More than words: The impact of nonverbal cues used by Community Musicians in music workshops
Claire Blanchard September 2016
More than words: The impact of nonverbal cues used by Community Musicians in music workshops
A dissertation presented to the University of York in (partial) fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Community Music in the Faculty of Arts and Humanities, September 2016 by Claire Blanchard
This work is original and has not been submitted previously in support of any degree, qualification or course
Signed: Date: 9/9/16 Word Count: 19,486
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Abstract This research study looks at how Community Musicians use nonverbal communication in their natural workshop settings in a series of observations across three individual case studies. A mixed-methods approach is used within a case study methodology, drawing upon observation, semi-structured interview, and repertory grid techniques. Computerassisted thematic analysis drew these data sources together using adapted grounded theory approaches alongside a theoretical framework based on kinesics, proxemics, and haptics. Results indicate that two categories of kinesics (illustrators and affect displays) are heavily used by Community Musicians, typically with the purpose of either musical gestures or immediacy. Interlinking cues and purposes also suggested that several nonverbal cues were used together to create particular effects. Most nonverbal communication also appeared to be used subconsciously, reflecting the natural use of tacitly held knowledge. However, some awareness of nonverbal communication was crucial to avoid over-use or for adapting to the needs of certain contexts. This was particularly the case regarding haptics and proxemics. The study concludes that Community Musicians’ use of nonverbal communication is interwoven into accessible music-making and the social aims of workshops. The study also found that being more aware of nonverbal communication requires looking beyond kinesics to consider the range of cues a Community Musician will use, including posture and haptics. Finally, while reflection on the use of nonverbal communication is helpful, looking at each Community Musician’s construct-building highlighted the need to preserve some of the spontaneous use of nonverbal communication due to the need for genuineness in Community Music practice.
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Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements This dissertation owes particular thanks to the three Community Musicians and the companies and charities that they work for, as without them, this research study could not have been undertaken. I would also like to thank the numerous individuals I have worked with within special needs settings who initially sparked my interest into Nonverbal Communication and the impact it can have in social interaction. Special thanks also go to my Grandma Joyce and partner Mark who have encouraged and helped me to re-engage myself with music and who have always fully supported my work with music and people.
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Contents
Contents 1
Aims and purposes
9
1.1
Introduction
9
1.2
Research questions
10
1.3
The importance of nonverbal cues and their uses in music and workshops
11
1.4
Expected outcomes
13
2
Literature review
14
2.1
Background to Nonverbal Communication
14
2.1.1 Historical Perspectives
14
2.2
Nonverbal Communication and Music Research
16
2.3
Defining Terms
18
2.3.1 Kinesics
18
2.3.2 Proxemics
20
2.3.3 Oculesics
20
2.3.4 Immediacy
21
2.3.5 Haptics
21
2.4
22
Issues arising from nonverbal research
2.4.1 Tacit knowledge
22
2.4.2 The role of the Community Musician in group workshops
23
2.4.3 Client groups
25
2.4.4 Creating a positive and comfortable learning environment
27
2.5
Summary
27
3
Rationale
29
3.1
Importance
29
3.2
Originality
29
3.3
Contributions to the current body of knowledge
29
4
Methodology
31
4.1
Introduction
31
4.2
Site and participant selection
32
4.3
Ethical controls
33
4.4
Data sources
34
4.4.1 Observational methods
34
4.5
34
Interview methods Page 5 of 107
Contents 4.5.1 Kelly’s Repertory Grid
35
4.5.2 Member checking
36
4.6
Methods of data analysis
36
5
Results
38
5.1
Executive summary
38
5.2
Why do Community Musicians use certain NVC and how consciously are they using them?
38
5.2.1 Diana
40
5.2.2 Mary
41
5.2.3 Florence
42
5.2.4 Results from repertory grids
46
5.3
How well do kinesics show Community Musicians’ use of NVC?
50
6
Discussion
54
6.1
Key Findings
54
6.1.1 Why do Community Musicians use certain NVC and how consciously are they using them?
54
6.2
How well do kinesics show Community Musicians’ use of NVC?
61
6.3
Variations between Community Musicians
62
6.3.1 Awareness of NVC
62
6.3.2 Kinesic categories
64
6.3.3 NVC Use in workshops
65
6.4
66
Additional Categories from Community Musicians
6.4.1 Proxemics
66
6.4.2 Posture
67
6.4.3 Haptics
68
6.5
69
Influential factors
6.5.1 Different client groups and workshop context
69
6.5.2 Personality Traits of Community Musicians
72
7
Conclusions
74
8
References
78
9
Appendices
86
9.1
Appendix one: participant information sheet
86
9.2
Appendix two: consent form
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9.3
Contents Appendix three: detailed examples of observation and interview coding
92
9.3.1 Diana
92
9.3.2 Mary
95
9.3.3 Florence
99
9.4
Appendix four: examples of detailed repertory grid discussions
103
9.4.1 Diana
103
9.4.2 Mary
104
9.4.3 Florence
106
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Tables and figures
Tables and figures Frequency of codes used in analysis .................................................................................39 Example of codes used for Diana ......................................................................................40 Example of codes used for Mary .......................................................................................41 Example of codes used for Florence .................................................................................42 Co-occurrence codes table ................................................................................................44 Radar chart for ‘gestures’ code .........................................................................................45 Radar chart for ‘encouragement’ code .............................................................................45 Radar chart for ‘immediacy’ code .....................................................................................45 Example of Diana discussing her repertory grid constructs .............................................46 Example of Mary discussing her repertory grid constructs ..............................................47 Example of Florence discussing her repertory grid constructs .........................................47 Diana’s repertory grid .......................................................................................................48 Mary’s repertory grid ........................................................................................................48 Florence’s repertory grid...................................................................................................49 Frequency of kinesics categories for each participant......................................................51 Frequency of categories of NVC use for each participant ................................................52 Examples of kinesics categories used in observations ......................................................52
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Aims and purposes
1 Aims and purposes 1.1 Introduction My own experiences of teaching music to a range of different client groups have encouraged reflective practice and finding ways to engage clients. Building communication is often a starting point before we can progress. The term nonverbal suggests “a separate piece of the interaction puzzle, but in another sense it identifies a starting point for describing the total interactive situation”1. Having an interest in how different people communicate showed me how much we can rely on words when they are just a small area of overall communication. Mehrabian, for example, estimated that 93% of meaning is conveyed through nonverbal communication channels with facial expressions being the most dominant at 55%2. This may be an overestimation3 - nevertheless, a significant amount of communication is nonverbal and could be a better indicator of true meaning than actual words4. Music is another channel of communication, facilitating sharing emotions, intentions and meanings5. Nonverbal communication (NVC) is also integral to music. For example, “a conductor has to communicate to player’s information about rhythm, timbre, loudness, expression in their playing, and does this by gesture, facial expression, gaze, body movement”6. De Jong, who teaches musical trainers to use NVC, highlights that having too many words can create problems with order and that showing is better than telling a person to do something7.
1
Mark L Knapp, “An Historical Overview of Nonverbal Research,” in The Sage Handbook of Nonverbal Communication (London: SAGE Publications, 2006). 2 Albert Mehrabian, Nonverbal Communication (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1972). 3 Nina-Jo Moore, Mark Hickson, and Don W Stacks, Nonverbal Communication: Studies and Applications (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). 4 Jane Jackson, Introducing Language and Intercultural Communication (New York: Routledge, 2014). 5 Dorothy Miell, Raymond MacDonald, and David J Hargreaves, Musical Communication (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). 6 Isabella Poggi, “The Lexicon of the Conductor’s Face,” in Language Vision and Music: Advances in Consciousness Research Selected Papers from the 8th International Workshop on the Cognitive Science of Natural Language Processing, Galway, Ireland 1999 (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2002). 7 Otto De Jong, interview by author, April 5th, 2016, Yorkshire, UK.
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Aims and purposes From this, I wanted to understand better how music leaders are using nonverbal cues in their workshops and any impact on their sessions. There is little published guidance or training, apart from the work that de Jong does to help music workshop leaders. If Community Musicians can have a better understanding of why and how they communicate nonverbally, then it could have a huge benefit on their practice and understanding of how nonverbal behaviours can be a way into music for the variety of people they work with. I wanted to provide research that gained an insight into Community Musicians’ work in three different settings to inform each Community Musician’s own work as well as give suggestions for others. This chapter highlights the aims and purpose of the study in more detail, including the research questions within the area of NVC. Chapter two investigates the literature regarding NVC and the role of Community Musicians within workshops. Chapter three explains the case study methodology, including how grounded theory and repertory grid analysis was used. Chapter four displays results in response to the research questions. Chapter five discusses broad trends and further aspects of NVC that are due further consideration. Finally, chapter six concludes with additional recommendations and scope for future study.
1.2 Research questions Why do Community Musicians use certain NVC and how consciously are they using them? This question highlights the need to better understand the specific NVC that is used by Community Musicians and will include observing them in workshop environments. The reasoning behind what they use and their overall awareness of their own Nonverbal cues can then be discussed in their interview. This seeks to provide unique insight into the role that nonverbal behaviours play when used by music facilitators within specific contexts. How well do Kinesics help Community Musicians talk about their use of NVC? Page 10 of 107
Aims and purposes Kinesics are considered to be a key area of NVC. They were first used by anthropologist Birdwhistell in the 1950s to mean “the study of body-motion as related to the non-verbal aspects of interpersonal communication”8. Kinesic behaviours were then further categorised by Ekman and Friesman9 into five areas: emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulator and adaptors. These will be the topic headings for my observational field notes. This question will also be addressed through interviews about the kinesics found in the observation stage, combined with participants’ initial thoughts about their use of NVC. How well do kinesics function as a theoretical lens? From the previous research question, I want to discover how beneficial kinesics are for examining Community Musicians’ use of NVC and encouraging self-reflection.
