A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of two methods of presenting realistic job previews (RJPs) to applicants and to examine ...
Journal of Applied Psychoiogv 1984 Vol 69 No 4 633-642
Copynghi 1984 by the American Psvchological Association, Inc
, Methods Of Communication and Mediating Processes in Realistic Job Previews Stephen M. Colarelh Ball Foundation, Glen EHyn, Illinois A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of two methods of presenting realistic job previews (RJPs) to applicants and to examine possible mediating processes involved in RJPs The study was conducted in a large metropolitan bank, using a sample of 164 bank tellers Teller applicants who were offered jobs were assigned to one of three groups (a) a treatment group in which job applicants received a realistic job preview from an incumbent teller, (b) a treatment group in which applicants received a RJP brochure, and (c) a control group. Substantially fewer individuals in the incumbent condition left the job after 2 and 3 months than individuals m the brochure or control groups There was no significant difference in turnover between the brochure and control groups There was no support for self-selection and commitment to choice as mediating processes, the results regarding met expectations and stress as mediators were equivocal
The evidence from several reviews of the literature indicates that realistic job previews (RJPs) tend to reduce turnover and have a positive effect on job attitudes (Reilly, Brown, Blood, & Malatesta, 1981; Wanous, 1977, 1980). These effects, however, tend to be small. Such results have prompted some authors to suggest that little should in fact be expected from RJPs (Lewis, 1980; Reilly et al., 1981; Schwab, 1981; Tenopyr & Oeltjen, 1982). This conclusion may be premature, given that little is known about the effectiveness of different methods of providing applicants with realistic information or about why RJPs may be beneficial The purposes of this research were to examine (a) the effectiveness This article is based on a doctoral dissertation from the Department of Psychology, New York University This research was supported by a Dissertation Award in Employment and Training from the Social Science Research Council (Grant No SS-36-81-19) Researchers are encouraged to freely express their professional judgment, therefore, the opinions of the author do not necessarily represent the official position of the Social Science Research Council The author wishes to thank the members of his dissertation committee, Richard Guzzo, Allen Kraut, and Steve Stumpf, for their assistance Valuable comments on earlier versions of this article were made by William Balzer, Richard Guzzo, Paul Sackett, and three anonymous reviewers Requests for reprints should be sent to Stephen M Colarelli, Ball Foundation, 800 Roosevelt Road, Building C, Room 206, Glen Ellyn, Illinois 60137
of different methods of presenting individuals with realistic information about a job and (b) the psychological processes that may mediate the relationship between realistic prejob information and subsequent job outcomes. One factor that may improve the effectiveness of RJPs is the method by which realistic information is communicated to applicants. To date, little research has been conducted that systematically evaluates the effectiveness of different methods of providing RJPs. In almost all RJP studies, realistic information was presented by a one-way (usually nonhuman) communication medium Most used a brochure or video presentation (Haccoun, 1978, Homer, Mobley, & Meglino, 1979; Ilgeu & Seely, 1974; Macedonia, 1969; Reilly, Tenopyr, & Sperling, 1979; Wanous, 1973; Weitz, 1956; Youngberg, 1964). Others used oral (one-way) presentations (Dugom & Dgen, 1981; Krausz & Fox, 1981), a telephone conversation (Parkmgton & Schneider, 1978), and a job sample (Farr, O'Leary, & Bartlett, 1973). Reilly et al. (1981) used both a videotape and a job visit.1 In addition to Reilly et al. (1981), only Zaharia and Baumeister 1 Part of the job visit in Reilly et al's study involved an opportunity for the applicant to ask the supervisor questions However, the general nature of the job visit was that of a tour, and thus the applicants' primary method of acquiring information was by observation
633
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STEPHEN M. COLARELLI
