validation. A greater level of detail reported in articles would allow for researchers to more closely follow the methods used and find new ways of improving existing practice. The relevant detail required in a report could also be outlined in future guidelines. In addition, the imagery training program details and specific imagery scripts should be made more readily available following publication. In this review, authors were only able to retrieve complete

15

imagery scripts used in two out of 20 interventions. Although this could be due to constraints in publication length, this may be overcome through the increased allowance of online supplementary material. The availability of such information would allow comparisons to be made as to the length and detail of imagery scripts, leading to a more transparent link between the outcomes of the imagery intervention and the methods used to achieve them. To conclude, this is the first review to systematically compare a number of guided, sport imagery interventions and provide evidence for the variation in methodological design. In highlighting the need for more practical guidance in the design and implementation of guided imagery interventions, and informing the possible content, this review provides a useful step towards the development of extensive, and much needed, imagery intervention guidelines.

Appendices Appendix 1 Elements of the PETTLEP model. Element

Definition

Example

Physical

The extent to which the physical aspect of the imagery reflects that of the actual movement (e.g. body position, equipment, and clothing).

A weightlifter imaging while adopting the lifting position on the weight bench and griping the weight in their hand.

Environment

The imaged action should be carried out in the same environment as the actual action, both mentally (in the image) and/or physically (where the imagery is taking place).

A footballer imaging while standing on the match day pitch, in front of the goal posts and with a football in front of them.

Task

The imaged action should correspond as closely as possible to the actual action and at the same level of expertise.

A script describing a golf putt that is technically identical to the putt realistically used during physical performance.

Timing

The duration of the imaged action must be temporally equivalent to that of the physically performed action.

A basketball routine being imaged in real time.

Learning

The imaged action should evolve as an action is learnt and refined.

Adding new softball performance scenarios to the imagery content, to reflect new match experiences and an increase in the players imagery ability.

Emotion

The imaged action should include similar emotions and arousal levels to those experienced when actually performing the action.

A badminton player imaging feeling confident along with other positive emotions that are desired during performance.

Perspective

The view point of the imagined action should allow for focus to be placed on the necessary part of the action (1PP vs. 3PP).

Synchronised skaters adopting their preferred visual perspective whilst imaging their routine.

Notes: Appendix 1 uses definitions from Cumming and Ramsey (2008) and Holmes and Collins (2002) and examples from interventions included in the current review.


Football

Weight lifting

Football penalty

Football penalty

Rugby Union

Basketball

Golf putting

Golf putting

Obstacle course

Hockey penalty

Hockey penalty

Lebon et al. (2010)

Ramsey et al. (2010)


Mellalieu et al. (2009)

Guillot et al. (2009)

Smith et al. (2008)

Smith et al. (2008)

Shearer et al. (2008)

Smith et al. (2007)

Smith et al. (2007)

Volleyball serve

Velentzas et al. (2011)

Pain et al. (2011)

Sport/ task

Reference

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Performance

SE & task cohesion

Performance

Performance

Performance

Performance, SE & anxiety Performance, SE & anxiety Anxiety, confid & affect

Performance & imagery ability Performance & perceived flow Performance

Outcome measures

Mod-change

Full-change

Full-change

Full-change

Mod-change

No-change

Full-change

Mod-change

Mod-change

Mod-change

No-change

Full-change

Success

Moderate IA (MIQ) Control for IA (MIQ) Moderate IA (MIQ-R) Moderate IA(MIQ-R) Moderate IA (MIQ-R)

Control for IA (MIQ) Moderate IA (MIQ-R) Moderate IA (MIQ-R) Moderate IA (MIQ-R)

Moderate IA (MIQ-R) Moderate IA (MIQ-R)

7/11s 4/11p 7/11p 7/11p 7/11s

4/11p 7/11p 7/11p 7/11p

7/11p 7/11p

Control for IA (VMIQ)

7/11p Questionnaire (independent) Questionnaire (supervised) Questionnaire, diary (combination) Questionnaire, diary (combination) Questionnaire, diary, meetings (combination) Questionnaire (supervised) Meetings (independent) Meetings (independent) Questionnaire, meetings (combination) Diary, meetings (independent) Diary, meetings (independent)

(Supervised)

Baseline measure of IA Monitoring IA (supervision)

PEDro/ SCED

Appendix 2 A comparison of the 20 imagery interventions, in descending chronological order.