1.3 The importance of nonverbal cues and their uses in music and workshops There is no one agreed definition of NVC, however it does include communication that is created by means other than words10, actions that are distinct from speech11, and important non spoken signals that individuals exhibit. These signals include gestures, posture, facial expressions, eye contact and touch12. No discussion on communication is complete without the inclusion of nonverbal behaviours13, so we need to consider them to get the full meaning. NVC is a fundamental aspect of communication from birth14. We continually use and observe nonverbal cues even if we are not aware of doing so, form judgements about their
8
Ray L Birdwhistell, Introduction to Kinesics: An Annotation System for Analysis of Body Motion and Gesture (Washington DC: U.S. Department of State Foreign Service Institute, 1952). 9 Paul Ekman and Wallace V Friesen, “The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding,” Semiotica 1, no. 1 (1969). 10 Mark L Knapp and Judith A Hall, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, 4th Edition ed. (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1997). 11 Mehrabian, Nonverbal Communication. 12 Anjali Hans and Emmanuel Hans, “Kinesics, Haptics and Proxemics: Aspects of Non -Verbal Communication “ Journal of Humanities and Social Science 20, no. 2 (2015). 13 David Matsumoto and Hyi-Sung Hwang, “The Messages of Emotion, Action, Space, and Silence,” in The Routledge Handbook of Language and Intercultural Communication (New York: Routledge, 2012). 14 Susan B Rosa, “Understanding the Role and Potential Impact of Nonverbal Communication in the Primary Inclusion Classroom” (University of Massachuetts, 2002).
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Aims and purposes messages, and use NVC to indicate our relationship with others15. Many nonverbal acts are innate16: they are used instinctively, so “even though we gesture all the time, for most of us, it is usually automatic—we rarely give it a second thought”17. The frequency of NVC in everyday is a key reason for researcher interest in this area18. Similar professions have discussed NVC, including performance musicians19 and orchestra conductors20. Benefits of studying NVC have included theoretical insight into the mechanism of body movements and creation of devices for home and virtual conducting21. NVC has also been explored in music teaching situations, within a slim body of research with many preliminary studies which deserve to be investigated further. This includes in one-to-one music tuition22 and Levasseur’s23 dissertation, the first to focus solely on NVC. Nonverbal Communication shows relevance for classroom music teachers with examples including usage for behavioural management, instructional purposes and pupil wellbeing24. The literature here describes how teachers possess a personal nonverbal repertoire of motions including clapping rhythms and silence gestures25, with effects including reduced anxiety and clearer instruction26. There are many workshops available on NVC, however a current gap in the research is there
15
Stephen Jolly, “Understanding Body Language: Birdwhistell’s Theory of Kinesics,” Corporate Communications: An International Journal 5, no. 3 (2000). 16 Ibid. 17 Sharyn L Battersby and Jami Bolton, “Nonverbal Communication Implications for the Global Music Classroom,” Music Educators Journal 99, no. 4 (2013). 18 Howard Giles and Beth Le Poire, “The Ubiquity and Social Meaningfulness of Nonverbal Communication,” in The Sage Handbook of Nonverbal Communication (London: SAGE Publications, 2006). 19 Sofia Dahl and Anders Friberg, “Visual Perception of Expressiveness in Musicians’ Body Movements,” Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 24, no. 5 (2007). 20 P Boyes Bräm and T Bräm, “Expressive Gestures Used by Classical Orchestra Conductors,” in The Semantics and Pragmatics of Everyday Gestures ed. C.Mueller and R.Posner (Berlin: Weidler, 2004). 21 Isabella Poggi, “Music and Leadership: The Choir Conductor’s Multimodal Communication,” in Integrating Gestures the Interdisclipinary Nature of Gestures (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011). 22 Wenyi Wang, “Verbal Versus Nonverbal Communication in Music Performace Instruction,” Contributions to music education (2001). 23 Susan Levasseur, “Nonverbal Communication in the Applied Voice Studio” (Columbia University, 1994). 24 Battersby and Bolton, “Nonverbal Communication Implications for the Global Music Classroom.” 25 Barbara M Grant and Dorothy Grant Hennings, The Teacher Moves: An Analysis of Non-Verbal Activity (Columbia University: Teachers College Press, 1971). 26 Battersby and Bolton, “Nonverbal Communication Implications for the Global Music Classroom.”
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Aims and purposes appears to be no research that has been carried out on the NVC that workshop leaders use. Otto de Jong’s training into using NVC in music workshops was a rare find, and even this is more practically than theoretically focused. This shows the need to explore how workshop leaders, in this case Community Musicians, are using nonverbal cues in their own right, especially as they combine many musical and teaching elements. The literature review further details the background of NVC, key studies related to music, and more detail on the theories which will be used in the data analysis and discussion stage. The literature review also looks at Community Musicians’ roles and aims in more detail and considers their different client groups to aid understanding of the importance of nonverbal cues in workshops.
1.4 Expected outcomes The NVC of Community Musicians has yet to be explored, so it is hoped that this study will provide useful insight, particularly as a Community Musician’s interpersonal skills are just as important as their musical ability27. The study supports the reflective practice of each of the participants to consider how they personally use NVC and which aspects are most useful, offering kinesics as a structure to these reflections. Looking at specific client groups also aims to give readers a broad range of examples where NVC can be beneficial, as well as suggesting any generalizable trends. All of these outcomes support the main aim of this study, which is to start a discussion in the Community Music literature about how NVC can or cannot enhance the music workshop experience.
27
Lee Higgins, Community Music: In Theory and in Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).
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Literature review
2 Literature review NVC is an extensive area with many aspects of the role of the Community Musician to consider. This literature review therefore starts with defining terms to give a general overview of the NVC literature before looking at community musicians in greater detail.
2.1 Background to Nonverbal Communication 2.1.1 Historical Perspectives NVC as a field of study has its roots in the elocution movement (mid 18th to early 20th century). The elocution movement linked nonverbal communication to rhetorical thought, specifically how body movements functioned alongside voice to deliver literary works and written speeches28. Thomas Sheridan, an Irish actor, published lectures around this topic from 1756 to 1762 arguing that gestures are “more natural than words, more natural where words are artificial, more universal where words are national, and more expressive of emotion than the sophisticated language of words”29. Delsarte attempted to codify body movements and gestures by creating a system for managing them30. Two seminal texts then advanced the field. De Jorio’s31 work remains “one of the most complex treatises on the subject ever published and it is the first ever to present a study of gestures from what today would be called an ethnographic point of view”32. Darwin33 was also influential34 35, proposing that facial expressions take on specific emotions because they
28
Valerie Manusov and Miles L Patterson, The Sage Handbook of Nonverbal Communication (London: Sage, 2006). 29 Michel Foucault et al., The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present (Boston: Bedford Books, 1990). 30 T Shawn, Every Little Movement: A Book About Francois Delsarte (Pittsfield, MA: Eagle Print & Binding, 1954). 31 Andrea de Jorio, Gesture in Naples and Gesture in Classical Antiquity (Naples1832). 32 A Kendon, “Introduction: Andrea De Jorio and His Work on Gesture,” in Gesture in Naples and Gesture in Classical Antiquity (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000). 33 Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1872). 34 Marvin A Hecht and Nalini Ambady, “Nonverbal Communication and Psychology: Past and Future,” Atlantic Journal of Communication 7, no. 2 (1999). 35 Mark L Knapp, Judith A Hall, and Terrence G Horgan, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, 8th Edition ed. (USA: Cengage Learning, 2014).
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Literature review are behaviours that had specific and direct functions within evolution and so have become associated habits36. More recent research confirmed Darwin’s observation in adult human beings, infants and other animals37. Darwin also recognised that gestures tend to be socially learned conventions38 but only briefly discussed their communicative role39. These texts stimulated interest in human interaction and communication from many disciplines including sociology, psychology and linguistics40, generating the start of nonverbal research. Ideas in NVC research advanced with new methodological innovations. Efron41 employed several methods including direct observation of natural interaction, motion pictures and sketches of interactant gesturing42. Birdwhistell43 later coined the term Kinesics to suggest that there are no universal symbols of emotional state and that these are learned in accordance with different societies44. Birdwhistell’s work gave a theoretical framework for other scholars to examine body movement and posture systematically from various perspectives45, moving the field significantly forward46. Two other influences were Hall’s proxemics47, the study of how individuals use space in their environment 48, and Trager’s delineation of paralanguage, which enhanced the precision to which vocal cues were classified and analysed 49 and includes vocalisations and hesitations in talking50.
36
Robert M Krauss, Yihsiu Chen, and Purnima Chawla, “Nonverbal Behavior and Nonverbal Communication: What Do Conversational Hand Gestures Tell Us?,” Advances in experimental social psychology 28 (1996). 37 Paul Ekman and Wallace V Friesen, “Constants across Cultures in the Face and Emotion,” Journal of personality and social psychology 17, no. 2 (1971). 38 Charles Darwin, Paul Ekman, and Phillip Prodger, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Oxford University: Oxford University Press, 1998). 39 Jessica Lindblom, Embodied Social Cognition (Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2015). 40 Knapp, “An Historical Overview of Nonverbal Research.” 41 David Efron, Gesture and Environment (New York: King’s Crown Press, 1941). 42 Otto Klineberg, “Reviewed Works: Gesture and Environment by David Efron; La Civilisation Et La Folie Raciste by Georges Lakhovsky,” Jewish Social Studies 4, no. 2 (1942). 43 Birdwhistell, Introduction to Kinesics: An Annotation System for Analysis of Body Motion and Gesture. 44 Susan B Rosa, “Understanding the Role and Potential Impact of Nonverbal Communication in the Primary Inclusion Classroom,” in Eastern Educational Research Association (Sarasota, FL2002). 45 Knapp, “An Historical Overview of Nonverbal Research.” 46 Henry H Calero, The Power of Nonverbal Communication: How You Act Is More Important Than What You Say (Aberdeen, WA: Silver Lake Publishing, 2005). 47 T Hall Edward, The Silent Language, New York (Doubleday1959). 48 Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966). 49 Knapp, Hall, and Horgan, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. 50 Mary Ritchie Key, “Paralanguage and Kinesics (Nonverbal Communication),” Scarecrow Press Inc.
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Literature review The 1970s saw the most significant advancement in NVC research. Ekman provided further categories by theorising on the origins, usage, coding and categorization of nonverbal behaviour51. These included five areas of nonverbal study: emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators and adaptors which served as a guide for many other researchers52. These also form the basis for my own observational data. Kinesics also synthesised with growing literature including Argyle’s research on the co-ordination of the movement of eyes, facial expressions and other parts of the body53, Ekman’s research on the human face54, and Mehrabian’s research on the meaning of nonverbal cues of immediacy, status and responsiveness55. Outside academia, the first popular text on nonverbal aspects of communication did not appear until 197056. However, interest soon waned as psychologists either shifted to focus more on NVC as part of social cognition or researched other fields entirely57. However, applied research remained popular in settings such as classrooms, courtrooms, medical interviews, marketing etc., a tradition which this current study follows.
