Proceedings of the 12th Symposium of “Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems (MTE 12), (Zhang, Y., Wu S.Z., Sun G. Eds.), August 15-20, 2015, Paleontological Museum of Liaoning/Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China, 267-272.
Dinosaurian distribution, Paleobiogeographic link, Plate Tectonics Evolution and Geodynamics of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent (South Asian Peninsula) M. Sadiq Malkani1 , Ashok Sahni2 , M. Raza Shah3, Jawad Arif1, M.S.I. Dhanotr1, A. Latif1, M. Nasir Somro1, Sohaib I. Shaikh1 1
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Sariab Road, Quetta, Pakistan.
[email protected] Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. 3 Department of Earth Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad Campus, Abbottabad, Pakistan. 2
India was the only source of information on Jurassic and Cretaceous dinosaurs until 2000. Since 2000 Pakistan appeared first time in the world map (dinosaur wise). The dinosaur evidences from Pakistan are found from Upper Indus (Kohat and Potwar), Middle Indus (Sulaiman) and Lower Indus (Kirthar) basins. The dominant vertebrates are titanosaurian sauropods, theropods and mesoeucrocodiles with some pterosaur evidences. The titanosaurian sauropods, abelisaurian and noasaurian theropods show relative close resemblance to Gondwanalands than Laurasia may be due to close early seed dispersal at the Late Jurassic or atleast Early Cretaceous. Indo-Pakistan subcontinent is now a Peninsula but in the past (Jurassic) it was a part of Gondwanalands, in the Cretaceous (135 to 67Ma) it remained on northward journey as a big island/subcontinent, experienced many joining and departures, and in the Latest Cretaceous (67Ma) its northwestern part collided first time with Afghan block of Asia. Introduction The Indo-Pakistan Plate has a unified geological history from the time of its separation with Madagascar to its collision with Asia some 40 million years later and is best understood as an integrated geodynamic system of the Subcontinent. This planetary event has far reaching biotic consequences: a common inherited biota when the subcontinent was attached to Madagascar and was part of Gondwanaland, the Tertiary Type Sections which are mostly in Pakistan, the IndoPakistani origin of whales and their consequent spread throughout the globe, the withdrawal of the Neotethys, the India-Asia collision process and the development of Neogene foreland sediments. However, political boundaries have made the task of an integrated study difficult if not impossible. This paper is a small attempt to re-emphasize and perhaps to lament the fact of this “artificial isolation” and how a small beginning is being made by giving a unified perspective in looking at Jurassic and Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates from India (Sahni 2001) and Pakistan to underline the common geological heritage. The Indus Basin of Pakistan represents a large part of the western margin of the Indian Plate. As a case in point: the terrestrial vertebrate bearing Maastrichtian Vitakri Formation of Balochistan, Pakistan are distal fluviodeltaic and continental deposits that are sediment-sourced from the erosion of the Indo-Pakistan shield, Deccan Volcanics and co-eval beds. These beds have produced the mesoeucrocodiles and sauropod and abelisaurian dinosaurs (Fig.1,2) with distinct Gondwana affinity and are in common with those known from India. The Jurassic dinosaurs of Pakistan are currently represented by some spectacular trackways and a few dinosaurs. Pterosaurs have also been reported from the Cretaceous of Pakistan and India and need to be better studied. More data is 267
needed from Pakistan from the smaller-sized vertebrates comprising, frogs, snakes, lizards, turtles and mammals to make an accurate assessment of the palaeo-biogeographic affinities. During the initial drift stage, biotic relationships were with faunas of Madagascar, South America and Africa. During the Palaeocene and Lower Eocene, there are definite indications of linkages to northern Africa and Europe. By the Middle Eocene, Central Asia faunas were the main immigrants to the Indian Plate (Malkani and Sahni 2015). Dinosaurian distribution, Paleobiogeographic link, Plate Tectonics Evolution and Geodynamics of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent (South Asian Peninsula) The fauna, paleobiogeography and geodynamics of Indo-Pakistan is very significant due to its present regional contact with Asia but past is related to Gondwanan landmasses like Madagascar, South America and Africa. India was the only source of information on Jurassic and Cretaceous dinosaurs until 2000. Since 2000 Pakistan appeared first time in the world map (dinosaur wise) (Fig.1,2). The dinosaur evidences from Pakistan are found in Indus basin which is further subdivided into Upper Indus (Kohat and Potwar), Middle Indus (Sulaiman) and Lower Indus (Kirthar) basins. In Lower Indus (Kirthar) basin, a few and poorly recognized body fossils of titanosaurian sauropod (Brohisaurus kirthari) were found from the Late Jurassic Sembar Formation of Karkh area, Khuzdar District, Balochistan, Pakistan (Malkani 