(1981) and Haccoun (1978) compared differ- sion" (pp. 616-617). A third explanation is ent sources of RJP information (brochure that RJPs influence job satisfaction by lowand audiovisual). No significant differences ering inflated expectations (Wanous, 1977, in turnover or attitudes occurred in these 1980). Finally, it has been argued that RJPs assist people to cope with difficult aspects of studies. A more effective method of presenting the job (Ilgen & Seely, 1974). information to applicants may be to allow In sum, this research was designed to test them to speak with incumbents. First, because the hypothesis that RJPs presented by incumthis involves face-to-face interaction, it is bents in face-to-face interaction with applimore likely to facilitate receiver attention and cants would be more effective in increasing comprehension than other (especially one- job satisfaction and decreasing turnover than way) communication processes (Jacoby, 1976; RJPs presented by one-way communication McGuire, 1969). Second, an applicant is more via a nonhuman medium. The second objeclikely to acquire personally relevant infor- tive was to examine the psychological promation. The two-way communication process cesses—self selection, commitment to choice, allows the applicant to ask questions about met expectations, and stress and coping— his or her unique concerns, and the relatively that may mediate between RJPs and job equal status between the applicant and in- outcomes. cumbent and the nonevaluative purpose of Method the discussion should free applicants from most of their inhibitions about asking ques- Subjects and Setting tions. Third, incumbents can provide addiOne hundred sixty-four subjects participated in this tional information that an organization would These were applicants who were offered full-time, be hesitant to include in a brochure or vid- study entry-level teller positions Seventy-three percent of the eotape. Incumbents may speak "off the rec- subjects were female Seventy percent were minority ord" and inform applicants about aspects of group members (48% of these were blacks) The mean the job that the organization may not wish age of the subjects was 22 The present study took place formally acknowledged (cf. Lewis, 1980), in in a major commercial bank in a large city During the prior to the study, the bank experienced about a addition to providing standard RJP material. year 50% turnover rate among tellers The local unemployment Finally, applicants are more likely to trust rate for clerical personnel was 8.9% at the time the study incumbents and perceive them as more took place knowledgeable about the job than other sources of information (Fisher, Ilgen, & Hoyer, Realistic Job Previews 1979; Popovich & Wanous, 1982), and thus Information for the realistic job previews was gathered there is a greater likelihood that the infor- from a job analysis and interviews with subject matter mation will be believed (Hovland, Janis, & experts and incumbents The job analysis was a task Kelley, 1953; McGuire, 1969). inventory that had been administered to a variety of Four explanations have been offered for why realistic job previews "work." However, existing research does not firmly support one explanation over another. A number of scholars (e.g., Sperling, 1975; Wanous, 1977, 1980) suggest that RJPs allow individuals to effectively self-select or match themselves to a job or organization. It has also been suggested that the effect of RJPs on job satisfaction and turnover can be explained by commitment to choice. Wanous (1977) has postulated that RJPs may communicate "an air of honesty to applicants, who then feel a greater degree of freedom in their organizational choice. To the extent that this occurs, dissonance theory predicts a greater commitment to the deci-
bank employees, including tellers Task statements that were characteristic of the teller's job provided information for the RJP on the nature of the work. Interviews with subject matter experts and incumbents provided information on realism of initial expectations, what was liked and disliked about the job, and what was perceived as stressful and ambiguous This information was used to produce a RJP brochure that was approximately 1,500 words long It was checked for accuracy and realism by bank personnel familiar with the teller's job It was also tested for readability level (Dale & Chall, 1948), it could be understood by individuals who have between a seventhand eighth-grade reading ability The brochure describes the major tasks and positive and negative aspects of the job Three tellers and one teller trainer who had previously been a teller were selected to present the face-to-face RJPs All were female, two were black and two were white Their median age was 22.5 They were intensively trained for one day Although they were not informed of
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION AND MEDIATING PROCESSES the specific research hypotheses, they were told that they were involved m a project that involves presenting teller applicants with a realistic picture of the job Incumbents were instructed to introduce themselves as tellers and briefly explain why they were talking with applicants The incumbents were to make it clear to the applicants that they were in no way evaluating them, but only providing information about the job During training the incumbents were provided with the brochure and informed that this was the principal information that they were to provide to all applicants They were also given specific guidelines for answering applicants' questions