2.2 Nonverbal Communication and Music Research As discussed in the first chapter, research into NVC is growing. Most musical research appears to be incremental and on an individual scale, limiting generalisability. However, prominent examples have included Poggi’s research into multimodal communication, expression and performance. This looked at both the conductor and performer, with examples including communicating nonverbally in piano playing through gaze, head movements or facial expression58. Similarly, a conductor’s movements were described as
51
Knapp, “An Historical Overview of Nonverbal Research.” Knapp, Hall, and Horgan, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. 53 Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour (London: Penguin UK, 1994). 54 Knapp, “An Historical Overview of Nonverbal Research.” 55 Mehrabian, Nonverbal Communication. 56 Allan Pease, Body Language: How to Read Other Thoughts by Their Gestures, 4th ed. (London: Sheldon Press, 2000). 57 Hecht and Ambady, “Nonverbal Communication and Psychology: Past and Future.” 58 Isabella Poggi, “Body and Mind in the Pianist’s Performance” (paper presented at the Proceedings of the 9th international conference on music perception and cognition, 2006). 52
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communicative
59
Literature review to give players musical information in nonverbal ways. Jensen and
Marchetti’s exploratory meta-study60 aimed to set up a theoretical framework for a larger ethnographic participatory study into nonverbal interaction in music. They discuss how nonverbal interaction is intended as a tool for group creativity and that cues may become more specific and acquire precise meaning. Music performance and nonverbal communication is also currently being researched further through the area ‘Expressive nonverbal Communication in ensemble performance’ within the Universities of Leeds, Sheffield and York using digital transformation to integrate various approaches from the Arts and Sciences61. Music teaching has also had some notable research. Kurkul’s study of one-to-one music performance instruction argued it was not teachers’ use of various nonverbal behaviours but teachers’ nonverbal sensitivity that had strong positive relationships with the total lesson effectiveness as perceived by students62. Additionally, Zalar et al’s study of nonverbal communication in music lessons revealed that “teacher’s expectations regarding the use of non-verbal communication are inversely proportional to the successful use of musical language.”63 Grant and Grant Hennings’64 work on music teachers later categorised three types of instructional motions (conducting, acting, and wielding) which they believed teachers consciously perform as part of their personal repertoire of nonverbal motions. Finally, a fresh perspective is offered by Battersby and Bolton65 who show that gestures and symbols can increase efficiency and understanding when they are taught and learnt to create meaning and context within the classroom. All of these hold ideas which are considered
59
“Music and Leadership: The Choir Conductor’s Multimodal Communication,” Integrating gestures (2011). Karl Kristoffer Jensen and Emanuela Marchetti, “A Meta-Study of Musicians’ Non-Verbal Interaction.” 61 White Rose Consortium, “Expressive Nonverbal Communication in Ensemble Performance,” http://wrocah.ac.uk/network/expressive-nonverbal-communication-in-ensemble-performance/. 62 Wen W Kurkul, “Nonverbal Communication in One-to-One Music Performance Instruction,” Psychology of music 35, no. 2 (2007). 63 Konstanca Zalar, Urban Kordeš, and Barbara Sicherl Kafol, “Non-Verbal Communication in Music Lessons,” Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 186 (2015). 64 Grant and Hennings, The Teacher Moves: An Analysis of Non-Verbal Activity. 65 Battersby and Bolton, “Nonverbal Communication Implications for the Global Music Classroom.” 60
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Literature review within the analysis stage of this present study.
2.3 Defining Terms 2.3.1 Kinesics Birdwhistell introduced kinesics in his study of human body motion to mean particular movements within a social context66.The word originates from the root wood kinesis which means “movement”67 and is said to include all actions, physical or physiological, automatic reflexes, posture, facial expressions, gestures and other body movements68. They are integral to study because they encompass a wide range of nonverbal behaviours. Intimate kinesics include smiling, increased eye contact and gesture that show affection and closeness 69. The social meaning of kinesics can only be ascertained depending on this situation, being “governed by the range of contexts in which “that” cue can be observed to occur”70. Ekman & Friesen took Kinesics to a new level by taking facial and body behaviour and describing them in terms of five categories which they distinguished through how they are used, where they come from and what they mean. These include emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators and adaptors.
2.3.1.1 Emblems Efron describes emblems as nonverbal acts which have a direct translation. Users are almost always aware of their use of emblems71. Their specific meanings to members of a culture or subculture72 make emblems one of the few precise types of NVC. When using emblems as
66
Ray L Birdwhistell, Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication (Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania press, 2010). 67 Hans and Hans, “Kinesics, Haptics and Proxemics: Aspects of Non -Verbal Communication “. 68 Ritchie Key, “Paralanguage and Kinesics (Nonverbal Communication)”. 69 Chris L Kleinke, “Gaze and Eye Contact: A Research Review,” Psychological bulletin 100, no. 1 (1986). 70 Ray L Birdwhistell, “Some Body Motion Elements Accompanying Spoken American English,” in Communication: Concepts and Perspectives. (London: Macmillan, 1967). 71 Adam Kendon, Thomas A Sebeok, and Jean Umiker-Sebeok, Nonverbal Communication, Interaction, and Gesture: Selections from Semiotica (New York: Mouton Publishers, 1981). 72 Paul Ekman, “Emotional and Conversational Nonverbal Signals,” in Language, Knowledge, and Representation (London: Springer, 2004).
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Literature review an observational tool, it is therefore assumed people within that context will understand the meaning of the emblem being used (e.g. thumbs up for approval). Emblems perform one of six functions: greeting, giving interpersonal directions, insulting, replying positively or negatively, commenting on physical or emotional states, or indicating departure 73. These classifications provide clarity on what to look for, but also question which types of emblems could be less obvious to the observer.
2.3.1.2 Illustrators Illustrators are speech-related gestures that are directly tied to or accompany speech74. Illustrators clarify or emphasise the verbal message but gesturers may not be conscious of their use75. Illustrators are said to be the most common type of gesture mainly used with the arms and do not typically have meaning on their own76, but the speaker’s intended meaning is still relevant in distinguishing between several sub-categories of illustrator.
2.3.1.3 Affect Displays Affect displays are non-verbal movements of the face and body that show emotion. These are important because facial cues are the primary way feelings are revealed nonverbally77. Some affect displays such as happiness or fear are considered universal across cultures78, with more still being discovered79.
2.3.1.4 Regulators Regulators are used to control the pace and flow of a conversation. They “maintain and
73
Judee K Burgoon, Laura K Guerrero, and Kory Floyd, Nonverbal Communication (London: Routledge, 2016). Knapp, Hall, and Horgan, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. 75 Jackson, Introducing Language and Intercultural Communication. 76 Hans and Hans, “Kinesics, Haptics and Proxemics: Aspects of Non -Verbal Communication “. 77 Ekman and Friesen, “The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding.” 78 David Matsumoto, Seung Hee Yoo, and Johnny Fontaine, “Mapping Expressive Differences around the World the Relationship between Emotional Display Rules and Individualism Versus Collectivism,” Journal of cross-cultural psychology 39, no. 1 (2008). 79 Kendon, Sebeok, and Umiker-Sebeok, Nonverbal Communication, Interaction, and Gesture: Selections from Semiotica. 74
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Literature review regulate the back-and-forth nature of speaking and listening”80 Examples include increasing eye contact to encourage the listener to take a speaking turn81.
2.3.1.5 Adaptors Adaptors are self-touching behaviours such as stroking or scratching another part of the body or face82. It was believed that these movements were first learned as part of adaptive efforts to satisfy self- or bodily-needs, with self and object adaptors being two different types83. Although these may not be useful to the workshop environment directly, community musicians may find it interesting to see if there are any adaptors they use.
2.3.2 Proxemics Proxemics complement kinesics84, offering additional observation categories of how individuals use space in their environment. We all have varying definitions of what our personal space is, partly influenced by the situation and the relationship. Andersen highlights that “at least four types of proxemic behaviour are related to the experience or communication of intimacy: interpersonal distance, lean, body orientation, and the physical plane”85, which are relevant to community musicians due to the close links between space, communication and relationship building.
2.3.3 Oculesics While eye behaviours are often studied under the category of kinesics, they have their own branch of nonverbal studies called oculesics. The face and eyes appear to be the main point of focus during communication, taking in the majority of the communicative information
80
Ibid. Knapp, Hall, and Horgan, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. 82 Ekman, “Emotional and Conversational Nonverbal Signals.” 83 Kendon, Sebeok, and Umiker-Sebeok, Nonverbal Communication, Interaction, and Gesture: Selections from Semiotica. 84 Battersby and Bolton, “Nonverbal Communication Implications for the Global Music Classroom.” 85 Peter A Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mayfield, CA: Mayfield Mountain View, 1999). 81
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Literature review around us . Eye movement and eye contact depict the focus, direction and duration of gaze 86
in relation to other participants87. Eye contact relates closely to encouragement as it encourages “a special kind of communication”88. Some investigators have interpreted gaze directed at a conversational partner as an expression of intimacy or closeness89. As with proxemics, eye gaze will help indicate the relationships that have been created within the workshop environments.
2.3.4 Immediacy One of the most frequently-studied parameters of Nonverbal Communication is immediacy, defined as those social behaviours, some visual others vocal, that “enhance closeness to and nonverbal interaction with another”90. Mehrabian described the “principle of immediacy” that “people are drawn toward persons and things they like…avoid or move away from things they dislike”
91
. This is an important part of a Community Musician’s job as
immediacy is a main outcome of effective communication which will help people within workshops to then make music. Kinesics can be closely related to immediacy and numerous findings from immediacy studies show kinesic and proxemics cues are taken as behavioural indicators of immediacy92.
2.3.5 Haptics A lack of nonverbal communication competence related to touch could have negative interpersonal consequences93, meaning that professional training will frequently warn against touch. However, touch - used appropriately - highlights “a fundamental component
86
Ibid. Janak Singh Negi, “The Role of Teachers’ Non-Verbal Communication in Elt Classroom,” Journal of NELTA 14, no. 1 (2009). 88 Ritchie Key, “Paralanguage and Kinesics (Nonverbal Communication)”. 89 Krauss, Chen, and Chawla, “Nonverbal Behavior and Nonverbal Communication: What Do Conversational Hand Gestures Tell Us?.” 90 Giles and Le Poire, “The Ubiquity and Social Meaningfulness of Nonverbal Communication.” 91 Albert Mehrabian, Silent Messages (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth 1971). 92 Deborah A Coker and Judee K Burgoon, “The Nature of Conversational Involvement and Nonverbal Encoding Patterns,” Human Communication Research 13, no. 4 (1987). 93 Hans and Hans, “Kinesics, Haptics and Proxemics: Aspects of Non -Verbal Communication “. 87
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Literature review of intimate interaction…which further intensifies the experience of intimacy”94. The Community Musicians in this research project work with a variety of people, including those with special needs and the elderly, and for certain individuals it is anticipated that touch could enhance nonverbal practice.
