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doi: 10.1111/j.1751-3928.2012.00208.x
Resource Geology Vol. 63, No. 1: 27–41
Original Article
Mineralogical and Geochemical Constraints on the Genesis of the Carbonate-Hosted Jebel Ghozlane Pb–Zn Deposit (Nappe Zone, Northern Tunisia) Nejib Jemmali,1,2 Fouad Souissi,1,2 Emmanuel John M. Carranza3 and Torsten W. Vennemann4 1
Laboratoire des Matériaux Utiles, Institut National de Recherche et d’Analyse Physico-chimiques, Technopole de Sidi Thabet, Tunisie, 2Département de Géologie, Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia, 3Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands and 4Stable Isotope Lab., Inst. of Mineralogy and Geochemistry, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
Abstract The Pb–Zn deposit at Jebel Ghozlane, in the Nappe zone (northern Tunisia), is hosted by Triassic dolostones and Eocene limestones and is located along faults and a thrust-sheet boundary. The sulfide mineralization of the deposit consists mainly of galena and sphalerite and occurs as vein, stockwork, breccia, dissemination and replacement ores. Three hydrothermal stages are involved in the formation of the ores: stage I is dominated by celestite-barite, hydrothermal dolomite DII, colloform sphalerite, and galena I; stage II consist of galena II; and stage III contains calcite. Galena in the deposit yielded average 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb ratios of 18.705, 15.667 and 38.734, respectively, suggesting a single upper crustal source reservoir for metals. Trace element data indicate the presence of Zn- and As-free galena and As-rich galena (with 0.2–0.5% As). Sphalerite contains 0.4% As, 0.7–0.9% Cd and 0.1–1.5% Fe. Microthermometric analysis of fluid inclusions in celestite shows that the deposit formed from fluids composed of heterogeneous mixtures of saline (19.5 ⫾ 1 wt% NaCl eq.) aqueous solutions sourced from basinal brines, and gaseous CO2-rich phases bearing low amounts of CH4, N2 and/or H2S, at temperatures of 172 ⫾ 5°C. Keywords: fluid inclusion, Jebel Ghozlane, lead isotope, mineralogy, Northern Tunisia.
1. Introduction Several base-metal deposits, which are similar to Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) deposits, exist in the Nappe zone in Northern Tunisia (Mansouri, 1980; Rouvier et al., 1985; Slim-Shimi & Tlig, 1993; Decrée et al., 2008b; Abidi et al., 2010; Jemmali et al., 2011a, b) (Fig. 1). Those deposits comprise about 10% of the total F–Pb–Zn–Ba Tunisian reserves. Most of the base-metal deposits in
the Nappe zone are located close to salt diapirs (Fig. 1), and they are likely associated either with a Late Miocene orogeny (cf. Rouvier et al., 1985; Burollet, 1991; Jemmali et al., 2011b) or with Neogene volcanism (Rouvier et al., 1985; Slim-Shimi & Tlig, 1993; Decrée et al., 2008a, b; Jemmali et al., 2011a, b). Many basemetal deposits in the Nappe zone consist of stratabound and vein bodies that are characterized by open-space filling ores in karst structures within or at
Received 13 April 2012. Accepted for publication 25 June 2012. Corresponding author: N. Jemmali, Laboratoire des Matériaux Utiles, Institut National de Recherche et d’Analyse Physico-chimiques, 2026 Technopole de Sidi Thabet, Tunisia. Email:
[email protected] © 2012 The Authors Resource Geology © 2012 The Society of Resource Geology
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Fig. 1 Geological zones, Triassic exposures and Pb–Zn deposits in Northern Tunisia, adapted from Sainfeld (1952), Burollet (1991) and Perthuisot (1978).
