Methodology for Evaluating Climate Change Adaptive ... - ScienceDirect

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect Energy Procedia 57 (2014) 791 – 800

2013 ISES Solar World Congress

Methodology for evaluating climate change adaptive capacities when using decentralized renewable energies Horacio León-Camachoa*, Arturo Morales-Acevedob and Bruno Gandlgruberc a, b

Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Science and Technology for Development Department, Avenida IPN No. 2508, 07360 México, D. F., Mexico c Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana, Cuajimalpa, Social Sciences and Humanities Division, Baja California No.200, 06760, México D.F.,México

Abstract

Extreme climatic events have already happened in different regions of our world affecting the economic resources of poor and even rich countries. As an example we can mention the recent destructive hurricanes, Katrina (2005) in New Orleans and Sandy (2012) in New York, or floods in Pakistan in 2010. Therefore, there is an increasing need for evaluating the adaptive capacities of communities, regions or even whole countries to events caused by climatic changes. In this work we address different methodologies for this purpose and give reasons for adopting the adaptive capacities wheel developed by Gupta et al. [1] as the basic way for this evaluation. We add an additional dimension to those already developed by Gupta for determining the capacity of a community for having basic services (health, communications, safety, etc.) in a situation of crisis caused by climatic changes. A climatic crisis generally affects the conventional energy infra-structure and therefore decentralized renewable energies would reduce vulnerability of the community in question. At the end we discuss the evaluation made under these assumptions for a selected community in Mexico. © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

© 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of ISES Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of ISES.

ACW, CAM, Climate Change, Decentralized Renewable Energy (DRE), Availability of Critical Services (ACS).

* Tel.: +525557473781 E-mail address: [email protected]

1876-6102 © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of ISES. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.10.287

792

Horacio León-Camacho et al. / Energy Procedia 57 (2014) 791 – 800

1. Introduction The backbone of any economy and industrialized society lies in the electrical system. This system is affected by climatic events that are increasing in number and intensity each year, likewise, the limited capacity of communities to address these threats, undermine the stability and development of municipalities and their localities. High risks globally manifested by increases in energy prices, rising emissions of greenhouse gases, failure to adapt to climate change, and support of critical systems, according to the World Economic Forum’s Global Risks 2013 report [2]. The centralized electrical system has behaved with relative safety, tackle the lack of infrastructure, modern technology, maintenance, and its dependence on fossil fuel consumption and its inherent vulnerability to hurricanes, floods, tornadoes, avalanches, snow and droughts that induce large deficits of electricity (blackouts) [3], see table 1 [4-7]. Table 1. Climate events that have impacted the electrical system of various nations Year Location Outage time People affected 1977 New York, USA 26 hrs. 9,000,000 1998 Ontario, Quebec, CANADA 5 days 4,000,000 1999 Sao Paulo, BRAZIL 5 hrs. 120,000,000 2003 ITALY 18 hrs. 57,000,000 2005 Quintana-Roo, MEXICO 6 days 236,000 2005 New Orleans, USA 23 days 1,000,000 2007 Victoria, AUSTRALIA 8.5 hrs. 480,000 2008 Minatitlan, Veracruz, MEXICO 13 days 11,000 2009 BRAZIL, PARAGUAY 7 hrs. 87,000,000 2012 Ohio Valley, USA 10 days 4,000,000 2012 New York, USA 13 days 8,000,000 2013 ARGENTINA 1 day 400,000 2013 Moore, Oklahoma, USA 1 day 40,000 2013 Oklahoma City, USA 1 day 140,000

Causes Natural events and operational mistakes Snow Storm Lightning Storm Storms Wilma Storm Katrina Storm Fire under extreme climatic conditions Floods Heavy rains and winds. Storms Sandy Storm Floods Tornadoes Tornadoes

Addressing the above challenges, centralized network supports measures that enable maintain control via monitoring (M), regulation (R) and implementation of solutions (S) to different problems of supply and demand. Monitoring to identify changes that are negligible in the state of the electrical system (not userperceived) Regulation helps to maintain the operating conditions (possible increases or decreases in reserve margins) and the solutions directly affect the system damage (reduced reserve margin). The electrical system has the challenge to face unplanned events that cause power outages, cascading outages, and thus massive blackouts, see figure 1.