2003). In Upper Indus (Kohat and Potwar) basin, trackways of a herd of more wide gauge titanosaurian sauropods (Malakhelisaurus mianwali) confronted by a running narrow gauge theropod (Samanadrinda surghari) reported from the Middle Jurassic Samanasuk Limestone of Baroch ichno type, Malakhel area, Mianwali District, Punjab, Pakistan. In Middle Indus (Sulaiman) basin, about 3000 fossils collected from more than 30 localities in fluvial two red mud horizons alternated by two sandstone horizons of Vitakri Formation include Khetranisaurus barkhani, Sulaimanisaurus gingerichi, and Pakisaurus balochistani of herbivorous Pakisauridae (slender) and Marisaurus jeffi and Balochisaurus malkani of herbivorous Balochisauridae (stocky), Gspsaurus Pakistani, Saraikimasoom Vitakri, Maojandino alami and Nicksaurus razashahi titanosaurian sauropods, large bodied Vitakridrinda sulaimani of abelisaurian, and Vitakrisaurus saraiki of Vitakrisauridae noasaurian theropods, and Sulaimanisuchus kinwai of Sulaimanisuchidae, Pabwehshi pakistanensis and Induszalim bala of Induszalimidae, and Khuzdarcroco zahri mesoeucrocodiles, and Saraikisaurus minhui of pterosaur (Malkani 2006,2008,2009,2010,2011,2013,2014a,b,c). The Sor Muzghai-an ichno type site of less wide gauge titanosaurs (Pashtosaurus zhobi) has been found in the Latest Cretaceous Vitakri Formation from the western extremity of Sulaiman basin and eastern extremity of Western Indus Suture, Zhob district, Balochistan, Pakistan. These footprints are very significant due to common body fossils in same basin and same formation. Further the location of this ichnosite is very significant due to its regional contact with Laurasian lands in the Latest Cretaceous just after first collision of Indo-Pakistan with Asia. The titanosaurian sauropods, abelisaurian and noasaurian theropods show relative close resemblance to Gondwanalands than Laurasia may be due to close early seed dispersal at the Late Jurassic. The Pakistan represents both Gondwanan as well as Laurasian geo-heritage and bio-heritage which need their protection as national and global geoparks-an innovation for the sustainable development of Pakistan. The four major bioevents related to major tectonic events resulted in the shape of extinctions of terrestrial vertebrates found in Pakistan. The first major bioevent occurred at the PermoTriassic boundary from where the land vertebrates like the dinosaurs-largest land animals along with mesoeucrocodiles and pterosaur-the flying reptiles initiated and ruled the Mesozoic of 268
Pakistan. The second bioevent occurred at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary where these dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles and pterosaur became extinct and the mammals (also birds) became dominant. After the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary disaster the Baluchithere-largest land mammals ruled the land in Bugti hills of Balochistan and Buzdar hills of Punjab (eastern Sulaiman/middle Indus foldbelt) and Shagala hills of Balochistan (KakarKhorasan/Katawaz/northern Balochistan basin) while Basilosauridae-the king of basal whale (fossils found from Sulaiman basin) ruled the eastern Tethys sea. The third bioevent occurred at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary from where the Baluchithere became extinct. After this third bioevents the rhinocerotoids, anthracotherids, proboscideans, carnivores, chalicotheres, deinotheres, bovids, suids, Creodonta, ruminantia, amynodontiae, and crocodilians were found in the Indus basin of Pakistan. The fourth bioevent occurred on the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary from where the man civilization seems to be evolved (Malkani 2013). Kohistan magmatic arc accreted to Asia at 100Ma. Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks overlie the Proterozoic rocks in Cherat-Attock-Hazara while Carboniferous or Permian rocks overlie Proterozoic strata in Swat areas. Renewed tectonism commenced during the Late Cretaceous with initial motion along the Cherat and Hissartang faults in the Attock-Cherat range. Widespread compressional tectonics related to the obduction of Kohistan island arc may have began as early as 62Ma and was underway by 50Ma. The south verging thrusts with migrated deformation front started from north during Paleocene and continued so far from Karakoram, Kohistan, Northern Indus Suture, northwest Himalaya (Khyber-Hazara) and Kohat-Potwar belts/blocks (Husain 2004). Indo-Pakistan subcontinent is a peninsula but in the past it was a part of Gondwanalands and during northward journey it was an island (Fig.1). During Late Triassic (220 Ma) the lands united as Pangea. The breakup of Pangaea started in Middle Jurassic (170 Ma) while the breakup of Gondwana started in Late Jurassic (160 Ma). Indo-Pakistan separated from Madagascar during Late Jurassic and started northward journey at Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary time (145135Ma). Most of Cretaceous passes as journey and island. It migrated rapidly covering more than 6000km in about 65-75 million years. Its northwestern corner collided first time with Afghan block of Tethys and Asia at Latest Cretaceous