the surface of Triassic dolostones beneath Cretaceous (Senonian) limestones (cf. Nicolini, 1968; Rouvier, 1971; Mansouri, 1980; Rouvier et al., 1985; Slim-Shimi & Tlig, 1993). This and the likely association of the deposits with either the Late Miocene orogeny or the Neogene volcanism suggest that hydrothermal karstification, which has been reported at other MVT deposits elsewhere (e.g. Fowler, 1994; Bouch et al., 2006; Gutzmer, 2006), was an important mechanism, rather than replacement, for generating mainly pre-mineralization porosity in the
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Triassic dolostones (cf. Nicolini, 1968; Rouvier, 1971; Mansouri, 1980; Rouvier et al., 1985; Slim-Shimi & Tlig, 1993). There are two major groups of base-metal deposits in the Nappe zone (Rouvier et al., 1985): (i) As–Sb bearing Pb–Zn deposits hosted in the continental Neogene series or in the rocks contacting the Neogene series (e.g. Aïn Allega, Sidi Embarek, Jebel Hallouf-Sidi Bou Aouane, Bazina, Semene, Jalta, Bechateur, Jebel Ghozlane); (ii) As–Hg bearing Pb–Zn deposits with local intrusions related to the Neogene volcanics (e.g. Fej © 2012 The Authors Resource Geology © 2012 The Society of Resource Geology
Jebel Ghozlane Pb–Zn deposit, Tunisia
Hassene, Oued Maden, El Arja, Sidi Driss-Douhria). Few studies have been conducted on the base-metal mineralization in the Nappe zone using S isotopes of sulfides and sulfates from individual deposits such as Sidi Driss-Douahria (Decrée et al., 2008b), La Galite, Chouichia-Ain el Bey (Slim-Shimi & Tlig, 1993). Jemmali et al. (2011b) showed that the Pb isotope ratios in galena at Jebel Ghozlane are relatively homogeneous and are compatible with a derivation of the deposit from one generation of fluids that interacted with a heterogeneous basement. The d34S isotope values of sulfates and sulfides of the deposit are likely the result of mixing of two sulfur end-members of mineralizing fluids, corresponding to different reduction process: bacterially-mediated sulfate reduction and thermo-
chemical sulfate reduction of Triassic evaporites. Jemmali et al. (2011b) suggest that the metals were remobilized from deep-seated primary deposits in the Paleozoic. In the present study, we focus on the breccias and vein-type base-metal deposits at Jebel Ghozlane, which are situated near the base of the Nappe zone and close to major regional thrust faults (Figs 1, 2). New data for Pb isotopes, fluid inclusion and mineral chemistry were obtained in order to constrain (i) sources of metals, (ii) sources of ore fluids, and (iii) genetic model. The new contributions of this paper are details in ore mineralogy, geochemistry and paragenetic sequence of the mineralization at Jebel Ghozlane.
Fig. 2 Regional setting of the Nappe zone in Northern Tunisia (Tlig et al., 2010). (a) Structural map of the Maghrebides showing the principal tectonic zones (1, internal zones; 2, thrusted blocks; 3, transcurrent shears; 4, fault); (b) cross-section of the Nappe zone (1, Eocene limestones; 2, Paleocene marls; 3, Upper Cretaceous limestones; 4, Triassic rocks; 5, sense of shearing). © 2012 The Authors Resource Geology © 2012 The Society of Resource Geology
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2. Geological setting and mineralization The Nappe zone (Mogods, Kroumerie and Hedil regions) of Northern Tunisia occupies the eastern part of the Maghrebides fold-thrust belt that was active during the Early to Middle Miocene. In that period, the deformation was characterized by southeastward thrusting along shear zones that vary in strike from E–W to NE–SW (Castany, 1951, 1953; Gottis & Sainfeld, 1952; Crampon, 1971; Rouvier, 1977; Durand-Delga & Fontboté, 1980) (Fig. 2). This deformation was related to the collision of the counterclockwise-rotating Corsica–Sardinia–Petit Kabylie plate with the Tunisian continental margin. This involved initial buckle folding, later shear faulting in the Hedil and southeastdirected thrusting in the Mogods and Kroumerie, and then emplacement of the Numidian flysch complex (cf. Glacon & Rouvier, 1972; Rouvier, 1977; Cohen et al., 1980). Successive deformation in the Late Miocene (Tortonian–Messinian), resulted in folding of the allochthonous and autochthonous formations along
NNE–SSW directions, and the emplacement of the nappes (Cohen et al., 1980; Bouaziz et al., 2002; Ould Bagga et al., 2006). This compressive event was followed by the development of longitudinal faults and volcanism of calc-alkaline basalts and rhyodacites. Rhyodacites and granodiorites were likely emplaced in a Serravallian–Tortonian compression context (Faul & Foland, 1980) whereas basalts were likely linked to the following Messinian rifting event (cf. Badgasarian et al., 1972; Mauduit, 1978; Halloul, 1989; Tlig et al., 1991; Laridhi-Ouazaa, 1994). The geology of the Bechateur district, as discussed in several studies (Crampon, 1971; Melki et al., 2001; Jemmali et al., 2011b), is summarized as follows. The contact between the Triassic and Eocene at Jebel Ghozlane is a NNE–SSW trending dextral strike-slip fault, but in other parts of the area the main contact between them is an unconformity (Fig. 3). Thrust faults trending NE–SW separate the Upper Eocene rocks from the Cretaceous and Triassic rocks at Jebel Daouda and the Upper Eocene rocks from the Lower Eocene rocks at
Fig. 3 Geological map of the Bechateur district (adapted from Melki et al., 2001) and schematic cross-section (a-a’) through the Jebel Ghozlane deposit (adapted from Sainfeld, 1952).