6

6

6

6

6

5

11

6

6

4

3

7

5 min (7/week) 5 min (7/week)

11 min (2.4/week) 5 min (2/week) 5 min (1/week) 10 min (5/week)

10 min (2/week) 3 min (1/week) 3 min 10 s (3/week) 1 min 40 s (4/week) 1 min 40 s (4/week) 10 min (7/week)

Weeks Session (#/week)

Total imagery

30 s (10) 30 s (10)

1 min 13 s (9) 20 s (15) 20 s (15) 10 min (1)

10 s (10) 10 s (10) 10 min (1)

3 h 30 min

3 h 30 min

5h

30 min

1h

2 h 12 min

12 h 50 min

40 min

40 min

10 min 2 h 20 min (1) 3 min 9 min (1) 2 s (95) 38 min

Image (reps)

Duration

16 S.J. Cooley et al.: Methodological Variations in Guided Imagery Interventions

Hockey penalty

Horse racing

Golf putting

Softball

Synchronised skating Hockey penalty

Hockey penalty

Badminton

Smith et al. (2007)

Callow et al. (2005)

Smith et al. (2004)

Calmels et al. (2004)

Cumming et al. (2001)

Smith et al. (2001)

Callow et al. (2001)

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No-change

Full-change

Mod-change

Success

Confidence

Performance

Performance

Mod-change

Full-change

Mod-change

Imagery use & ability Mod-change

Imagery ability

Performance

Confidence

Performance

Outcome measures

Moderate IA (MIQ-R) Diary, meetings (independent) Moderate IA (MIQ-R) Questionnaire, diary (combination) Moderate IA (VMIQ) Questionnaire, diary (independent) Observing IA change Questionnaire (VMIQ) (independent) Observing IA change Questionnaire (MIQ) (supervised) Control for IA (MIQ-R) Diary, meetings (independent) Control for IA (MIQ-R) Diary, meetings (independent) Moderate IA (MIQ-R) Diary, meetings (independent)

7/11p

8/11s

8/11p

8/11p

4/11s

8/11s

8/11p

7/11s

Baseline measure of IA Monitoring IA (supervision)

PEDro/ SCED

3

7

7

5

7

6

16

6

5 min (7/week) 5 min (3.2/week) 2 min 30 s (7/week) 10 min (4/week) 10 min (2/week) 3 min 20 s (3/week) 3 min 20 s (3/week) 5 min (7/week)

Weeks Session (#/week)

30 s (10) 5 min (1) 10 s (15) 10 min (1) 10 min (1) 10 s (20) 10 s (20) 5 min (1)

Image (reps)

Duration

1 h 45 min

1 h 10 min

1 h 10 min

1 h 40 min

4 h 40 min

1 h 45 min

4 h 16 min

3 h 30 min

Total imagery

Notes: SE = self efficacy; IA = imagery ability, MIQ = Movement imagery questionnaire (Hall & Pongrac, 1983); MIQ-R = Movement imagery questionnaire revised (Hall & Martin, 1997); VMIQ, Vividness of movement imagery questionnaire (Isaac, Marks, & Russel, 1986).

Smith et al. (2001)

Sport/ task

Reference

Appendix 2 (Continued )


17

No

SRM

SRM SRM SRM

SR

SR

SR SRM SRM SRM

SRM S SR SRM

Guillot et al. (2009)

Smith et al. (2008) Smith et al. (2008) Shearer et al. (2008)

Smith et al. (2007)

Smith et al. (2007)

Smith et al. (2007) Callow et al. (2005) Smith et al. (2004) Calmels et al. (2004)

Cumming et al. (2001) Smith et al. (2001) Smith et al. (2001) Callow et al. (2001)

Brought to you by | University of Birmingham Authenticated | [email protected] author's copy Download Date | 6/26/13 8:34 AM No No No Yes

No No No Yes

No

No

Yes Yes Yes

No

No

No

No

No

No

No No Yes No

Yes No Yes Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes Yes No

No

No

No

No

No

No

Researcher read Participant read Participant read Audio or participant read

Participant read Audio or participant read Participant read Audio

Participant read

Participant read

Participant read Participant read Participant read

Researcher read

Researcher or participant read Researcher or participant read Participant read

Researcher read

Audio

physical practice

and away from

and away from

and away from

During imagery, away from physical practice Before imagery, away from physical practice Before imagery, away from physical practice During imagery, away from physical practice

Before imagery, away from physical practice During imagery, away from physical practice Before imagery, away from physical practice During imagery, away from physical practice

Before imagery, away from physical practice

Before imagery, during physical practice

Before imagery, away from physical practice Before imagery, during physical practice During imagery, away from physical practice

Before imagery, during physical practice Before imagery, during physical practice During imagery, before competition Before imagery, during


During imagery, before competition


Script timing

Notes: S = stimulus propositions; SR = stimulus and response propositions; SRM = stimulus, response and meaning propositions.