Procedure All applicants received an initial employment interview They were assigned to one of three conditions—incumbent RJP, brochure RJP, or control—on alternating weeks, with a different condition beginning each Monday As expected, there were no significant differences among the three groups on background variables (sex, age, race, years of work experience) or on arithmetic or verbal aptitude test scores Applicants m the control group received no information other than what was traditionally given to teller applicants by interviewers in the preexpenmental employment process Applicants in the brochure condition received a copy of the RJP brochure from the employment interviewer and read it in an area where they were not in the presence of bank personnel Applicants in the incumbent condition were escorted to a small room where they spoke privately and individually with an incumbent Individuals in the two treatment groups were given RJPs after a job offer was made but before it was accepted or declined Applicants received three questionnaires The first questionnaire consisted primarily of items dealing with background characteristics, such as age, sex, and years of work experience The second consisted of questions that asked applicants about their reactions to the information they received at the employment office (amount of information, trustworthiness and accuracy of information, personal relevance of information, and commitment to choice) Applicants received the first and second questionnaires after the initial interview Applicants in the treatment groups were asked to complete the first questionnaire, read the brochure or speak with an incumbent teller, and then complete the second questionnaire Applicants in the control group completed both questionnaires one right after the other A third questionnaire dealing primarily with mediating and dependent variables was mailed to subjects approximately 60 days after they were hired This questionnaire included scales measuring stress reactions, job satisfaction, realism of expectations, and intention to quit
Measures Trustworthiness and accuracy Perceptions of the trustworthiness and accuracy of the employment interviewers were assessed by the following two items on the second questionnaire "How trustworthy was the person who interviewed you as a source of information about the bank teller's job 7 " "How accurate was the person who interviewed you as a source of information about
635
the bank teller's job 7 " After applicants indicated if they received information about the bank teller's job from another source (a bank teller, a brochure), they indicated their perception of the trustworthiness and accuracy of that source by responding to the following two items on the second questionnaire "How trustworthy was this source 7 " "How accurate was this source?" These items were anchored on 5-point Likert scales Personal relevance of information The extent to which the applicants felt that the information they acquired at the employment office addressed then" personal information needs was measured by the following three items on the second questionnaire "All of the questions I had about working for (name of bank) were answered," "I received all of the information I wanted about working for (name of bank)," "All of the major issues that concerned me were addressed in the information I received" These items were anchored from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) The coefficient alpha for the "personal relevance of information" scale was .76 The scale was formed by averaging the responses to the three items Amount of information Applicants' perceptions of the total amount of information they received was assessed by the following item on the second questionnaire "Please indicate how much information you received about the j o b " It was anchored from very little information (1) to a large amount of information (5) This item was included as a control variable to hold constant potential differences in the amount of information available to individuals in the three experimental conditions Commitment to choice A measure of commitment to choice was also included in the second questionnaire just below where applicants indicated whether or not they chose to work as a teller It was comprised of the following four items "I feel very committed to the choice I have made," "I am sure that 1 am making the right decision," "I am confident about my decision," "It would take quite a bit to get me to change my mind about the decision I have just made" These items were anchored from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (S) The coefficient alpha estimate of reliability was .89, the scale was formed by averaging the response to the five items Realistic expectations Realistic expectations were measured by a three-item scale developed by Feldman (1976) It measures the extent to which individuals believe they had realistic expectations of the job when they were hired Internal consistency reliability of the scale with the present sample was adequate (alpha = .72) Stress A 19-item scale measuring stress reactions (developed by Caplan et a l , 1975) was used as an index of job stress This scale measures affective states indicative of psychological strain and stress The overall scale is composed of three subscales depression, anxiety, and irritation The psychometric properties of the scale are adequate, as was the internal consistency reliability with the present sample (alpha = .89) Job satisfaction The short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ, Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967) was used to measure job satisfaction. Its internal consistency reliability (alpha) was .88 Intention to quit and turnover Subjects' intentions to quit were measured by a scale composed of the following three items "If I have my own way, I will be working for (name of bank) one year from now" (reverse scored),