Fig. 1. Centralized electrical system damage by climate events.

The overall impact of the blackouts, their considerable duration, and impact on society has not been studied in depth, [8]. The International Energy Agency [9], points out that very few studies analyze the impact of emergency energy programs or describe the practice in the area. Also, not all companies providing electrical services mentioned impacts attributed to unplanned downtime, justifying the fact that any service is 100% efficient and free from disruptions [10]. The consumer’s welfare loss varies, depending on the following factors: sector they belong, the time of interruption, the duration of the


outage, and season [11]. In the case of industries, these are forced to reduce their production; TV signals, and phone systems stop working, as well as schools and businesses; households suffer the loss of refrigerated food, and lack of water; a food scarcity becomes a latent threat; wasted leisure time well invested; security systems as hospital services are becoming insufficient. The likelihood of extreme climatic event appears, implies that both society and its infrastructure are exposed to risks, which ranges from the acceptable to intolerable, as case of Katrina, Wilma, Sandy and the recent tornadoes in Oklahoma, [12]. In the majority of cases, particularly the poorest areas of the affected regions, people don’t know how to face the climate crisis. One of the fundamental problems for communities is the lack of electrical power alternatives aftermath climatic disaster, mentioned above. So, the people in the community require critical services working all time (Availability). Although renewable energy sources are variable, their main advantage is that they do not have to rely on lifelines for feedstock [13]. The power supply with decentralized renewable technologies are best suited to extreme weather and power outages in communities; it also generates awareness about the efficient and energy problems, promoting the change of attitudes towards environmental stewardship [14]. According to World Alliance for Decentralized Energy (WADE [15]), decentralized energy are those which allow electricity in or near the point of use, irrespective of size, technology or fuel used, both outside and inside the network. These energies include on-site renewables, high efficiency, cogeneration, and recycling of organic waste for the production of electricity. 2. Availability for Critical Services (ACS). Availability is a measure that allows for a system to be repaired when failures occur [16]. So, for a community exposed to a climate extreme event, it is important to consider the next factors: Type of electrical system; number of events and times of power failure for electrical system users in extreme weather conditions. Type and number of critical services on the locality; Electrical energy demand for critical services; Economic cost by traditional energy sources (Initial capital cost, cost of Electricity ($/kWh)); Energy production by renewable energy resources; and economic cost by renewable energy options. Success stories where decentralized renewable energies have been used after extreme weather events have been documented — i.e. in August 2002, a devastating flood hit many parts of East Germany. The Community of Zschadras seized the opportunity to integrate its energy concept in rebuilding activities, and the residents started to invest in PV installations and wind energy, [17]. After impacts of “Franky Storm”, at New York (2012), the Solar Sandy Project brought solar-powered electricity to 17 blacked-out sites in the Rockaways, Red Hook, New Jersey, Staten Island and Long Island. With these solar-powered generators, communities charged cell phones, powered lights, and ran laptops [18, 19]. The Community of Kitakyushu at Japan, is another example [20]. 3. Methodology for adaptation analysis One way of responding to climate impacts is adjusting the economic, ecological and social systems, through adaptation, encouraging society to be able to reduce climate impacts on health and welfare, taking opportunities that a climatic environment provides [21]. Adaptive capacity is defined as the potential or capacity of a system to adjust to climate stimulus [22]. Scientific research about adaptation has increased in the last 10 years, and different methodologies on adaptation projects are mentioned in [23, 24 and 25]. Some methodologies of interest consulted for analysis in this study were:

793

794


Table 2. Methodologies and evaluation tools Acronym Title 1.AMICA Adaptation and Mitigation- Climate Policy Approach 2.ACW Adaptive Capacity Wheel 3.CAM Climate Change adaptation and mitigation methodology 4.PACT Performance Acceleration through Capacity Building 5.CLIMSAVE Climate Change integrated assessment methodology 6.CECILIA Central and Eastern Europe Climate Change Impact

Evaluation tools for mitigation and adaptation Methodology for institutional policies assessing Methodology for mitigation-adaptation links Tool evaluation Methodology for vulnerability assessment Different assessment tools

In this research, the methodology for adaptation and mitigation to climate change (CAM) and the methodology of adaptive capacities wheel (ACW) are conjoined. The first one, CAM, was created from 2006 to 2011 at the ICEM (International Centre for Environmental Management). It systemically integrates adaptation and mitigation measures for climate change [26]. It has been used on flood prone communities in the Asia-Pacific. The ACW [27] was designed to assess whether institutions promote the adaptive capacity of society, and reflects the quality of institutions to face climate change. Through six dimensions (diversity, learning capacity, room for autonomous change, leadership, resources and governance) and 21 criteria, it generates an initial diagnostic in terms of strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for improvement on adaptive capacity. The methodology is generic in nature, judge only if the institutions allow or inhibit adaptation to change, once the inefficiency of the regime has become apparent. This methodology was used to analyze the adaptability of municipal institutions at Netherlands (2010) [28]; at the European Alps facing the challenge of changing water resources (2009) [29]; at the lagoon of Venice (Italy) and the Wadden Sea (Netherlands), (2011) [30]; and in the Norwest project (2012), which added two dimensions (motivation and conviction by adaptation) [31]. In the past, the Adaptive Capacity Wheel has not considered the use of power technologies, but it is flexible to add other dimensions. Therefore, in this work, the new dimension of availability of critical services is included to the analysis of adaptive capacities, defining the next criteria: Surveillance, hospital services, communication and shop and banks. Finally, the availability of electrical power for the critical services is analyzed from a technical perspective (Electrical energy demand by critical services, characterization of renewable energy resources, and feasibility of resources), in order to identify improvements on adaptive capacity, shown in figure 2.

Fig. 2. Climate Adaptation stages of analysis, according to our proposed methodology, based on CAM and ACW Methods.

795


4. Case-Study One of the most important coastal areas in Mexico is Veracruz, the first entity generator of electric power, petrochemical and petroleum products, with 212 municipalities, 96% of power coverage [32]. Its particular location on the Gulf of Mexico, making it vulnerable to hurricanes, sea level raise, continuous rains from June to November; cold fronts, from September to May, and drought seasons between March and July [33]. According to the Mexican Institute for Competitiveness, (IMCO [34]), Veracruz, is the national leader with 19 municipalities threatened by climate change, from which, Alvarado, Boca del Rio, and Coatzacoalcos are among the municipalities with high climate vulnerability, see table 3. Table 3. Flood Vulnerability in Veracruz. Source: Based on data from CENAPRED Population Urban Rural Population Population High Medium 0-14 years 60 years Vulnerability Vulnerability 7,643,194 61% 39% 28% 11% 8.5% 74.7%

Low Vulnerability 1%

Lack of Information 15%

4.1 Geographic Region Alvarado, is located at 18°46' North Latitude, 95°46' West at 10 meters, above sea level at the coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico. Located on the Papaloapan region, bordered on the North by the municipality of Boca del Rio, bordered on the South by the municipalities of Acula, Tlacotalpan and Lerdo de Tejada, and West by Ignacio de la Llave. From 1999 to 2011, the Fund Emergency Attention, FONDEN, carried out 21 declarations of rain and cyclone disaster for the region of study, and to date have lost 50Km of coastline due to the increase in sea level at the region referred [35]. Figure 3 illustrates the region on study.