2.4 Issues arising from nonverbal research 2.4.1 Tacit knowledge People’s knowledge of nonverbal skills is often described as tacit, meaning that we process nonverbal cues largely unconsciously95. Jensen and Marchetti relate non-verbal interaction as a form of tacit knowledge, referring to knowledge that is difficult to share through verbal language96 since practitioners themselves, in this case musicians, are not fully aware of it. Similarly, knowledge of nonverbal skills is acquired tacitly through practice and contact with other practitioners97, rather than something explicitly taught and learnt. Tacit communication relates particularly closely to gestures, which “can paint a portrait of complex interpersonal processes that would otherwise lie beyond awareness, not only to an experimenter but also to interactants”98. The extent to which NVC is tacit also relates closely to conflicting ideas about which nonverbal cues are either innate or learned behaviours. This links back to Darwin’s reasoning that facial expressions were innate but gestures were socially learned99. This distinction has generally followed through to recent research. However, there are exceptions. For example, the head shake back and forth to signal “no” begins at birth, even before the baby has the ability to know the corresponding meaning100, therefore we could argue that this gesture is
94
Karen J Prager, “Intimacy in Personal Relationships,” in Close Relationships: A Sourcebook (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000). 95 Knapp, Hall, and Horgan, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. 96 Otto De Jong, interview by Author, 2016, Yorkshire, UK. 97 Jensen and Marchetti, “A Meta-Study of Musicians’ Non-Verbal Interaction”. 98 M. Heather Gray and Nalini Ambady, “Methods for the Study of Nonverbal Communication,” in The Sage Handbook of Nonverbal Communication (London: SAGE, 2006). 99 Darwin, Ekman, and Prodger, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. 100 Hans and Hans, “Kinesics, Haptics and Proxemics: Aspects of Non -Verbal Communication “.
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Literature review innate. Additionally, even though facial expressions are generally automatic, we have learnt to apply different expressions to different situations and contexts. For example, Frith mentions that “empathic expressions of pain are not simply a reflexive response to the sight of pain in another, since they are exaggerated when the empathizer knows he or she is being observed”101.
2.4.2 The role of the Community Musician in group workshops There is no consensus on the job description of Community Musicians, but there are many key qualities which they hope to possess as part of their practice and will be important to consider through this research.
2.4.2.1 Facilitators and further roles Community Musicians essentially combine many job roles within their work, with facilitating being a core aspect. One view of Community Music is that it is considered to be “an active intervention between a music leader or facilitator and participants”102. Hogan describes a facilitator as a “self-reflective, process person who has a variety of human, process, technical skills and knowledge, together with a variety of experiences to assist groups of people to journey together to reach their goals”103. Therefore, Community Musicians, as facilitators, need to be effective communicators to ensure that the participants can reach their desired outcomes through music. Community musicians have various orientations, with facilitating being just one of these. Veblan describes this as “musicians, teachers, trainers, facilitators, therapists, learners, mover-and-shakers, and often, all of these – prompt us to recognize and reflect on the many ways we enable and empower people to develop their cultures, artistry, creativity, identity, health, and community”104. This
101
Chris Frith, "Role of Facial Expressions in Social Interactions," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 364, no. 1535 (2009). 102 Higgins, Community Music: In Theory and in Practice. 103 Christine Hogan, Understanding Facilitation: Theory & Principles (London: Kogan Page Publishers, 2005). 104 Kari K Veblen, “The Many Ways of Community Music,” International Journal of Community Music 1, no. 1 (2007).
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Literature review combination of areas highlights the many skills that individuals as musicians working with people potentially possess.
2.4.2.2 Making music accessible for all Community musicians seek to create an accessible environment within any workshop and music can provide an accessible, creative, and productive focus in people’s lives105. This accessibility can come in many forms depending on the client groups and aims, but creating and exploring musical meaning should always involve participating in ways that are accessible106 and sensitive to context107. By providing accessibility, Community Musicians create active participation in music-making, one of the key principles of the profession108.
2.4.2.3 The importance of social skills For a community musician, their participants’ “social and personal growth are as important as their musical growth”109. The term ‘community music’ has socio-political overtones: emerging in the 1960s, it is as much concerned with personal and social development among those disadvantaged by poverty, and with the failure of the educational system, as it is with music itself110. When looking at the ‘Community’ within Community Music we can understand why social awareness is important. Macqueen et al define a community as “a group of people with diverse characteristics who are linked by social ties, share common perspectives and engage in joint action in geographical locations and settings”111. This coming together by social means signifies that some sort of expected social outcome should
105
Steve Garrett, “The Role of Community Music in Helping Disadvantaged Young People in South Wales to Confront Social Exclusion,” ibid.3, no. 3 (2010). 106 Mark Rimmer, “‘Instrumental’playing? Cultural Policy and Young People’s Community Music Participation,” International journal of cultural policy 15, no. 1 (2009). 107 Lee Higgins, “One-to-One Encounters: Facilitators, Participants, and Friendship,” Theory Into Practice 51, no. 3 (2012). 108 GA McKay and Ben Higham, “Community Music: History and Current Practice, Its Constructions of ‘Community’, Digital Turns and Future Soundings,” International Journal of Community Music 5, no. 1 (2011). 109 Higgins, Community Music: In Theory and in Practice. 110 Anthony Everitt, Joining In: An Investigation into Participatory Music (Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation London, 1997). 111 Kathleen M MacQueen et al., “What Is Community? An Evidence-Based Definition for Participatory Public Health,” American journal of public health 91, no. 12 (2001).
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Literature review be taking place. Matarasso lists fifty social benefits of participation in the arts which include helping people to develop their creativity, feel a sense of belonging and involvement and increasing people’s confidence and self-worth112. Community Musicians should therefore be able to find outlets within workshops for social as well as musical experiences.
2.4.3 Client groups There are many types of communities that these musicians work with on a regular basis. They can be found facilitating local music activities in arts centres, schools, prisons, health settings, places of worship, music festivals, on the streets, and in a wide range of other community contexts113 Community musicians work with those who, for educational or economic reasons, have not had the opportunity to express themselves creatively or who, from disability or other forms of exclusion, find themselves disbarred from access to cultural engagement114. Therefore, they want to engage everybody with music regardless of who they are which is why practice can include those who would normally would not have these opportunities or would not be considered to have them. The three settings observed in this study will be familiar to most community musicians. These groups also provide varied perspectives that could inform Community Musicians working with these groups. However, it is important to remember that there are three from a range of communities, and broader relevance might be applicable. Each client group is therefore described briefly in this section, giving a flavour of the context whilst still respecting the anonymity of participants.
2.4.3.1 School groups Community musicians carry out many projects with schools, and there is extensive and collaborative work with outside agencies and funded music projects which happen with
112
François Matarasso, “Use or Ornament the Social Impact of Participation in the Arts,” in The social impact of participation in the arts (London: Comedia, 1997). 113 Higgins, “One-to-One Encounters: Facilitators, Participants, and Friendship.” 114 Everitt, Joining In: An Investigation into Participatory Music.
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Literature review pupils. Education tends to foster a more formal approach, for example with a new curriculum adopting the introduction of staff notation115. However, informal approaches through community music projects are still present. Green says that these informal approaches are of huge benefit, addressing that “young musicians who acquire their skills and knowledge more through informal learning practices than through formal music education may be more likely to continue playing music, alone or with others, for enjoyment later in life”116. Therefore, one of the reasons Community Musicians working with youth groups is so important is to create and also maintain pupils’ passion and interest in the subject.
2.4.3.2 People with special needs There are numerous disability arts companies and groups that work with people with a range of special needs in many different specialist music areas, including regular music workshops, sensory groups and theatre companies amongst others. Additionally, work with these groups is a significant area of activity where the accessibility of adapted or innovated technologies is also popular117. The benefits of music-making for those with varying disabilities is extensive, for example, Miell et al. talk about how music can provide a vital lifeline to human interaction when other means may make this difficult118.
2.4.3.3 Elderly people within care homes Elderly people within care homes have a range of reasons for participation in music activities which can include social, cognitive, emotional and mental health and physical benefits such as activities giving structure to their life, keeping their brains engaged and for an uplifting and euphoric experience119. Community Musicians have an important role in preventing
115
DfE, “Music Programmes of Study: Key Stages 1 and 2,” (London: HMSO/Department for Education, 2013). Lucy Green, How Popular Musicians Learn: A Way Ahead for Music Education, vol. Farnham (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2002). 117 McKay and Higham, “Community Music: History and Current Practice, Its Constructions of ‘Community’, Digital Turns and Future Soundings.” 118 Miell, MacDonald, and Hargreaves, Musical Communication. 119 Susan Hallam et al., “Perceived Benefits of Active Engagement with Making Music in Community Settings,” International Journal of Community Music 5, no. 2 (2012). 116
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Literature review isolation by providing such music sessions. It is also widely acknowledged that music is enjoyed by persons with dementia even in the later stages and listening to familiar music can elicit pleasurable responses such as smiling or liking judgements120. Further positive influences have also been demonstrated on behaviour, agitation, mood, emotion, and cognition in persons with dementia121.
2.4.4 Creating a positive and comfortable learning environment Moser, a community musician, lists ideas within a workshop about what creates a positive environment. This includes clear communication, enthusiastic, non-judgemental leadership, safety and a sense of achievement and ownership122.These are all aspects that create a positive valence within the community musician’s workshop space making it an attractive and safe place for clients. The welcome within Community Music sessions is described by Higgins as an invitation to potential music participants, becoming “an unconditional embrace; which becomes an intrinsic component to the workshop event”123. By creating this atmosphere, clients can feel assured, enjoy themselves, and hopefully achieve their music potential within the space.