636
STEPHEN M. COLARELLI
Table 1 Questionnaire Response and Attrition Rates Variable Questionnaire response rates Questionnaire I Questionnaire 2 Questionnaire 3 Attrition Original A' Subjects who did not report for work N included m turnover analysis Turnover after 2 months Turnover after 3 months
Incumbent
Brochure
Control
50 50
24
55 55 23
59 59 27
50
55
59
2
6
1
48
49
58
6 (12.5%) 7 (14 6%)
19 (38.8%) 22 (44 9%)
16 (27 6%) 20 (34.5%)
X2
df
4 97
2
8 67*
2
14 95*
2
* p < .01 the RJP brochure (M = 4 45) and the interviewers (M = 4 39) The difference among the three means is almost significant, F\2, 142) = 2 94, p = 056 Incumbents were perceived as significantly more accurate than the interviewers, /(100) = 2 36, p< 05, but there were no significant differences in accuracy perceptions between incumbents and brochure means or brochure and interviewer means. Subjects in the incumbent group received the most personally relevant information (At = 4 44), followed by individuals in the brochure (M = 4.03) and control (M = 3 87) groups There was a significant difference, F(2, 160) = 11 89, p < .001, among groups Individuals in the incumbent group received more personally relevant information than individuals in the brochure group, f(103) = 3 81, p < 001, and the control group, f(106) = 4 89, p < 001 However, the difference between the brochure group and control group was not significant, /(111) = Manipulation Checks 1 29, p = .20 Differences in perceptions of the trustworthiness and Mean differences among groups in the amount of accuracy of the three sources of information as well as information received was significant, F(2, 160) = 15 92, perceptions of personal relevance of information were p < .001 The perception of amount of information examined between subjects Control group subjects' per- received by individuals in the incumbent group (M = ceptions of the interviewer trustworthiness and accuracy 4 58) was significantly higher than the perception of the were compared with the two treatment groups' perceptions amount of information received by those in the brochure of their respective RJP sources The results are presented (M = 4 16), f(103) = 2 37, p < .05, or control (M = in Table 2 3 59), t(l06) = 6.09, p < .001 groups The perception of The differences among means on trustworthiness are amount of information received by individuals in the significant, F{2, 141) = 6 20, p < .01 Incumbents received brochure group was significantly higher, /(111) = 3.11, the highest trustworthy rating (M = 4 70), followed by p < .01, than that for individuals in the control group the brochure (M = 4 47) and interviewers (M = 4 26) It was also possible to test for differences among groups Protected t tests were used to determine whether the in perception of interviewer trustworthiness and accuracy differences between pairs of means were significantly Subjects in the incumbent group perceived the employdifferent The incumbents were perceived as significantly ment interviewers to be more trustworthy (M = 4 64) more trustworthy than the interviewers, /(100) = 3.44, than did subjects m the brochure (M = 4.38) or control P < .01. Mean differences on trustworthy ratings between (M = 4.26) groups, f{2, 160) = 5.04, p < .01 Subjects incumbents and brochures, Z(84) = 1 85, p = .06, and in the three groups did not differ significantly in their between brochures and interviewers, H.9S) = 1.72, p = perception of interviewer accuracy, ^ 2 , 159) = .56, .09, only approached significance. p > .50. As expected, incumbents were perceived as significantly As was the case with trustworthiness, the incumbents were perceived as most accurate (M = 4.66), followed by more trustworthy and accurate than interviewers Mean "I frequently think of quitting my job," "I am planning to search for a new job during the next 12 months" These items were anchored from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), the scale's internal consistency reliability (alpha) was 75 Company records were used as the source of turnover data Questionnaire response rates are listed in Table 1, as are subject attrition rates Of the original 164 subjects, 9 did not show up for work and were therefore never placed on the bank's payroll Thus, 155 subjects were used in the turnover analyses When the third questionnaire was mailed out 60 days after the date of hire, 41 subjects had already left the bank, leaving 114 subjects Seventy-four of these remaining individuals returned the third questionnaire, resulting in a response rate of 64 9%
Table 2 Questionnaire Responses
Variable Manipulation checks Trustworthiness Accuracy
M
sd
n
M
sd