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© 2012 The Authors Resource Geology © 2012 The Society of Resource Geology
Jebel Ghozlane Pb–Zn deposit, Tunisia
Jebel Touila. The stratigraphy of the Bechateur district where Jebel Ghozlane is located consists mainly of Triassic, Upper Cretaceous and Lower to Upper Eocene rocks (Fig. 3). The Triassic rocks include breccias composed of variegated clays (mainly illitic), sandstones, dolostones, and altered basalts. The Upper Cretaceous rocks consist of massive limestones with marl intercalations. The Maastrichtian–Paleocene is represented by marl-bearing series. The Lower Eocene rocks consist of marine limestones with Globigerina sp. These rocks are overlain by Upper Eocene marls. Marine facies rocks represent the Quaternary. The Jebel Ghozlane deposit is located c. 3–4 km NE of Bechateur town (Fig. 3). The Jebel Ghozlane and other minor Pb–Zn deposits (Sidi el Aoun, Jebel Graya, Aïn Rhour) close to the Bechateur district are now all abandoned. The Jebel Ghozlane deposit, which is the largest of the Pb–Zn deposits in and near the Bechateur district, is situated along faults and a thrust-sheet boundary (Figs 1, 2). The Jebel Ghozlane old mine produced c. 6680 tons of Pb and 53,128 tons of Zn (Cherif Ben Hassene, 2006). The deposit is hosted by Triassic dolostones and Lower Eocene dolomitic limestones. The orebodies, which occur as vein or dissemination and breccia, are localized along fault contacts between the Triassic and Eocene rocks (Fig. 3). The ore of the deposit consists of galena, sphalerite, minor pyrite, with barite and celestite as gangue minerals.
3. Materials and methods Rock and ore samples collected from the Jebel Ghozlane deposit were subjected to mineralogical and geochemical analyses. The mineralogy, texture and composition of the ore samples were obtained from carbon-coated polished sections using a metallographic microscope and a Mira Tescan scanning electron microscope (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) at the University of Lausanne. Selected samples were subjected to electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) for trace element analysis in galena and sphalerite. The EPMA was carried out using the Jeol JXA 8200 Superprobe WD/ED combined microanalyzer at the University of Lausanne. Operating conditions were an accelerating voltage of 15 kV, beam current of 20 nA, and beam diameter of 1 mm. Counting times of 30 s on peak and 15 s on background on both sides of the peak were used for all elements. Analytical precision was c. 1% for major elements and 5–10% for minor elements. © 2012 The Authors Resource Geology © 2012 The Society of Resource Geology
Lead isotope measurements were made on galenas in the Jebel Ghozlane deposit. About 2–3 mg of galena sample was dissolved using ultra-pure (double distilled) HCl. Lead isotope measurements were made using a multicollector-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) instrument (Nu Instruments Ltd, Bern, Switzerland) within the Radiogenic Isotope facility at the University of Bern. Sample aliquots were subsequently mixed with approximately 1.5 mL of a 2% HNO3 solution spiked with the NIST SRM 997 thallium standard (2.5 ppb), and aspirated (~100 mL min-1) into the ICP source using an Apex desolvating nebulizer (Nu Instruments Ltd). Simultaneous measurements of Pb and Tl isotopes, and 202Hg ion signal were achieved by using seven Faraday collectors. The 205Tl/203Tl ratio was measured to correct for instrumental mass bias (exponential law; 205Tl/203Tl = 2.4262). Upon sample introduction, data acquisition consisted of two half-mass unit baseline measurements prior to each integration block, and three blocks of 20 scans (10 s integration each) for isotope ratio analysis. 