Fig. 3. Region under study. Source: Veracruz and Alvarado Maps, Google Earth 2013

4.2 Baseline according to CAM The main policy instrument available to the country in order to address climate change is the General Law of Climate Change (LGCC-2012) [36]; a Special Climate Change Program (PECC 2009-2012) [37], and the recently adopted National Climate Change Strategy (ENCC 2013-2018) [38]. The climate scenarios of temperature and precipitation, A1B type is analyzed to determine future threats to the region, based on three time periods (1950 to 2000), (2030) and (2050) [39], see figure 4.

796


Fig. 4. Temperature and rainfall scenarios. Source: Covecyt (2010). Floods in Veracruz.

4.3 Renewable Energy and critical services at the locality The coastal areas in the Gulf of Mexico, have the best properties of persistence in wind speeds, and therefore, are best suited for the generation of electricity with the renewable source of energy, particularly in the area of Alvarado [40]. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), indicates that solar energy resources for the region of Veracruz, is in the range of 3.5 to 6 kWh / m² / day of solar radiation, and particularly the region of Alvarado is in a range of 4 to 4.5 kWh / m² / day [41]. The two types of renewable energy mentioned above are an option for the availability of electrical power for critical services against climate risks. Table 4 shows the critical services in the community of Alvarado, [42]. Table 4. Critical services on Alvarado, Veracruz Population Population Population Hospital Public 0-14 years old 60 years old Units Markets 51,955 11 2 Unknown 13% * Information for Veracruz Population. At local level is Unknown

Banks 7

Users of Cell phone 43.9% *

Schools 163

Policy Units 1

4.4 Adaptive Capacity Analysis. Institutions are defined like: systems of rules, decision-making procedures, and programs that give rise to social practices, assign roles to the participants in these practices, and guide interactions among the occupants of the relevant roles [43]. The ACW methodology was used to analyze diverse institutions, from the General Law of Climate Change, the Special Climate Change Programme (PECC 2009-2012), Veracruz State Law to Climate Change (2011), Vulnerability Maps of the Veracruz State, Municipal Risk Atlas and Civil Protection Rules of Alvarado Community [44]. We also performed an analysis of adaptive capacities in institutions such as the Law for Use of Renewable Energy, the National Strategy for Energy Transition and Sustainable Use of Energy, Public Service Law of Electricity and the Energy Development Plan in Veracruz [45], for the added dimension. This new dimension considers the use of fossil energy, renewable energy and decentralized sources, combining them in order to provide critical services to the community. Table 5 shows the indicators used.

797


Table 5. Availability of Critical Services Dimension Dimension Positive effect Slightly positive effect Availability All critical services ACS for of critical with emergency emergency care services care provided with provided with (ACS) electricity electricity alternative alternative measures. Interest measures. and use of RE for Successful emergency care. Initiatives are Fossil fuels are used started. as a means of support

Neutral or no effect Some ACS for emergency care provided with electricity alternative measures. Some initiatives to promote Energy resources, but without changes.

Slightly negative effect No ACS for emergency care, but changes are started. Resources exist but are not taken into account

Negative effect No ACS for emergency care provided with electricity alternative measures. No interest in the use of RE. High dependence on centralized network, fossil energy sources