Contrasts'1 (r Values)
Control"
n
M
sd
n
F
4.70 4 66
.59 60
44 45
4 47 4 45
55 59
42 42
4 26 4 39
59
58 57
6 20*** 2 94*
Personal relevance of information
4 44
48
50
4 03
62
55
3 87
72
58
Amount of information
4 58
75
50
4 16
103
55
3 59
94
58
Outcome variables Job satisfaction Intention to quit
3.89 1 84
.52 99
22 24
3 79 183
44 88
22 23
3 76 188
57 60
27 27
Mediating variables Commitment to choice Realistic expectations Stress
71
I vs. B
I vs C
Bvs C
185 167
3 44*** 2 36"
172 .55
11 89****
3 81"**
4 89****
1.29*
15 92****
2 37"
6 09""
3 11*"
43 02
METHO)
Brochure
Incumbent
8 o
es
1 1s > o m
4 55
56
50
4 55
.47
54
4 43
49
58
8 a
98
o 3 96
167
69 .50
24
23
3 84 2 02
72 44
23 23
3 46 200
80 59
27 26
3 21" 3 29"
" Mean scores on manipulation check variables in the control group refer to control group subjects' perceptions of the interviewer b I = incumbents, C = control (employment interviewers), B = brochure * p < 10. •* p < 05 *** p < .01 * " • p < .001
.57 2.48"
2 40" 2 10"
1 78* 12
I
638
STEPHEN M. COLARELLI
differences between incumbents and the brochure and between the brochure and interviewers on trustworthiness and accuracy ratings were in the expected direction but not significant Also as expected, individuals in the incumbent group received significantly more personally relevant information than individuals in either the brochure or control groups, and no significant difference was found between the latter two groups
meaningful distinction regarding the effect of the incumbent RJP on voluntary versus involuntary turnover because only seven subjects from the incumbent group left the bank—four voluntarily and three involuntarily. Mediating Variables
Results Outcome Variables A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed no significant differences among the three groups on levels of job satisfaction F(2, 68) = .50, p > .50. Also, no significant differences were found among groups on mean responses to the Intention to Quit scale, F(2, 71) = .02, p> .50. Table 1 presents turnover rates for the three groups after 2 and 3 months. After 2 months turnover was substantially lower in the incumbent group (12.5%) than in either the brochure (38.8%) or control (27.6%) groups. A chi-square test revealed that the difference in turnover rates over the three groups is significant, x2(2, N - 155) = 8.67, p< .01. Separate chi-square tests between incumbent and brochure groups and between incumbent and control groups were made. Turnover was substantially and significantly, X2(l, N = 97) = 8.75, p < .01, lower in the incumbent than the brochure group—the difference in turnover rates being 26.3 percentage points. Turnover m the incumbent group was lower than the control group by 15.1 percentage points; this is nearly significant, x 2 (l, N= 106) = 3.63, p = .056. Turnover was higher in the brochure than the control group by 11.2 percentage points, although this is not significant, x2U. N = 107) = 1.51, p > .20. The turnover results for 3 months parallel the 2-month results, except that the difference between the incumbent and control groups now reaches a conventional level of significance, x20> N = 106) = 5.77, p < .05. The mean number of days on the job of the terminators in the incumbent, brochure, and control groups was 34, 28.06, and 31.25, respectively, F(2, 38) = .17, p > .50. Roughly half of the terminations were voluntary within each group, x2(2, N = 49) = .28, p > .50. It is not possible to make a
There was no evidence for the self-selection effect. All individuals who were offered a job accepted it. As mentioned previously, nine individuals did not report for work If one were to assume that this is evidence of selfselection, there is still no significant difference among the three groups in the number of individuals not reporting for work, x2(2, N = 164) = 4.97, p = .08. RJPs also did not result in a greater commitment to job choice. There were no significant differences among means on the commitment to choice scale, F(2, 159) = .98, p > .20. The difference among groups on mean level of realism of expectations was significant, F(2, 71) = 3.21, p < .05. Individuals in the incumbent group had the most realistic expectations (M = 3.96), followed by individuals in the brochure (M = 3.84), and control (M = 3.46) groups. Protected t tests revealed no significant difference between incumbent and brochure groups. Individuals in the incumbent group had significantly more realistic expectations than those in the control group (p = .02); the difference m expectations between those m the brochure group and the control group was not significant (p = .08). The difference among groups on mean level of overall" stress was significant, F(2, 69) = 3.29, p < .05. Protected t tests, however, show that the individuals in the incumbent group reported significantly lower stress than individuals in both the brochure group (p = .02) and the control group (p = .05). There was no difference between individuals in the brochure and control groups. Amount of Information and Manipulation Check Variables Covariance analyses were conducted to determine if the differences among groups on turnover, stress, and realistic expectations