204 Hg interference (on 204Pb) was monitored and corrected using 202Hg. At the beginning of the analytical session, a 25 ppb solution of the NIST SRM 981 Pb standard, which was also spiked with the NIST SRM 997 Tl standard (1.25 ppb), was analyzed. The two-year long-term reproducibility of the NIST SRM 981 defines a variance of c. 2 ¥ 10-4, with no adjustment relative to common literature values (Cattin et al., 2011). The external reproducibility of individual analytical sessions was c. 1 ¥ 10-4. Microthermometric analyses were conducted on primary and two-phase aqueous/gaseous fluid inclusion with a “Chaixmeca” heating-freezing stage microscope, which allows temperature measurements within the range -196 to +600°C (Poty et al., 1976). Pure CO2 and pure water specimens were used for calibration. The precision of temperature measurements for aqueous fluid inclusions was ⫾0.5°C for the final melting temperature (Tm) of ice, and ⫾1°C for homogenization temperatures (Th) in the -100 to +250°C interval. For gaseous CO2-rich inclusions, the precision was ⫾0.1°C for both the carbonic ice melting temperature (TmCO2) and the homogenization temperature (ThCO2). The mean values of these parameters are given in the text as mean ⫾ standard deviation.
4. Textures and mineralogy of the ores Based on the stratigraphic position and the nature of mineralization, four main styles of mineralization are
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Fig. 4 Photographs of ores from Jebel Ghozlane: (a) breccia showing replacement of preexisting colloform sphalerite (Sp) by celestite (Cls) associated with barite (Ba), disseminated galena (Gn II) and late calcite (Ca); (b) brecciated mineralization in Triassic dolomite (DI) shows a vein of barite; (c) vein mineralization consisting of galena (Gn I) and late calcite (Ca) hosted by Eocene limestone (L); (d) zebra texture defined by celestite (Cls) and hydrothermal dolomite (DII); (e) breccia dolostone with barite (Ba) and celestite (Cls), galena (Gn I) and diagenetic pyrite (Py) hosted by dolomite.
distinguished (Figs 4–6); (i) vein (barite and galena hosted by Triassic micritic dolostones DI), (ii) zebra textures defined by banding of celestite, barite and sparry hydrothermal dolomite DII, (iii) breccias of black or yellow dolostones (in contact zone between Triassic and Lower Eocene rocks) contains galena, colloform sphalerite and pyrite, with barite and celestite, and (iv) dissemination of galena in barite gangue. The celestite has replaced pre-existing colloform sphalerite (Figs 4a, 6e, f). The sulfide mineralization consists of galena and sphalerite with minor pyrite. Morphologies of galena range from coarse-grained crystals filling cavities (Gn I) to disseminated (Gn II). Galena is relatively poor in trace elements (0.2–0.5% As, 0.3% Bi and 0.1% Fe). Sphalerite occurs not only as small, disseminated and commonly zoned crystals but also as spherulitic crystals. Electron microprobe analyses in sphalerite indicate low As content (100°C) relict basinal brines, likely to have been expelled from Triassic evaporites during periods of diapirism or halokinesis (cf. Perthuisot, 1978; Bouzenoune & Lecolle, 1997; Al-Aasm & Abdallah, 2006), have likely scavenged base metals from Hercynian basement rocks or from MesoCenozoic rocks at depths, moved upward along deepseated and inherited faults to shallower levels where they mixed with cooler meteoric fluids, and reacted with carbonate wallrocks. We deduced mixing with cooler meteoric fluids from the spherulitic and colloform textures of sphalerite (cf. Koski et al., 1984; Corbella et al., 2004). The spherulitic form of sphalerite, in contrast to the former, suggests a biogenic origin (e.g. Labrenz et al., 2000; Schroll & Rantisch, 2003; Southam & Saunders, 2005). This inference is supported by negative d34S values obtained from some galenas in the study area (Jemmali et al., 2011b), which are likely due to mixing of heavy sulfur with light sulfur derived from dissolution of pre-existing sphalerite (cf. Slim-Shimi & Tlig, 1993; Decrée et al., 2008b). Reaction of carbonate wall rocks with the mixed fluid is supported by the presence of mineralizationrelated late calcite with depleted 13C composition relative to the average 13C value in the Triassic carbonates (Jemmali et al., 2011b), and the presence of the sparry dolomite. The mixing and cooling of solutions together with wall rock reaction likely resulted in precipitation of the base metals. The present fluid inclusion data and previously reported sulfur isotope data support
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Fig. 10 Microthermometric data from celestite in the Jebel Ghozlane deposit: (a) homogenization temperature (liquid + vapor into liquid); (b) salinity; (c) salinity versus homogenization temperature; (d) melting temperature of CO2 phase.