A summary of the findings from the analysis of adaptive capacity for the municipality of Alvarado is illustrated in Table 6. The first column indicates the seven dimensions of adaptation, the second column the findings related to every criteria of the dimensions, and the third column is the score achieved in the evaluation. Table 6. Dimensions of the Adaptive Capacity Wheel Dimension Parameters The approaches to vision, adaptation, mitigation and transversal policies are very general. Highlight attention to solve problems on reducing emissions. The solutions for adaptation are raised to the long term, with corrective policy measures in the present. The solutions depend heavily on technological and financial support that the international community should provide. There are multiple actors, and the main designated authorities are being restructured. Variety The municipality is affected every year, with floods, there are no solutions. The problems of the vast majority are not completely defined, like electric energy, street lighting, clean water, rainfall water drainage, maintenance to schools, air conditioning, seawalls to protect from the river rise and to prevent upland erosion and storm surge flooding. Learning about nature friendly behavior occurs at the level of law in all education levels, but this process is in the early stages, so there are no documented experiences on the assessment of learning. Information is available and scattered. More research is needed locally. The municipality does not have Learning involvement in training programs on climate change. Capacity The lack of instant solutions to flood problems, and lack of adaptation technologies against the increasing sea level, threatening adaptability. Efforts towards change are given from top to bottom. Political intervention is reactive, warning messages are generated by existing means, and controls are raised after the disaster; it is not clear the Room for use of mechanisms to safeguard the proper application of resources allocated to prevention, assistance, Autonomous asset recovery, and disaster areas. Change There are plans for corrective action, through the National Civil Protection System, and Fonden. The lack of prevention, and investment, obstruct autonomous change. Short periods of government, a lack of education on environmental issues, a lack of resources for decision making do not facilitate leadership in the locality. Coordination and links with society take place post-emergency situations. Leadership The laws take into account the social participation actively and orderly to prevent vulnerabilities to extreme natural events, however at the local level do not have the experience or knowledge transfer. At the local level, decisions are taken in coordination with state, on the basis of emergency. Research and education are covered by the general law and the state law of climate change, but in practice are very limited on resources. A deficit of transparency regarding economic resources. The use of resources is not clear. Resources The lack of effective regulation in the debt of municipalities and states. Economic resources are assigned depending on the damage whether state or private property. The supports are slow to reach local communities. Different climatic injustice leading environmental conflicts, a loss of natural resources, increased droughts, water shortages. State officials often do not receive complaints from civil society. The Fair general law seeks gender equity and representation of the most vulnerable populations, without Governance background knowledge on the vulnerability of communities to climate change. There isn’t a broad social participation in decision-making, therefore there isn’t equitable and

Score

-1.5

-0.75

-1.33

-0.66

-1.33

-1.75

798


Availability of Critical Services

sustainable development. There isn’t obligation to take into account community input in decisionmaking (the law does not cover it). The generation, processing, distribution and supply of electricity depend on a government company owned by the nation. The generation of electricity for use on emergencies resulting from interruptions in electric service is not considered by law as a public service. Not required operating licenses for power plants whatever their ability, when they are intended exclusively for personal use in emergencies resulting from electric service interruptions. The community is highly dependent on the centralized system and not have power supply measures in emergency conditions.

-2

The analysis results of ACW with the new added dimension shown in Figure 5. Red colour indicates, a negative effect over adaptive capacity, and green colour indicates a positive effect over adaptive capacity. The dimensions show that despite the high vulnerability of Alvarado, its people and its institutions are subject to a negative adaptive capacity, which is an indicator of high risk for the community to tackle climate change.

Effect of institution on adaptive capacity

Score

Aggregated scores for dimensions and adaptive capacity as a whole Positive effect 2 1.01 a 2 Slightly positive effect 1 0.01 a 1 Neutral or no effect 0 0 Slightly negative effect -1 -0.01 a -1 Negative effect -2 -1.01 a -2 Fig. 5. Adaptive Capacity Wheel with Availability of Critical Services Dimension, at Alvarado, Veracruz.

5. Conclusions The climate change impacts on the energy system of localities are not documented in most cases, due to a variety of events that can cause a small power failure or a large electric power failure, ranging from aspects like monitoring and control, the identification of sectors and customers affected areas and restore electricity. Furthermore, when the emergency occurs, very few are ready to deal with these challenges.