about 70-67 Ma. This corner acts as a pivot point for counterclockwise rotation. This first collision (67Ma) created the land bridge (between Indo-Pakistan Shield and Asia) from Afghanistan/Hindu Kush-Kurram-WaziristanZhob (Western Indus Suture and adjoining Afghan land)-Ziarat-Fort Munro (D.G.Khan) areas, allowed the migration of latest Cretaceous fauna from Asia to Indo-Pakistan and vice versa. During Paleocene the sea transgressed on this land bridge and other vicinity areas and deposited the marine Sangiali Group in the Sulaiman basin and Nisai group in the Balochistan basin. During Late Paleocene the sea regressed from the western Sulaiman basin and northern Balochistan basin due to further uplift and collision by continued movements of subcontinent. Consequently Western Indus Suture, close to Zhob-Waziristan-Kurram and its adjoining western areas of Afghan block uplifted more. This uplift provided the lands for the migration of Eocene vertebrates like baluchithere-the largest rhinoceros from Asia to Indo-Pakistan subcontinent or vice versa. This rising ended the Paleo Vitakri River systems of Sulaiman foldbelt flowing from east to west (Indo-Pakistan shield toward Neotethys) and started the birth of Paleo Indus River systems flowing from northwest to southeast and north to south. It deposited the deltaic and terrestrial molasse Late Paleocene-Early Eocene Chamalang (Ghazij) Group in the Sulaiman basin, Shagala Group of Balochistan (fore arc or arc-trench gap, arc, back arc) basin. This molasse shows the beginning of Neotethys closure from NW of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. The middle Eocene is represented by a major transgression of sea in the westward and also eastward. 269
As a result the transition period of this transgression is represented by the deposition of upper Ghazij Group (Drug limestone and Baska evaporitic gypsum, and shale show rhythmic off and on sea water) and major transgression is represented by the deposition of Kahan Group (Habib Rahi limestone, Domanda shale, Pirkoh limestone and Drazinda shale) in the Sulaiman basin of Pakistan while the northern Balochistan/Kakar Khorasan basin was under erosion. At Latest Eocene (40-35Ma) the northern part of Indo-Pakistan collided with Karakoram and Tibetans parts of Asia. This collision resulted in the uplift, folding and faulting (mainly south verging thrusts) in the northwestern Foreland (Hindukush-Karakoram belt and Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc) and its adjoining northern part of Hinterland now called Himalaya. Consequently Tethys Sea was permanently closed by the end Eocene tectonic episode which is responsible for the birth of Himalaya. This collision started the terrestrial/continental fluvial facies and Neotethys permanently closed from Hindu Kush-Karakoram belt, Kohistan magmatic arc, Khyber-Hazara (uppermost Indus), Kohat and Potwar (northern/upper Indus) and Sulaiman (Middle Indus) basins, while the Kirthar (southern/lower Indus) basin was remained undersea as the Oligocene marine Nari and Gaj formations were deposited in Kirthar basin. This episode/uplift increases the gradient of Indus River generally flowing from north to south (Fig.1) and also created the birth of Ganges River systems generally flowing from west to east and northwest to southeast. This uplift is responsible for the molase deposition of Siwalik, Potwar and Vihowa groups in Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent. Consequently the Neotethys closed from the area presently called Himalaya. The main geoevents occurred at Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary time resulted for the further retreat of sea from Kirthar (lower/southern Indus) basin as the terrestrial Vihowa/Manchar Group deposited. So far the last major episode occurred at the end Pleistocene, resulted further retreat of sea in the south and folding and faulting (Malkani 2011). The northward movements of Indo-Pakistan plate are continuing so far. This tectonic orogeny is responsible for creating highest peaks and present morphology. The Neotethys remained in the east, south and mostly in the west of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent but now named as Indian Ocean. Due to the closure of Neotethys from north, northwest and some part of west of IndoPakistan subcontinent, shaped it as Peninsula. Due to contact and collision of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent with the southern part of Asia it is being called as South Asia. Its Pre Cretaceous paleontology and geology resembles with Madagascar and other Gondwanan lands, Cretaceous show isolation and Cainozoic mostly resemble with Asia. References Hussain, A. 2004. Tectonics of the Himalayan foothills region and its Stratigraphic setup, Northern Pakistan. In abstract volume of Fifth Pakistan Geological Congress, Islamabad, Pakistan, 66-68. Malkani, M.S. 2006. Biodiversity of saurischian dinosaurs from the latest Cretaceous Park of Pakistan. Journal of Applied and Emerging Sciences, 1(3), 108-140. Malkani, M.S. 2008. Marisaurus (Balochisauridae, Titanosauria) remains from the latest Cretaceous of Pakistan. Sindh Univ. Res. Journ. (Sci. Series), 40 (2), 55-78.