2.5 Summary From this literature review, much of the background information and key research into NVC, including its use in music, reveals some interesting findings which have not been explored to their full potential. NVC can be classified in several ways, including Kinesics, which helps sensitise analysis of nonverbal cues. Other classifications, such as proxemics, oculesics and haptics, may also be useful. Analysing the literature on awareness of nonverbal cues has highlighted dichotomies within research, including tacit and explicit knowledge and innate and learned nonverbal behaviour. This chapter has also drawn links between NVC and 120
Lola L Cuddy and Jacalyn Duffin, “Music, Memory, and Alzheimer’s Disease: Is Music Recognition Spared in Dementia, and How Can It Be Assessed?,” Medical hypotheses 64, no. 2 (2005). 121 A Baird and S Samson, “Music and Dementia,” in Progress in Brain Research, Vol. 217, ed. E Altenmuller, S Finger, and F Boller (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2015). 122 Peter Moser and George McKay, Community Music: A Handbook (Dorset: Russell House, 2005). 123 Lee Higgins, “Community Music and the Welcome,” International Journal of Community Music 1, no. 3 (2009).
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Literature review community music, including how musical communication and NVC can function similarly in a workshop setting. While there is very little literature in this area, there is a link between the use of NVC and the role of Community Musicians, particularly related to making music accessible.
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Rationale
3 Rationale The first two chapters have addressed the key reasons for this study. In this brief section, these reasons are drawn together to present the specific rationale which informed the methodological choices described in subsequent chapters.
3.1 Importance Body language is an essential part of a Community Musician’s toolkit, but it is something that is rarely taught through Community Musician training despite having “long been part of the curriculum of disciplines such as business and psychotherapy”124. Making NVC part of the explicit professional knowledge of Community Musicians may improve NVC’s effectiveness in certain situations. Nonverbal cues are also integral to the whole communication process, providing a large amount of meaning within interactions125. Nonverbal cues are used throughout communications and it is expected they will help to promote those key qualities that Community Music workshops aim to possess, including encouraging participation and accessibility of own music-making in an inclusive and supportive environment.
3.2 Originality This is currently an underexplored area of research within the areas of NVC and music. Although many areas and topics related to a Community Musician’s personal skillset have been discussed with particular attention paid to The International Journal of Community Music, there has yet to be a research study which has looked specifically Community Musicians’ NVC.
3.3 Contributions to the current body of knowledge This research will contribute to various NVC and music studies by seeing how kinesics and
124 125
Kurkul, “Nonverbal Communication in One-to-One Music Performance Instruction.” Jackson, Introducing Language and Intercultural Communication.
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Rationale other nonverbal cues are used in workshops in naturalistic environments, how interviewing participants individually can create further reflection and exploration of nonverbal communication, and if there are any particular types of NVC that aid musical achievement and social interaction. It will aim to discover how some nonverbal cues can have benefit when used with specific client groups, which may be relevant to other contexts.
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Methodology
4 Methodology 4.1 Introduction This qualitative and naturalistic research project was designed to include three small-scale, individual and progressive case studies of well-regarded Community Musicians who run music workshops on a regular basis. Charmaz highlights that because qualitative research is highly contextual in a real-life setting, it can go beyond giving a snapshot and can show why and how things happen126. This research aimed to promote ecological validity by combining naturalistic observation with qualitative interviews, observing people to see what they do and interviewing them to discover why127. Case studies were an obvious choice because of the central defining characteristic being concentration on a small number of cases in their own right128. Relatively little is known about how nonverbal cues are used by facilitators when running workshops and qualitative research can be used when little is known about the phenomenon129 with case studies being especially useful for exploring this area130. Therefore, my main aim was to achieve authentic accounts rather than replicability, which can be used to inform Community Musicians in their future practice and future research in this area. As a result, I desired a transparent methodology to make research clear to extend and replicate in an increasing popular area of interest. In order to have the potential to generate change, it was important to ensure objectivity and meet any anticipated criticisms of the research findings with triangulation of qualitative methods used, necessary due to the originality of this type of research.
126
K Charmaz, “Grounded Theory,” in Rethinking Methods in Psychology (London: SAGE, 2005). Roger Gomm, Social Research Methodology: A Critical Introduction (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). 128 Colin Robson and Kieran McCartan, Real World Research (Chicester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 2016). 129 Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1990). 130 Ranjit Kumar, Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners (London: SAGE, 2011). 127
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Methodology My case studies were inductive and exploratory, following an adapted grounded theory approach131. Pidgeon supports this approach since “generating theory that is ‘grounded’ in semi-structured interviews, field-work observations, case study documentation or other forms of textual material is one important principle of much contemporary qualitative research”132. Numerous visits were made to the fields to collect data, gathering observational data until analysis found through open coding was saturated133. After observations had been coded, semi-structured interviews took place to extend analysis.
4.2 Site and participant selection There are many Community Musicians working around York and my three participants were selected from the huge number available. This can be described as purposive sampling as they were chosen as a representative sample within this field134 based on their client groups, employers, workshop aims and personal experience levels. Openness was also encouraged by existing relationships with participants through my voluntary work which continued throughout the research process. I felt this to be important for the naturalistic design because participants were familiar and comfortable with my presence. The relationship also encouraged reciprocity which meant collecting data was easier. Due to the small-scale nature of this study, it was hoped to be informative for Community Musicians who regularly work with a variety of clients group due to the scope of the different case studies. These included one facilitator working with a school group, another with a special needs group at a community centre, and another at care homes.
131
David E Gray, Doing Research in the Real World (London: Sage, 2013). Nick Pidgeon, “Grounded Theory: Theoretical Background,” in Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for Psychology and the Social Sciences (Leicester: The British Psychological Society, 1997). 133 Robson and McCartan, Real World Research. 134 Gray, Doing Research in the Real World. 132
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Methodology
4.3 Ethical controls Due to the nature of participants’ clients, I had to think carefully about the methods I was going to use before beginning research. Even though I would not be analysing clients’ nonverbal cues, it was necessary to consider the impact observations would have on everybody within the workshop space. For this reason, I decided to not use video recordings or photographs through my observations for safeguarding purposes. Alongside this, full anonymity and confidentiality was given, pseudonyms have been used for participants within this research, and identities and research records have been kept confidential, with appropriate measures being made to store research data in a secure manner135. Consent was negotiated before research took place, through participants reading a participant information sheet and completing a statement of informed consent. This consent was discussed and renegotiated on a regular basis through discussion and emails. Mason argues that informed consent needs to be revisited regularly and this is important particularly in interviews, which can promote a high degree of trust amongst research subjects136. Nonmaleficence is another ethical principle always taken in consideration, which asserts an intention of not harming and preventing harm occurring to participants both of a physical and psychological nature137, which related not just to the Community Musicians but the variety of client groups taking part including those with a range of special needs and dementia. This was ensured through observing unobtrusively within settings and participating as normal within workshops and through creating a comfortable interview atmosphere where participants could speak freely, with a right to withdraw at any stage.
135
British Sociological Association, “Statement of Ethical Practice “ (2002), http://www.britsoc.co.uk/media/27107/StatementofEthicalPractice.pdf?1470927483191. 136 Jennifer Mason, Qualitative Researching (London: Sage, 2002). 137 Michael Coughlan, Patricia Cronin, and Frances Ryan, “Step-by-Step Guide to Critiquing Research. Part 1: Quantitative Research,” British journal of nursing 16, no. 11 (2007).
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Methodology
4.4 Data sources 4.4.1 Observational methods All lessons were observed using field notes, “the backbone of collecting and analysing field data”138. After a trial period, I discovered that a small notepad was the least intrusive way of recording without interrupting the workshop flow. This also ensured I was a participant observer, taking an active part in sessions, which is important due to the inclusive and participatory nature of community music workshops. With participant observation, the researcher becomes a part of the group being researched and begins to understand the situation by experiencing it139. This was appropriate for the nature of research which is supported by Cohen and Manion who suggest participant studies are of value in that they are effective at observing non-verbal behaviour140. As soon as workshops were complete, notes were transferred over to observation sheets and put into Ekman and Friesen’s five categories of gesture for kinesics. All observed NVC could be placed into these five categories, which later became useful prompts.
4.5 Interview methods For triangulation purposes, meaning the use of multiple methods of data collection, it was important that the research was not solely based on my observations but also was a time for participants to discuss NVC. Semi-structured interviews were also carried out with each participant after the observations were complete to encourage further analysis of their own NVC. Classic ethnographers have stressed the importance of talking to people to grasp their point of view141, and Ritchie and Lewis highlight that “personal accounts are seen as having central importance in social research because of the power of language to illuminate
138
C.A Bailey, A Guide to Field Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1996). Gray, Doing Research in the Real World. 140 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion, and Keith Morrison, Research Methods in Education (London: Routledge, 2013). 141 Robert G Burgess, “Elements of Sampling in Field Research,” in Field Research: A Sourcebook and Field Manual (London: Allen and Unwin, 1982). 139
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meaning”
142
Methodology . Internal validity can be an issue with observations due to personal
interpretation143. To develop internal validity and reliability of my observations, interviews included an opportunity for member checking144 where participants looked through the observations made and were encouraged to discuss these including any amendments to be made within these. The interview was conducted in two parts which are discussed below, where brief instructions and open-ended questions were given. Melia supports the notion that the interviewer ensures control is maintained but contributes little else but asking questions145. In the interviews, I always ensured that my questions remained open-ended so that participants were encouraged to reflect on and identify their true feelings 146. Gray mentions that getting participants to expand on their answers is part of the semi-structured interview process147, which is further supported by rapport148, developing the right balance of objective, professional and detached with relaxed and friendly149.
4.5.1 Kelly’s Repertory Grid In the first part of my interview, participants talked about their own nonverbal cues using a repertory grid format. Kelly’s Repertory Grid is a technique that “aims to depict the ways in which people give meaning to their experience… to capture the dimensions and structure of personal meaning through a structured interview where the participant verbalises the constructs they use”150. To do this, participants named five examples (elements) that they
142
Jane Ritchie and Jane Lewis, Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers (London: Sage, 2003). 143 Gray, Doing Research in the Real World. 144 Paul M Camic, Jean E Rhodes, and Lucy Ed Yardley, Qualitative Research in Psychology: Expanding Perspectives in Methodology and Design (Washington: American Psychological Institute, 2003). 145 Kath Melia, “Conducting an Interview,” Nurse Researcher 7, no. 4 (2000). 146 Carol Warren and Tracy X Karner, The Interview. Discovering Qualitative Methods: Field Research, Interviews, and Analysis (Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury, 2005). 147 Gray, Doing Research in the Real World. 148 Barbara DiCicco‐Bloom and Benjamin F Crabtree, “The Qualitative Research Interview,” Medical education 40, no. 4 (2006). 149 Gray, Doing Research in the Real World. 150 M Price et al., “External Examiners’ Understanding and Use of Academic Standards,” (2013).