No No Yes No

Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes Yes Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Mellalieu et al. (2009) SRM

S

SRM



SR

Lebon et al. (2010)

Yes

Researcher read

SRM

No

Pain et al. (2011)

No

SRM

Velentzas et al. (2011)

No

SRM-propositions Personalised Modified SR-training Script presentation

Reference

Appendix 2 (continued)

Task

Task,

Task,

Task,

Task,

Physical, Environment, Task, Emotion Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Emotion, Perspective All All Environment, Task, Learning, Emotion Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Perspective Physical, Task, Timing, Perspective Task, Timing, Perspective Task, Emotion Task Emotion Task, Learning, Emotion, Perspective Task, Emotion, Perspective Task, Timing Task, Timing Task, Learning, Emotion

Physical, Environment, Emotion, Perspective Physical, Environment, Emotion Physical, Environment, Timing, Perspective Physical, Environment, Emotion Physical, Environment,

PETTLEP elements

18 S.J. Cooley et al.: Methodological Variations in Guided Imagery Interventions

19


Appendix 3 A summary of the key outcomes from the systematic review. Comparison

Key Outcomes

Quality of design PEDro and SCED

Mean scores of 6.4/11 and 7.4/11, respectively.

Imagery ability Baseline

Monitoring

Duration Intervention

Baseline measures of imagery ability were used to control for individual differences (n = 5), measure pre to post changes in imagery ability (n = 2), and to screen for an above moderate level of imagery ability (n = 13). No association between baseline measures and intervention success (p = 0.920). Methods of monitoring included qualitative interviews (n = 10), training diaries (n = 11), and single-item questionnaires (n = 10). No association between monitoring and intervention success (p = 0.480). Interventions that involved unsupervised imagery use were associated with a greater degree of monitoring (p = 0.036). Interventions ranged from 3 to 16 weeks in length (M = 6.45, SD = 2.8). A strong, positive correlation between intervention duration (weeks) and intervention success (r = 0.670, p = 0.001).

Imagery sessions

Imagery sessions ranged from one per week to one per day (M = 4.08/week, SD = 2.19). No correlation between the frequency of imagery sessions and intervention success (r = 0.072, p = 0.38). The amount of imagery use in a single session ranged from 1 min 40 s to 11 min (M = 5 min 43 s, SD = 3 min 11 s). A moderate, positive correlation between the amount of imagery use in a single session and intervention success (r = 0.380, p = 0.048).

Single image

The number of times the same image was repeated within a single training session ranged between 1 and 95 (M = 12.95, SD = 20.95). No significant correlation between the number of repetitions and intervention success (r = –0.228, p = 0.174). The duration of a single image ranged from 2 s to 10 min (M = 3 min 21 s, SD = 4 min 12 s). A near significant, moderate, positive correlation between duration of a single image and intervention success (r = 0.370, p = 0.057).

Total imagery use

The total time participants were engaged in imagery use throughout the intervention ranged from 9 min to 12 h 50 min (M = 2 h 39 min, SD = 2 h 49 min). A moderate, positive correlation between total imagery use and intervention success (r = 0.462, p = 0.021).

Script development Content

Script content was informed using four sources of information: physical task, research, experience, and participants (PREP).

SRM-propositions

SRM propositions were incorporated in the majority of interventions (n = 13). No association between SRM-proposition use and intervention success (p = 0.319). A near significant association showed interventions with performance outcome measures to incorporate meaning propositions less often than studies with psychological outcome measures (p = 0.056).

Personalisation

Over half of the interventions incorporated personalised imagery (n = 12). Successful interventions associated with personalised imagery (p = 0.040).

Modification

Methods of script modification included intermittent consultations with participants (n = 3), layering (n = 1), and introducing new scripts (n = 1). No association between the modification of imagery scripts and intervention success (p = 0.430).

Delivery SR-training Script delivery format

SR-training was used in less than half of the interventions (n = 8). No association between SR-training and intervention success (p = 0.758). Imagery was either read aloud to participants (n = 4), read by the participants (n = 10), audio recorded (n = 2) or participants were given a choice (n = 4). No association between delivery format and intervention success (p = 0.605). (continued)


20


Appendix 3 (Continued) Comparison

Key Outcomes

Integration of script and imagery

In the majority of interventions, participants used the script prior to generating the imagery (n = 13). No association between the integration of script and imagery and intervention success (p = 0.494).

Timing

Imagery scripts were used during physical practice (n = 5), before competition (n = 1), away from physical practice and competition (n = 11) and a combination of all three (n = 3). No association between the time point of imagery use and intervention success (p = 0.146).

Instructions

Authors in the majority of interventions did not report the imagery instructions given to participants (n = 14). Those that did appeared to follow recommendations from the PETTLEP model.

PETTLEP

Interventions incorporated an average of 4 PETTLEP elements. No correlation between the number of elements used and intervention success (r = 0.059, p = 0.828). A strong, positive correlation between total PETTLEP elements used and year of study (r = 0.603, p = 0.017).

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Methodological Variations in Guided Imagery

Methodological Variations in Guided Imagery

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