The power outage is a potential threat to social and political stability in communities; hence the need for prevention policies, adaptation and decentralized renewable energy as a means of support in crisis situations. Dependence on centralized energy in the region, do not favor to have different measures to cope with the crises caused by climate change. Therefore, the availability of critical services was added to the adaptive capacity wheel as a new dimension, since their use increases social adaptation to face climate vulnerability. The results obtained for the location in question, indicate a negative evaluation on adaptability, identifying areas of opportunity in all dimensions studied. It is necessary to strengthen decision-making, learning, equity, transparency and the use of decentralized energy for critical services, as well as make adjustments to periods of government and people empowerment, raising the awareness of stakeholders in the locality about the benefits to be gained, and especially the reduction of economic losses and human lives, by preventing the reduction of quality of life during disasters. The decentralized renewable energies increase resilience and reduce stress of the community after the impact of climatic events in the localities whilst the traditional grid is repaired. So, people will be able to use all the critical services and reduce the effects of all damages. References [1] Gupta. J, Termeerb. C, Klostermannc. J, Meijerinkd. S, Margo van den Brinke, Jongf. P, Nooteboomg. S, Bergsma. E. “The Adaptive Capacity Wheel: a method to assess the inherent characteristics of institutions to enable the adaptive capacity of society", Environmental Science & Policy, Volume 13, Issue 6, October (2010), Pages 459–471. [2] World Economic Forum. Global Risk 2013. [Available Online at http://www.weforum.org.] [3] Ball P., Blackouts inherent in power grid. Nature (2002). [Available Online at http://www.nature.com/news/2002/021108/full/news021104-15.html] [4] US Department of Energy federal energy regulatory commission, "The Con Edison power failure of July 13 and 14, 1977", Final staff report, June (1978). [Available Online at http://www.blackout.gmu.edu/archive/a_1977.html] [5] Kurita A., Sakurai T., "The power system failure on July 23, 1987 in Tokyo", 27th IEEE Conference Proceedings on Decision and Control, Volume 3, 7th - 9th December 1988, Pages 2093 - 2097. [6] Risk Management Solutions, Inc. (2008). [Available Online at https://support.rms.com/publications/1998_ice_storm_retrospective.pdf ] [7] Kronstadt K., Sheikh P., Vaughn B. Flooding in Pakistan: Overview and Issues for Congress. (2010). Congressional Research Service. [Available Online at https://www.crs.gov.] [8] Nooij M., Koopmans C., Bijvoet C. The value of supply security. The costs of power interruption: Economic input for damage reduction and investment in networks. Energy Economics 29 (2007) 277-295. [9] Bryan S. Saving Electricity in a hurry. International Energy Agency Update (2011). [Available Online at http://www.iea.org] [10] Southern California Edison, (SCE). Power Outage Simulation Center (2013). [Available Online at https://www.sce.com/nrc/poweroutagecenter/sce-map_new2.swf] [11] Zachariadis T., Poullikkas A. The costs of power outages: A case study from Cyprus. Energy Policy 51 (2012) 630-641. [12] Klinke, A. and Renn, O. A New Approach to Risk Evaluation and Management: Risk-Based, Precaution-Based, and DiscourseBased Strategies. Risk Analysis, 22, (2002). [13] B. Fahimi et al., “Charge it,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 54–64, Jul.–Aug. 2011. [14] Climate Projections (with focus on NYS and the greater NYC metro region). FCC-NR 2013-Brooklyn, New York, Feb 6, 2013. [Available Online at http://edas.info/web/fcc-nr2013/program.html#S1569467079]. [15] World Alliance for Decentralized Energy (WADE). [Available Online at http://www.localpower.org/deb_what.html] [16] Bauer, E., Zhang, X., Kimber, A. (2009). Practical System Reliability. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470455401.app2 [17] Mussal, F., Kuik, O. Local acceptance of renewable energy – A case study from SouthEast Germany. Energy Policy 39 (2011) 3252-3260. [18] Collins Decentralized Renewable Energy Systems Will Make Us Less Vulnerable to Hurricanes. 2012. [Available Online at http://energy.aol.com/2012/11/27/decentralized-renewable-energy-systems-will-make-us-less-vulnera/] [19] http://www.solar1.org/ [20] http://users.ece.utexas.edu/~kwasinski/index.html [21] Burton I. Adapt and thrive. Canadian Climate Centre unpublished manuscript, Downsview, Ontario, (1992). [22] Smit B., Burton I., klein R., Wandel J. An anatomy of adaptation to climate change and variability. Climate Change 45: 223251, (2000). [23] Lonsdale, K.G., Gawith, M.J., Johnstone, K. Street, R. B., West, C. C. and Brown, A. D. Attributes of Well-Adapting Organisations. A report prepared by UK Climate Impacts Programme for the Adaptation Sub-Committee, (2010).