Table 3 Results of microthermometric analyses of primary CO2 gas fluid inclusions in celestite from the Jebel Ghozlane deposit Sample
TfCO2 (°C)
TfmCO2 (°C)
TmCO2 (°C)
ThCO2 (°C)
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6
-91.0 -93.4 -110.0 -94.8 -92.1 -110.8
-85.0 -80.4 -95.0 -82.0 -84.7 -93.8
-56.8 -61.5 -64.7 -58.0 -62.3 -66.4
20.4 21.5 16.8 18.9 14.2 16.3
TfCO2, freezing temperature of the gaseous CO2-rich phase; TfmCO2, temperature of first melting of the solid CO2-rich phase; TmCO2, final melting temperature of carbonic ice; ThCO2, homogenization temperature (liquid + gas into gas) of the gaseous CO2rich phase.
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thermal sulfate reduction as the likely mechanism that contributed to the formation of base-metal sulfides in the Jebel Ghozlane deposit as well as other Pb–Zn deposits in the Nappe zone (cf. Decrée et al., 2008b; Jemmali et al., 2011b; Abidi et al., 2012). Base-metal sulfide mineralization at Jebel Ghozlane was probably coeval with Late Miocene extensional tectonism, like other Pb–Zn deposits in northern Tunisia (Slim-Shimi & Tlig, 1993; Decrée et al., 2008b). The Late Miocene extensional tectonism was considered responsible for the Neogene volcanism in the Nappe zone (cf. Badgasarian et al., 1972; Mauduit, 1978; Cohen et al., 1980; Faul & Foland, 1980; Halloul, 1989; Tlig et al., 1991; Laridhi-Ouazaa, 1994). Thermal convection © 2012 The Authors Resource Geology © 2012 The Society of Resource Geology
Jebel Ghozlane Pb–Zn deposit, Tunisia
associated with the Neogene volcanism (Decrée et al., 2008a, b) may have triggered the ascent of base-metalrich brines along deep-seated and inherited faults, and structures (e.g. major deep faults, thrust-sheet boundaries; Fig. 1) associated with the Late Miocene extensional tectonism could have facilitated further migration of the base-metal-rich brines toward the surface (Decrée et al., 2008b). Our present data neither agree nor disagree with the hypothesis that halokinesis of the saliferous Triassic rocks was a control on Pb–Zn mineralization at Jebel Ghozlane (cf. Rouvier et al., 1985; Jemmali et al., 2011a, b). Rather, the tectonic movements involved during the Alpine orogeny, which is associated with the second phase of halokinesis, provided the plumbing system for the base-metaland sulfur-rich fluids originating at depth and the structural permeability of the Triassic carbonate host rocks.
7. Conclusions Mineralogically, Pb isotope data of mineralization and fluid inclusion microthermometry of celestite in the Jebel Ghozlane allow us to constrain the source of the ore-forming fluids and the sources of metals. The sulfide mineralization consists principally of galena, sphalerite and minor pyrite and occurs as veins, disseminations and breccias. Based on the relatively homogeneous Pb isotope data, the base metals were sourced from crustal rocks likely comprising Paleozoic metasediments and Hercynian granitoids. Fluid inclusion data indicate that the ore-forming fluids correspond to warm temperatures (Th ª 172 ⫾ 5°C) and saline brines (19 ⫾ 1 wt% NaCl eq.).
Acknowledgment This work was financially supported by the Tunisian Ministry of High Education and Scientific Research (in form of trainingship) and has been realized in the Departments of Geology at the universities of Tunis, Bern and Lausanne (Switzerland). We thank Dr. S. Decrée and an anonymous reviewer for their insightful comments, which helped us to improve this paper. We also thank Editor-in-Chief Yasushi Watanabe for editorial handling of our paper.
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