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION AND MEDIATING PROCESSES
would remain significant after partialing out amount of information and each of the three manipulation check variables. These results and effect sizes are presented in Table 3. When perceived amount of information was used as a covariate, significant main effects still occurred for turnover and stress but not for realistic expectations. Significant differences remained only for turnover when trustworthiness, accuracy of source, and personal relevance of information were partialed. The difference between unadjusted and adjusted beta weights indicate which variables had the largest effects on the dependent variables. Personal relevance of information was responsible for the largest effects; the differences between unadjusted and adjusted betas were .13 for stress and .9 for realistic expectations. Trustworthiness of source had a moderate effect on stress but not on realistic
Table 3 Analyses ofCovanance Beta Covariate and dependent variable Amount of information Turnover Stress Realistic expectations Trustworthiness of source Turnover Stress Realistic expectations Accuracy of source Turnover Stress Realistic expectations Personal relevance of information Turnover Stress Realistic expectations
Adjusted Unadjusted
for covariate
df
F
30
.25 32
2, 150 2, 68
4 58** 3 16*
29
26
2, 70
1 94
.25 .25
.24 16
2, 132 2, 60
3 95* .67
.28
25
2, 62
1 76
.24 23
24 20
2, 132 2, 59
3.70* 1 17
.26
.23
2, 59
1 17
.24 .30
.26 .17
2, 150 2, 68
4 86" 42
.29
20
2, 70
.21
.24
*/>< 05 * * p < . 0 1
639
expectations. Accuracy of information and amount of information had weak effects. Discussion The first purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of two different methods for presenting RJPs. It was hypothesized that RJPs presented by incumbents would be more effective than RJPs presented by a one-way, nonhuman communicationmedium (a brochure). It was argued that incumbents would be a more powerful medium for communicating realistic information than brochures The results clearly indicated that RJPs presented by incumbents in face-to-face interaction with applicants are more effective in reducing turnover among bank tellers than RJP brochures. No differences were found between incumbent and brochure RJP groups on job satisfaction and intention to quit. However, it is suggested that this was due to the fact that most of the tellers who were dissatisfied, or who intended to quit, had left their jobs before they received the third questionnaire, which measured these variables. The second purpose was to examine four processes (self-selection, commitment to choice, met expectations, stress and coping) that RJP researchers have proposed mediate between RJPs and job outcomes. The results are fairly clear regarding self-selection and commitment to choice; the results are more equivocal regarding met expectations and stress and coping. The self-selection hypothesis was not supported in this study. This result, combined with the preponderance of negative results from other studies that have been tested for the self-selection effect (Farr et al., 1973; Haccoun, 1978; Macedonia, 1969; Parmerlee, 1982; Reilly et al., 1981; Wanous, 1973; Zaharia & Baumeister, 1981), suggest that one should not expect RJPs to influence selfselection with any regularity. One reason is that selecting a job is a process that occurs over time (Wanous, 1973). Most individuals may have already made up their minds to accept a job offer by the time they entered an employment office, and a brief RJP is unlikely to materially alter an intention that
640
STEPHEN M COLARELLI
has developed over a period of several days, weeks, or perhaps months. There were also no differences among groups on commitment to choice. This finding and the negative results of the other RJP studies where related constructs have been measured (Horner et al., 1979; Reilly et al., 1981) suggest that RJPs seem unlikely to affect commitment to choice. The incumbent and brochure RJPs had a similar effect on expectations. It appears that RJPs do tend to lower initial expectations about jobs, regardless of how the RJP is presented (cf. Wanous, 1980). However, in the present study only the incumbent RJP had a significant effect on lowering turnover That RJPs lower expectations without also influencing turnover has been found in other RJP studies (e.g., Wanous, 1973). This suggests that lowered expectations may be a necessary but not sufficient condition for RJPs to affect turnover Lowered expectations indicate that the message of the job's realities has been received, but more than an awareness of positive and negative features of the job may be required to reduce turnover. Only the incumbent RJP lowered stress. Personal relevance of information had the strongest effect on reducing stress, and individuals in the incumbent group received significantly more personally relevant information than individuals in the brochure or control groups. Because the applicants were free to ask the incumbents questions, they were more likely to acquire information on events about which they felt most concerned or anxious. Applicants may have learned from incumbents that events that were previously believed to be unendurable were in fact endurable. By changing the meaning of an event from unendurable to endurable, less anxiety and stress were experienced when the event was initially encountered on the job (Thompson, 1981). Also, by acquiring a personal understanding of what was likely to occur and how to deal with it, applicants may have gained a better sense of predictability and were able to make responses that reduced the impact of such events (Miller, 1981). Yet the results do not provide much support for stress as a mediator between RJPs and turnover. A limitation to the data was