799

800


[24] Enviro-Windows, EEA platform for knowledge sharing and development. [Available Online at http://ew.eea.europa.eu/] [25] Cities and climate change adaption. [Available Online at http://ew.eea.europa.eu/cites_ccc/european-projects] [26] Carew-Reid, J., Ketelsen, T., Kingsborough, A., and Porter, S. Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation (CAM) Methodology Brief. ICEM – International Centre for Environmental Management. Hanoi, Vietnam. (2011). [27] Klostermann. J, Bergsma. E, Gupta. J and Jong. P. Applying the Adaptive capacity wheel on the background document of the Content Analysis IC12 Instutions for Adaptation, Working Document 5. (2010). [28] Meijerink, S., Bergsma E., Gupta J., Klostermann J., et al. Cross case analysis of institutions and adaptive capacity in The Netherlands. IVM Institute for Environmental Studies, VU University Amsterdam. (2010) [29] Regional climate change and adaptation. “The Alps facing the challenge of changing water resources”. European Environment Agency (2009) [30] Munaretto S., Klostermann J. Assesing adaptive capacity of institutions to climate change: A comparative case study of the Dutch Wadden Sea and the Venice Lagoon. Climate Law 2. (2011). [31] Grothmann. T, Siebenhüner B, et al. Assessing adaptive capacities in decision making. Nordwest 2050. [Available Online at http://www.nordwest2050.de/index_nw2050.php] [32] Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. [Available Online at http://www.inegi.org.mx/] [Available Online at http://cuentame.inegi.org.mx/monografias/informacion/ver/territorio/div_municipal.aspx?tema=me&e=30)] [33] Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres, (CENAPRED). [Available Online at http://www.cenapred.unam.mx/es/] [34] Instituto Mexicano para la competitividad (IMCO). [Available Online at http://imco.org.mx/home/]; [Available Online at http://vulnerabilidadclimatica.org.mx/] [35] Fondo para la atención de emergencias, (FONDEN). [Available Online at http://www.proteccioncivil.gob.mx/en/ProteccionCivil/Fonden, http://diariolavozdelsureste.com/veracruz/veracruz/pierden-50-kmde-costa-en-alvarado/] [36] Ley General de Cambio Climático (2012). [Available Online at http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LGCC.pdf] [37] Plan Especial de Cambio Climático 2009-2012. [Available Online at http://www.semarnat.gob.mx/programas/Documents/PECC_DOF.pdf] [38] Estrategia Nacional de Cambio Climático, (2013-2018). [Available Online at http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5301093&fecha=03/06/2013] [39] Inundaciones 2010 en el estado de Veracruz, Consejo Estatal de Ciencia y Tecnología (COVECYT). [40] Cancino-Solorzano, Y. (2009). Statistical Analysis of wind power in the región of Veracruz (México). Renewable Energy (34), 1628-1634. [41] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL2010). [Available Online at http://www.nrel.gov/; http://en.openei.org/wiki/File:SWERA-276.pdf] [42] Instituto Nacional de estadística y Geografía. [Available Online at http://www.inegi.org.mx/] [43] IDGEC Scientific Planning Committee, Institutional dimensions of global environmental change. IHDP Report No. 9, at 14 (1999) [44] Secretaría de Protección Civil. Atlas Municipal de Riesgos nivel básico, Alvarado 2011. Impreso en la editora del gobierno del estado de Veracruz. [45] Ley del Servicio Público de Energía Eléctrica, Última reforma publicada DOF 09-04-2012. Cámara de Diputados del H. Congreso de la Unión, Secretaría General, Secretaría de Servicios Parlamentarios.