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Methodology used on a regular basis in sessions. Elements were presented in different combinations to prompt discussion of how two were similar and in the same way how the third one was different. These differences are called constructs, which were presented as scales which all five cues could be compared on. The aim of grids is, in Kelly’s terms, “to get beyond the words”151. I found the grids opened up ideas and helped participants to discuss their NVC with some interesting elements and constructs of their own making152, shown in the results section.
4.5.2 Member checking The second part of the interview consisted of participants looking through all the observations and analytical codes that had been made on their sessions, to check their validity and to provoke answers to some further questions that I had created from the data and the repertory grid discussion. Member checks also help make sure that developing analysis is true to their experiences153. Member checking is important in grounded theory and qualitative research to allow “testing the emerging interpretation against participants’ perspectives”154. Member checking helps improve the transferability of data as well as the accuracy, creditability and validity of what has been found to avoid misinterpretation within results and accurate codes to be revealed within data.
4.6 Methods of data analysis Since findings were emerging progressively, I used atlas.ti to code observations into categories of which nonverbal cues were showing. I then used these codes to help inform interview questions which would be a further opportunity for more ideas to arise.
151
Fay Fransella, Richard Bell, and Don Bannister, A Manual for Repertory Grid Technique (Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 2004). 152 Greg J Neimeyer and John F Leso, “Effects of Occupational Information on Personal Versus Provided Constructs: A Second Look,” Journal of counseling psychology 39, no. 3 (1992). 153 Eileen Thomas and Joan Kathy Magilvy, “Qualitative Rigor or Research Validity in Qualitative Research,” Journal for specialists in pediatric nursing 16, no. 2 (2011). 154 YS Lincoln and EG Guba, “Naturalistic Inquiry,” (Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1985).
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Methodology Interviews were also selectively coded and the procedure led to the creation of larger conceptual sets. These conceptual sets are codes from both observations and interviews and helped to reveal key examples and links from data, which were regularly compared with constructs from the repertory grids.
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Results
5 Results 5.1 Executive summary This chapter presents the results of coding from atlas.ti. Methods of analysis included reviewing code frequencies with key examples from individual’s data, providing percentages of co-occurrence within codes to identify strong links, identifying amounts of kinesics within the five classifications and types of NVC, and examining repertory grid findings. These help to answer the research questions which have been displayed as some of the main headings below. Results show a strong link to musical NVC aiding understanding within workshops, especially in the form of gestures seen in the illustrator category of kinesics but also strongly to inherent social skills that are part of a Community Musician’s skillset. Dominant purposes included encouragement, creating an access point for participants, and stimulating participation. Eye contact and facial expressions were also shown regularly, as were other nonverbal cues within the affect display category of kinesics.
5.2 Why do Community Musicians use certain NVC and how consciously are they using them? Observations and full interview transcripts gave a variety of data which helped to reveal why certain NVC had been used in workshops. Coded data on Atlas.ti revealed some key emerging themes, illustrating prominent NVC within workshops. 22 key codes emerged, shown in the table below.
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Results
Code Name Musical Encouragement Understanding Access point Participation Assessment Gestures Excitement Awareness Comfortable Environment Whole Body Social Immediacy Inclusive Eye Contact Ownership Interlinking Natural Use of NVC Facial Expressions Proxemics
Frequency 179 176 143 141 115 114 106 97 88 87 87 80 77 76 66 35 33 30 25 14
Frequency of codes used in analysis
Musical was the most frequently used, with 179 examples, with many nonverbal cues relating to the music activities taking place. This was closely followed by Encouragement, a key part of any Community Musician’s workshop. There were also 143 examples shown through observation and interview of NVC helping client Understanding. Some of the most popular codes have been broken down into when they were used or talked about by participants. Full tables, due to their size, can be seen in appendix three.
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Results
5.2.1 Diana Code Musical
Encouragement
Assessment
Gestures
Comfortable environment
Social
Observations Strong beat with fist on palm of hand Nodded head on beat 8 to accentuate this beat Keep going- arm movement round in circles Bouncing and nodding head- this sounds good
Final nod with a happy face- showing approval Looking around with eyes to scan and also regulate the music Thumbs up- that’s great Demonstrating how to play rhythm on both sides of hands with words Showing the shape of a circle- space for everyone to sit in Demonstrating how to sit with feet and crossing legs Nodding head when people play and give a bow and a clapshowing approval Nodded head to show agreement with what participant is saying
Interview “I think I wouldn’t know how to do it without Nonverbal communication, erm yeah, I’m aware that it’s absolutely woven throughout how I would go about creating music.” “Yeah, so facial expression I think is different I mean I’ve even written it on the card, is about encouragement. I mean I would never use facial expression or at least not intentionally to erm, indicate that someone had done something wrong. It will be used more kind of to encourage, to yeah, give a sense that someone is doing the right thing.” “Yeah and I think I try and convey some in my body, you know that something is good, that something’s right erm, you know trying to be quite open with the body as well.” “It’s a nod that says yeah that’s valid.”
“I also use hand gesture very deliberately as a way of teaching.” “Yeah I think both those gestures are used to cue and to get attention or hold attention as well.”
“In some of the settings that we work in you need to create a space that is safe that people feel validated and erm you know open and comfortable to share their own views.”
“Ok… I think of the facial expression and eye contact… there’s definitely some similarity there because it’s about that direct communication with someone and that’s definitely a more social thing.”
Example of codes used for Diana
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Results
5.2.2 Mary Code Observations Encouragement That was really good- wide eyed Claps- to give a round of applause Raised eyebrows and smiling- that’s it, great Access Point Moving client around in a wheelchair and occasionally moving in (with musical timing) Going round to each client and showing very different gestures Gestures Get ready to shake-arms up Rolling hands around… we are doing lots today.
Awareness
Use of the stop sign when playing instruments
Whole Body
Belly laughing- hand on belly and slightly leaning over when retelling a story Arm movement- down to the floor and arms togetherillustrating how to play boomwhackers Scanning the room from the keyboard with eyes and smilingchecking for understanding and encouraging clients High eye gaze directly at client when engaging in conversation Hand in the air on the word time
Eye Contact
Interlinking
Interview “when you’re encouraging enjoyment and erm and encouraging people to sing so you’re again with the expression”
“music is a great leveller everybody’s the same” “there needs to be an invitation isn’t there within what you’re doing and that invitation is partly vocal but it is also the way that you’re behaving within the group situation” “gestures are important alongside the eye contact because you can’t be looking at everybody all the time but the gestures can be all-inclusive.” “kind of bringing people together with the arm movements and so on” “whatever you’re doing you have to believe in it because it has to reach your eyes” “you’re doing a gesture it has to be a big gesture so that everybody can see it” “your whole body is involved with the communication”
“eye contact is important as well because err as you’re circling the room erm wth the gestures you’re also following it up with eyes too” “eye contact that they give you is quite mind-blowing sometimes and it feels like a real privilege” “Well again the body language thing really it’s all part of the same, it’s difficult to separate it out”
Example of codes used for Mary
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Results
5.2.3 Florence Code Musical
Encouragement
Access Point
Assessment
Social
Observations Interview Then he goes CRASH! “It’s a visual way of demonstrating a Imitating cymbals crashing beat” together Conducting when singingkeeping the beat That’s it! Brilliant! “That would be all the facial Reassuring nodding and expressions and inclusion actions, to huge grin encourage people to contribute and erm interact with each other” Yeah we could do thatfinger pointing to oh that was a praise noise, aha, that everybody kind of thing Asking residents what they “eye contact and hand gestures are would like to sing- eye probably the most useful for people contact & encouragement who can’t hear very well” This one’s for you- looking at a resident with eye contact You hit your instrument- “it’s also feedback for me of how demonstrates with hitting everybody’s responding so that hand gesture something doesn’t go on too long or can go on longer if everyone’s Do you like having the enjoying it. So I’m judging them as well words up there- pointing as engaging them” (on using eyes) That’s it! Brilliant! “it’s kind of important for people to feel Reassuring nodding and you’re huge grin engaged”
Eye gaze and leaning down posture when individual talking to residents Natural Use of Look of surprise when “when I’m running a session, I’m not NVC resident plays the piano really aware of any of it because I’m just doing it” I don’t know if this will work but we can try- hands out “what people respond to is genuineness and if you, you know, it’s got to be natural otherwise they’re just going to be like, yeah don’t patronise me.”
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Results Code Facial Expressions
Observations Interview Cheeky grin- is it abit “Making a facial expression when you cheeky? are making eye contact and therefore Look of surprise when you’re giving a signal during the eye someone likes rock music contact through facial expression and a smile without moving.”
Example of codes used for Florence
The co-occurring code table below helps to reveal links within the most prominent themes and percentages of when themes occur together, which will be further explored in the discussion section. The main codes were compared against each other with a query tool on atlas.ti which showed how many times both codes were assigned to the same section of data. There are some clear co-occurrences of themes. Interestingly, gestures showed strong links with other codes whereas facial expressions and eye contact did not. For example, gestures show a strong co-occurrence with excitement (66%), access point (60.3%), interlinking (47.65%), assessment (41%) and encouragement (39.8%). Gestures also had a stronger cooccurrence with musical than social functions. Encouragement also had a strong cooccurrence, including the strongest co-occurrence link (67.8%) of immediacy nonverbal cues being used alongside cues aiming to encourage. There is also a strong and predicted cooccurrence between participation and inclusive (51.35%), participation and encouragement (39.8%) and using the whole body to demonstrate nonverbal cues to promote understanding (33.3%). Gestures, Encouragement and Immediacy showed the strongest co-occurrences with other codes, and the five highest for each can be seen within the radar charts below. For example, the first radar chart shows the five most popular co-occurrences with gestures, where excitement and access point show the strongest links, followed closely by interlinking, assessment and encouragement. This suggests that gestures were most commonly used for providing interest and accessibility for clients, but were also helpful as an assessment tool, encourage participation, or to support and enhance other nonverbal cues.