270
Malkani, M.S. 2009. New Balochisaurus (Balochisauridae, Titanosauria,Sauropoda) and Vitakridrinda (Theropoda) remains from Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series), 41 (2), 65-92. Malkani, M.S. 2010. New Pakisaurus (Pakisauridae, Titanosauria, Sauropoda) remains, and Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) boundary from Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series) 42 (1), 39-64. Malkani M. S. 2011. Stratigraphy, Mineral Potential, Geological History and Paleobiogeography of Balochistan Province, Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series) 43 (2):269-290. Malkani, M.S. 2013. Major Bioevents and extinction of land vertebrates in Pakistan; CretaceousTertiary and other boundaries. In; Abstract Book of 9 th International Symposium on the Cretaceous System, September 1-5, Metu Congress Center, Ankara, Turkey, 44. Malkani, M.S. 2014a. Titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs from the Latest Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume; 2 nd symposium of International Geoscience Program 608 (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06, 2014, Tokyo, Japan, 108-111. Malkani, M.S. 2014b.Theropod dinosaurs and mesoeucrocodiles from the Terminal Cretaceous of Pakistan. In abstract volume; 2 nd Symposium of International Geoscience Program 608 “Cretac.Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific” September 04-06, 2014, Tokyo, Japan, 169-172. Malkani, M.S. 2014c Dinosaurs from the Jurassic and Cretaceous Systems of Pakistan: their Paleobiogeographic link. In Abstract Volume of First Symposium of IGCP 632 “Jurassic Crises” and 4th Intern. Palaeontological Congress, Sept 28 to Oct 03, 2014, Mendoza, Argentina, 872. Malkani, M.S. & Sahni, A. 2015. A unified perspective of terrestrial Jurassic and Cretaceous vertebrates from the Indian subcontinent: Challenges and Prospects. In; Abstract volume of International conference on “Current perspectives and emerging issues in Gondwana evolution” Lucknow, India, 11. Sahni, A. 2001. Dinosaurs of India. National book Trust, Delhi, 110pp.
271
Cretaceous
Jurassic Skeletons Coprolite
Afghan block Laurasia
A Upper Indus/ Kohat and Potwar Basin
55 Ma
Indo-Pakistan Sub.
sFootprints Nests eggs
B
Zhob . Afghan Block Indo-Pakistan Sub
D. G.Khan
C
Quetta
Northern Hemisphere
Jacobabad
Equator
Middle Indus/ Sulaiman Basin
Khuzdar Zhob Tethys
Lower Indus/ Kirthar Basin
Southern Hemisphere
Fig. 1. A, Distribution of dinosaurs in Pakistan; B, Migration and isolation of Indo-Pakistan plate during Cretaceous. Indo-Pakistan C, Paleo-Indus River systems flow from north to Sub. south and northwest to southeast; Madagascar 145 Ma D, Paleo-Vitakri River systems generally flows from East to west.
Indo-Pakistan Sub Loralai Ziarat Quetta
Vitakri high
D Khuzdar Jacobabad high
Karachi
Cretaceous Jurassic Skeletons Nests, eggs coprolites
Fig. 2. Distribution of dinosaurs in India and Pakistan (after Malkani and Sahni in process)
Footprints
272