that the response rate to the questionnaire that included the stress scale was low. Also, the stress phenomenon was not robust across both RJP conditions, and the variables which accounted for some of the variance in stress (e.g., personal relevance of information) accounted for little of the variance in turnover. Until more research is done on mediating processes, it may be best at this time to view stress as another positive outcome rather than a mediator between incumbent RJPs and job survival. An interesting but unexpected outcome was that the employment interviewers were perceived as more trustworthy by subjects in the incumbent group. There are at least two reasons why this occurred. First, it is possible that the applicants' experience with the incumbents produced a general halo effect that carried over to the interviewer. Second, the incumbents could have confirmed several points that the interviewers initially made to the applicants, causing the incumbent group subjects to perceive the interviewers as more trustworthy. There may have been several processes unique to the incumbent RJP that accounted for its effectiveness in reducing turnover. For example, the incumbent may have served as a role model to the applicants. On speaking with an individual perceived as similar to themselves, applicants may have reasoned "if this person can make it as a bank teller here, so can I." If this were the case, the mediating process in the incumbent RJP would be more motivational in nature than cognitive or affective The type of information presented by incumbents, especially when answering applicants' questions, may have accounted for the effectiveness of the incumbent RJPs. Advice on how to deal with difficult situations could have bolstered the applicants' competence and self-confidence; personal words of encouragement by the incumbent may have increased applicants' motivation to persist during the early period of adjusting to the job. Finally, the incumbent RJP could have created a generalized halo of trust towards the bank. That the incumbent RJP significantly lowered turnover is encouraging. This suggests that improving the method by which realistic
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION AND MEDIATING PROCESSES
information is communicated can be important in determining the effectiveness of RJPs. A medium such as an incumbent is a powerful and effective way to communicate realistic job information to applicants. However, further research is needed to examine the robustness of the present findings and to investigate the content and dynamics of the interaction process between incumbents and applicants. The question of why RJPs are effective in reducing turnover still remains. These results do not provide unequivocal evidence on which process(es) mediate the relationship between RJPs and job outcomes. However, they do indicate that self-selection and commitment to choice are not likely to function as mediating processes and that the reasons behind the effectiveness of incumbent RJPs are complex—something more than vaccination of expectations Perhaps looking for the mediating process will never answer the question. Just as with other phenomena in the social sciences, multiple causes account for the effectiveness of RJPs, and some mediators still need to be denned and examined. In sum, this study suggests that the effectiveness of RJPs can be improved and that continued research on mediators and RJP techniques remains both theoretically and practically important. References Caplan, R D , Cobb, S, French, J R P , Harrison, R V, & Pinneau, S R (1975) Job demands and worker health Washington DC U S Government Printing Office Dale, E., & Chall, J (1948). A formula for predicting readability Educational Research Bulletin, 27, 11-20, 37-54 Dugoni, B L , & Ilgen, D R (1981) Realistic job previews and the adjustment of new employees Academy of Management Journal, 24, 579-591 Farr, J L , O'Leary, B S, & Bartlett, C J. (1973) Effect of a work sample test upon self-selection and turnover Journal of Applied Psychology, 58, 283-285 Feldman, D C (1976) A contingency theory of socialization (Doctoral dissertation, Yale University, 1976) Dissertation Abstracts International, 37, 3146-B (University Microfilms No 76-29, 198) Fisher, C , Ilgen, D , & Hoyer, W (1979) Source credibility, information favorability, and job offer acceptance Academy of Management Journal, 22, 94-103 Haccoun, R R (1978) The effects of realistic job previews and their position within the selection sequence