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Results
Whole Body
Understanding
Social
Participation
Ownership
Natural Use
Musical
Interlinking
Inclusive
Immediacy
Gestures
Facial expressions
Eye Contact
Excitement
Encouragement
Comfortable environment
Awareness
X 11.1 0.9 5.58 19.39 14.8 2.2 0 60.3 27.1 16.2 24.3 21.55 4 19.6 27.6 6.9 11.25 7.44
Assessment
Access point % of co-occurrence Access point Assessment Awareness Comfortable environment Encouragement Excitement Eye Contact Facial expressions Gestures Immediacy Inclusive Interlinking Musical Natural Use Ownership Participation Social Understanding Whole Body
11.1 0.9 5.58 19.39 14.8 2.2 0 60.3 27.1 16.2 24.3 21.55 4 19.6 27.6 6.9 11.25 7.44 X 0 19.2 23.4 4.8 1.2 2.4 41 32.7 8.8 0 8.6 6.3 7.5 7.85 27.7 12.6 10.2 0 X 0 2.6 0 1.3 2.6 11.4 0 0 0 4.25 0 2 0 2.4 1.85 0 19.2 0 X 21.7 1.05 0 0 15.7 17.2 4.93 0 3.4 6.7 5.99 5 19.2 0.9 1.1 23.4 2.6 21.7 X 21 1.35 5.2 39.8 67.8 14.9 1.8 10.85 13.7 12.1 39.8 29.4 6.4 7.8 4.8 0 1.05 21 X 0 6.1 66.2 17.5 25.6 44.65 15.1 10.9 0 21.9 1.1 7.8 5.4 1.2 1.3 0 1.35 0 X 2.75 1.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.38 0 0 2.4 2.6 0 5.2 6.1 2.75 X 4.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.7 0 41 11.4 15.7 39.8 66.2 1.2 4.95 X 3.35 12.45 47.65 27 12.85 20.9 21.75 9.9 20.5 17.75 32.7 0 17.2 67.8 17.5 0 0 3.35 X 19.6 2.15 8.35 13.9 18.7 24.6 20.6 1 3.65 8.8 0 4.93 14.9 25.6 0 0 12.45 19.6 X 0 4.7 0 8.35 15.35 14.1 3 3.65 0 0 0 1.8 44.65 0 0 47.65 2.15 0 X 16.2 0 0 3.6 0 1.85 4.2 8.6 4.25 3.4 10.85 15.1 0 0 27 8.35 4.7 16.2 X 1.95 17.1 17.15 1.8 20.15 17.1 6.3 0 6.7 13.7 10.9 0 0 12.85 13.9 0 0 1.95 X 3.1 4.15 4.55 10 4.45 7.5 2 5.99 12.1 0 0 0 20.9 18.7 8.35 0 17.1 3.1 X 14.9 18.5 7.1 2 7.85 0 5 39.8 21.9 0 0 21.75 24.6 51.35 3.6 17.15 4.15 14.9 X 8.5 11 3 27.7 2.4 19.2 29.4 1.1 1.38 0 9.9 20.6 14.1 0 1.8 4.55 18.5 8.5 X 1.95 2.4 12.6 1.85 0.9 6.4 7.8 0 4.7 20.5 1 3 1.85 20.15 10 7.1 11 1.95 X 33.3 10.2 0 1.1 7.8 5.4 0 0 17.75 3.65 3.65 4.2 17.1 4.45 2 3 2.4 33.3 X
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Results
Radar chart for ‘gestures’ code
Radar chart for ‘encouragement’ code
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Results Radar chart for ‘immediacy’ code
5.2.4 Results from repertory grids Repertory grids for each of the three participants within their interview revealed five main types of NVC they could identify using in their workshops. Repertory grids also helped to answer how conscious Community Musicians are of their NVC, a main aspect of discussion. From their comparisons of the five elements, emerging themes were identified as well as similarities and differences. All three chose eye contact, facial expressions and gestures as elements, which Diana separated further into hand and body gesture. Both Mary and Florence talked about proxemics as a key aspect of NVC, referring to the level of approach and moving towards and away from people. All three also identified a further difference each in their Nonverbal Communication. Diana’s was posture, Mary’s was touch and Florence’s was nonverbal noises. Key examples for each Community Musician are shown below, with full tables in appendix four.
5.2.4.1 Diana NVC/s being discussed Interview Example Similar Body Gesture & Hand “body gesture and hand gesture are both physical, I Gesture think they’re both used to cue stuff as well or to Different Facial Expression prepare people… so facial expression I think is different I mean I’ve even written it on the card is about encouragement” Similar Facial Expression & Eye “facial expression and eye contact because, there’s a Contact connection and a communication with people, like (no difference articulated) feeling part of the same thing” “I think of the facial expression and eye contact… it’s about that direct communication with someone and that’s definitely a more social thing” Similar Facial Expression & Body “eye contact is before anything else, eye contact Gesture would be before facial expression or before body gesture” Different Eye Contact “I was just thinking of a link between facial expression and body gesture… facial expression is often accompanied by enthusiastic and wild nodding” Example of Diana discussing her repertory grid constructs
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Results
5.2.4.2 Mary NVC/s being discussed Similar Eye Contact & Gestures (no difference articulated)
Interview Example “the eye contact is important as well because err as you’re circling the room erm wth the gestures you’re also following it up with eyes too”
“I think the good thing about using gestures and eye contact from a distance with the big group is that as long as you’re careful everyone can feel included but that is again something that I am very aware of.” “gestures are important alongside the eye contact because you can’t be looking at everybody all the time but the gestures can be all-inclusive.” Similar The level of approach to “Oh they link very much, the level of approach to be be closer & touch closer and the touch… used carefully of everything I Different Facial expression do that is the thing I triple think before I ever do because you know you don’t want to be invading people’s personal space. You don’t want them to be feeling uncomfortable. “And then again the facial expressions… that’s a more natural thing rather than me kind of thinking I will put on this face now.” Similar Touch, Eye Contact & “well putting those three together just reminds you Facial Expression of intimacy again… particularly with people who have (no difference articulated) no verbal skills erm at all the quality of the eye contact that they give you is quite mind-blowing sometimes and it feels like a real privilege… it’s that kind of like it’s high engagement and err yeah it feels amazing” Example of Mary discussing her repertory grid constructs
5.2.4.3 Florence NVC/s being discussed Similar Hand Gestures & Movement towards and away from people Different Facial Expressions
Interview Example “your movement towards and away from people might be at the same time as the hand gestures erm and that’s more body than the subtlety of the facial expressions. So that would be the odd one out. That’s more visual and that’s probably happening more subconsciously for people” Similar Facial Expression & Eye “you’ll be making a facial expression when you are Contact making eye contact and therefore you’re giving a Different Hand Gestures signal during the eye contact through facial expression without moving.” “eye contact and facial expressions are happening simultaneously” “You could group the facial expressions and the eye contact again and the hand gestures are much bigger displays of communication.” Page 47 of 107
Results NVC/s being discussed Interview Example Similar Hand gestures & eye “I’ll put hand gestures and eye contact together cos contact they’re happening subconsciously all the time Different Movement towards whereas movement towards and away from people and away from people is probably more conscious” Example of Florence discussing her repertory grid constructs
The grids below show another process carried out in interviews, where the five types of Nonverbal Communication addressed by each participant were placed on scales which participants created from their discussion of comparisons.
Emergent Pole
1
2
Decoration
Facial Expression
Hand Gestures
Body Gesture Eye Contact
Hand Gestures
3
4
5
Contrasting Pole
Eye Contact
Whole point
Posture
Physical Before Instruction Musical
Body Gesture
Together
Posture
Conscious Illustrate
Eye Contact Hand Gestures
Body Gesture Posture
Facial Eye Expression Contact Body Facial Gesture Expression
Not Physical
Hand After Gestures Instruction Eye Contact Facial Posture Social Hand Expression Gestures Body Facial Hand Eye Separate Gesture Expression Gestures Contact Body Facial Hand Posture Subconscious Gesture Expression Gestures Facial Body Eye Posture Communicate Expression Gesture Contact Posture
Diana’s repertory grid
Emergent Pole
1
2
3
4
5
Contrasting Pole
Individual
Touch
Level of approach to be closer
Facial Expression
Eye Contact
Gestures
Whole group
Closer
Level of approach to be closer
Gestures
Far Away
Eye Contact Facial Expression
Touch Facial Expression Spontaneous
Given back
Eye Contact
Touch
Touch Gestures
Eye Contact
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Level of approach to be closer Gestures
Planned
Level of approach to be
Given by you
Results Emergent Pole
1
2
3
4
Facial Expression
5
Contrasting Pole
closer
Level of approach to be closer Eye Contact
Social
Gestures
Touch
Gestures
Level of approach to be closer
Facial Expression Eye Contact
Happens regularly
Facial Expression
Musical
Touch
Happens less often
5
Contrasting Pole
Mary’s repertory grid
Emergent Pole
Subconscious
1
Facial Expression
2
Hand Gestures
3
4
Movement towards or away from people
Nonverbal Noises
Conscious
Eye Contact Facial Expression
Individual
Movement towards or away from people
Eye Contact
Hand Gestures
Group
Nonverbal Noises
Musical
Smaller displays
Subtle
Hand Gestures
Eye Contact
Eye Contact
Movement towards or away from people
Nonverbal Noises
Nonverbal Noises
Facial Expression
Nonverbal Noises
Facial Expression
Facial Expression
Eye Contact
Hand Gestures
Hand Gestures
Movement towards or away from people Movement towards or away from people
Social
Bigger displays
Obvious
Facial Expression Auditory
Nonverbal Noises
Hand Gestures Eye Contact
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Visual
Results Emergent Pole
1
2
3
4
Contrasting Pole
5
Movement towards or away from people
Not used as much
Movement towards or away from people
Hand Gestures Frequently used
Facial Expression
Nonverbal Noises
Eye Contact
Florence’s repertory grid
There
are
similarities
regarding
awareness
through
Diana’s
and
Florence’s
Conscious/Subconscious scales and Mary’s Spontaneous/Planned scale. All three rank facial expressions and gestures as more subconscious or spontaneous. In contrast, eye contact shows some differences, with Diana’s conscious compared to Mary using it spontaneously and Florence placing in the middle of her scale. Another similarity was Mary and Florence’s placing of proxemics, level of approach and movement towards/away from people where they put as being a very conscious or planned aspect of Nonverbal Communication. All three participants also had a musical vs social scale, facial expression was considered clearly social by everyone, and Mary and Florence also considered eye contact as social with Diana believing that it was as musical as social within her workshops. Gestures were extremely varied, with Mary’s as slightly more social than musical, Florence’s hand gestures as clearly musical and Diana’s split with body gestures as clearly musical but hand gestures as social as they were musical.