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on telephone operator behavior and attitudes Unpublished manuscript, University of Montreal Homer, S O, Mobley, W H , & Meglino, B M (1979) An experimental evaluation of the effects of a realistic job preview on Marine recruit affect, intentions and behavior (Center for Management and Organizational Research Tech Rep 9) Columbia, SC College of Business Administration, University of South Carolina Hovland, C I , Jams, I L , & Kelley, H H (1953) Communication and persuasion New Haven, CN Yale University Press Ilgen, D , & Seely, W (1974) Realistic expectations as an aid in reducing voluntary resignations Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 425-455 Jacoby, J (1976) Consumer and industrial psychology Prospects for theory corroboration and mutual contribution In M D Dunnette (ed), Handbook of Industrial & Organizational Psychology, Chicago Rand McNally Krausz, M , & Fox, S (1981) Two dimensions of a realistic preview and their impact on initial expectations, expectation fulfillment, satisfaction and intentions to quit Journal of Occupational Behavior, 2, 211-216 Lewis, M L (1980) Surprise and sense making What newcomers experience in entering unfamiliar organizational settings Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 226-251 Macedonia, R M (1969) Expectations—Press and survival (Doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1969) Dissertation Abstracts International, 30, 2598-A, (University Microfilms No 69-21, 157) McGuire, W J (1969) The nature of attitudes and attitude change In G Lindzey and E Aronson (Eds), The handbook of social psychology (Vol 3, 2nd ed , pp 136-314) Reading, MA Addison-Wesley Miller, S M (1981) Predictability and human stress Toward a clarification of evidence and theory In L Berkowitz (Ed ), Advances m experimental social psychology (Vol 14, pp 203-256) New York Academic Press Parkington, J J , & Schneider, B (1978) A laboratory study of some effects of a realistic task preview Unpublished manuscript, University of Maryland Parmerlee, M (1982) A laboratory investigation of realistic job previews Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University Popovich, P , & Wanous, J. P (1982) The realistic job preview as a persuasive communication Academy of Management Review, 7, 570-578 Reilly, R R , Brown, B , Blood, M R , & Malatesta, C Z (1981) The effects of realistic previews A study and discussion of the literature Personnel Psychology, 34, 823-834 Reilly, R R., Tenopyr, M L , & Sperling, S M (1979) Effects of job previews on job acceptance and survival of telephone operator candidates, Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 218-220 Schwab, D P (1981) Review of organizational entry Recruitment, selection, and socialization of newcomers by John P Wanous Personnel Psychology, 34, 167170 Sperling, S M (1975) Job information, job acceptance, and job survival (Doctoral dissertation, New \brk
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Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V,, England, G. W., & Lofquist, L H (1967) Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabihtation Minneapolis Industrial Relations Center, University of Minnesota Weitz, J. (1956). Job expectancy and survival. Journal of Applied Psychology, 40, 245-247 Youngberg, C F (1964) An experimental study of job satisfaction and turnover in relation to job expectations and self expectations (Doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1963) Dissertation Abstracts International, 25 6 5 6 (University Microfilms No 64-6516) Zahana, E. S., & Baumeister, A. A. (1981) Job preview f * * f u " n 8 * e ^ f «»tial employment period, Joumal of Applied Psychology, 66, 19-22 Received January 30, 1984 Revision received April 5, 1984 •
Editor for Psychological Bulletin Named: Search for New Editor Continues David Zeaman, editor of Psychological Bulletin, died on July 19, 1984. Betty J. House, Zeaman's colleague at the University of Connecticut, and one of the journal's associate editors, will complete David Zeaman's term and serve as editor through 1986. Effective immediately, authors should submit manuscripts to: Betty J House, Editor Psychological Bulletin Department of Psychology U-20, Rm #107 25 Cross Campus Road Storrs, Connecticut 06268 APA's Publications and Communications Board is continuing its recently opened search for a new editor. Candidates for the journal editorship must be members of APA and should be available to start receiving manuscripts in early 1986 to prepare for issues published in 1987. The term of editorship is from 1987 through 1992. To nominate candidates, prepare a statement of one page or less in support of each nomination. Submit nominations no later than February 1, 1985 to the chair of the search committee: Barbara Strudler Wallston Box512Peabody Vanderbilt University Nashville, Tennessee 37203 The other members of the search committee are Elizabeth Loftus, Wilbert McKeachie, Paul Mussen, Lyman Porter, and Lee Sechrest.