5.3 How well do kinesics show Community Musicians’ use of NVC? Ekman and Friesen’s classification of kinesics helped to identify nonverbal cues happening within workshops, especially through illustrators and affect displays where many examples of NVC including eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions were seen. The charts below Page 50 of 107
Results show the amounts seen within each classification for each participant across 6 hours of observation each. Additionally, the 3 main types of NVC revealed through codes in the form of gestures, eye contact and facial expressions for individual participants have been displayed.
Frequency of kinesics categories for each participant
All three participants used illustrators the most within workshops, NVC that is used to complement what they are saying through describing, accenting or reinforcing what has been said. Diana used the most, 157, and she also used the fewest affect displays at 34, the second most observed classification. Affect displays carry an emotional meaning and Mary used the most at 50, with Florence closely following at 45. Diana also used significantly more emblems, signals that can be translated into words, at 34 compared to 17 and 16 by the other two. Florence used more regulators (NVC that accompanies speech to control or regulate what the speaker is saying) at 26, compared to both others using 15.
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Results
MAIN TYPES OF NVC USED Gestures
Eye Contact
Facial Expressions
28 21 23 23
30 19
212 118
DIANA
MARY
136
FLORENCE
Frequency of categories of NVC use for each participant
Gestures were the most commonly used form of NVC in workshops by all three Community Musicians, with Diana showing the most at 212 in the 6 hours of workshop time. All illustrators noted were also classified as gestures, explaining the high amount of both shown in charts. Florence used the most facial expressions out of the three but the least eye contact. Most facial expressions were also affect displays, which further explains why this was the second most popular classification in observations. There were strong examples within kinesics classifications which were used by all three, with especially useful cues demonstrated within illustrator and affect displays categories. Illustrators tended to represent similar ideas but were more personalised for each facilitator than in the other categories. Kinesic Category Emblems Illustrators
Affect Displays
Examples of beneficial Nonverbal cues in workshops Thumbs up, Clapping (round of applause), A-OK, Waving hello/goodbye, conducting stop signals Demonstrating how to hold and play instruments with hands, Clapping out rhythms, Timing- hand slicing on palm, tapping feet, counting on fingers, nodding head on pulse or specific beats for accentuation, etc. Type of mood or timbre, e.g. clenched fists for earthy, rocky sounds. Words have associated body movements for emphasis, e.g. hands turning around for over and over. Inclusive gestures- pointing to everyone, all together (circular movement), Conductingdynamics & volume (high or low movements), pointing or nodding to direct people to play or sing Scanning the room with their eyes to check understanding/enjoyment, Smiling (often combined with Page 52 of 107
Kinesic Category
Regulators
Adaptors
Results Examples of beneficial Nonverbal cues in workshops nodding and eye contact), Immediacy with individualsfixed gaze, leaning in at a mutual level, Grins and laughter Nodding head in conversation (agreement, to allow them to continue), imitation of activity and eye contact in conversation No examples of adaptors that supported workshops
Examples of kinesics categories used in observations
Classifications of kinesics helped to identify further areas such as proxemics (mentioned by Mary and Florence in repertory grids) and posture (within Diana’s) although very minimally, so classifications were not enough to always observe these effectively. Touch used with workshop clients and nonverbal noises were also considered as main types of NVC that they used, but classifications did not allow for these to be identified in workshops. Therefore, the classification helps to gain a general overview, encompassing much of what was used within the categories but needs to be used alongside other nonverbal guidance to gain the full picture.
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Discussion
6 Discussion This chapter draws together the results with the literature review, introducing additional literature suggested by the results. Discussion has been separated into sections reflecting on the key findings within the data, the similarities and differences for each participant, consideration of additional NVC mentioned by Community Musicians which were not observed, and other influential factors.
6.1 Key Findings 6.1.1 Why do Community Musicians use certain NVC and how consciously are they using them? 6.1.1.1 Music-making, gestures and access points In terms of purpose, results revealed that Community Musicians mostly use nonverbal cues to communicate something musically (179 examples). This was an expected outcome because the main focus of workshops is ‘music-making’. This links back to literature on the Community Musician’s role, where it was highlighted that one of the key principles of the profession is active music-making155. NVC may be integral for this music-making process. This was highlighted in Diana’s interview when she said “I think I wouldn’t know how to do it without Nonverbal communication, erm yeah, I’m aware that it’s absolutely woven throughout how I would go about creating music”. The idea that NVC is inherent in musicmaking is supported by a King’s ensemble study revealing that “musical collaboration…may also occur implicitly during play, through eye contact, bodily gestures…and in the subtle shaping of sound”156. In terms of type of NVC, gestures were the most popular (106 examples). This supports the idea that musicians gesture all the time157. All three facilitators displayed musical gestures
155
McKay and Higham, “Community Music: History and Current Practice, Its Constructions of ‘Community’, Digital Turns and Future Soundings.” 156 E King, “Collaboration and the Study of Ensemble Rehearsal” (paper presented at the Eighth International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition Evanston, IL, August 2004). 157 Battersby and Bolton, “Nonverbal Communication Implications for the Global Music Classroom.”
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Discussion within their nonverbal repertoire, many within the Illustrator category of Kinesics, which was also the most frequent classification shown by the Community Musicians. Illustrators are generally said to be the most common type of gesture158 but are also the most idiosyncratic and personalised, as has been observed in studies of teachers159. This personalisation was also found in this study, with key examples including helping to maintain timing, showing how to play instruments, illustrating a specific mood or timbre as well as performance directions. Gestures were a useful facilitation tool, helping to simplify and reduce verbal explanations. Many nonverbal cues helped to aid the understanding of participants, coded as the third most frequent function (143 examples). This supports the idea that gestures help to reduce anxiety within the classroom and mean instruction is facilitated and not overly explained160, so showing can be better than telling161. Emblems, a further classification, showed musical gestures functioning as word substitutions, for example giving clear stop signals when conducting. Florence also highlighted gestures as a simpler way of demonstrating, by describing the link between music and NVC as “a visual way of demonstrating a beat”. These ideas may also explain the strong co-occurrence between gestures and access point, revealed through the table and radar graph in the results chapter, showing a strong link between the gestures facilitators used and giving participants ways into the musical experiences through a demonstrating and visual approach. Participants gave some interesting examples of musical gestures that also came under the code of access point, including Diana’s tapping obvious words on her knee to help play the piece and Mary’s moving a client around in a wheelchair and moving with musical timing.
158
Hans and Hans, “Kinesics, Haptics and Proxemics: Aspects of Non -Verbal Communication “. Grant and Hennings, The Teacher Moves: An Analysis of Non-Verbal Activity. 160 Battersby and Bolton, “Nonverbal Communication Implications for the Global Music Classroom.” 161 De Jong. 159
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Discussion As previously mentioned when discussing their role, Community Musicians creating and exploring musical meaning should always involve clients in ways that are accessible162. This access point was also discussed in interviews, including Mary’s point that “music is a great leveller, everybody’s the same” and Florence’s “eye contact and hand gestures are probably the most useful for people who can’t hear very well”. From this, it is important to consider other types of NVC such as eye contact and facial expression, which also impacted on musicmaking163. Diana also recognised this: “if there was a rhythm I might do a gesture to go with it, and that would be very much with eye contact as well to communicate to somebody this is what you’re doing, this is your part” and “I suppose facial expression is used a little bit to cue, I know maybe the eyebrows go up to ceiling when it’s about to be time to come in and perform”. As well as gestures, construct creation during the repertory grid stage showed other NVC being considered musical. Florence included movement towards and away from people, Mary included touch, and Diana mentioned posture as aspects of their NVC that were typically musical. This shows how nonverbal cues can interlink and how a variety is needed musically. This supports Poggi’s research into how conductors communicate through gesture, facial expression, gaze and body movement164.
6.1.1.2 The social value of Nonverbal Cues It was anticipated that social nonverbal cues would also come out high for Community Musicians and 80 codes were identified as social, with other codes such as participation, comfortable environment, immediacy and inclusive also having a social dimension. Social skills are an important part of workshop participation165, tying in with the value that “social and personal growth are as important as [clients’] musical growth”166. As musical codes were
162
Rimmer, “‘Instrumental’playing? Cultural Policy and Young People’s Community Music Participation.” King, “Collaboration and the Study of Ensemble Rehearsal.” 164 Poggi, “The Lexicon of the Conductor’s Face.” 165 Matarasso, “Use or Ornament the Social Impact of Participation in the Arts.” 166 Higgins, Community Music: In Theory and in Practice. 163
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Discussion commonly seen through gestures, especially illustrators, social examples were often seen within other types of NVC such as eye contact, facial expressions and proxemics, all within the affect displays classification of kinesics. Some examples of these included smiling, which was often combined with nodding and eye contact to encourage. Other behaviours showed immediacy, such as a fixed gaze and leaning in posture. These results link to other findings from immediacy studies, where kinesics and proxemics cues are taken as behavioural indicators of immediacy167. These examples of social cues could explain the strongest link of co-occurrence that was discovered between the codes of Encouragement and Immediacy at 67.8%. A key observation example included Mary’s tapping her knees and then client’s knees - creating immediacy and engagement through rhythm. This idea included a range of nonverbal cues with nodding, eye contact, smiling, touch and close proximity and comes under the idea of intensive interaction168 which is regularly used with this client group and will be discussed further later on in this discussion. Additionally, Mary linked immediacy to touch alongside eye contact and facial expression within her interview, saying that “putting those three together just reminds you of intimacy”, supporting the work of Gueguen169. Participants all had musical vs social scales on their repertory grids and they concluded that facial expressions were very social. Mary and Florence also decided that eye contact was very social, with Mary further adding her level of approach as a social cue. This linked with the ideas found within affect displays categories from observations and Andersen’s suggestion that the face and eyes are the main point of focus during communication170. Facial expressions and eye contact were the most popular types of nonverbal cue after gestures, seen within the bar graph in results, and were considered an important part of NVC by all
167
Coker and Burgoon, “The Nature of Conversational Involvement and Nonverbal Encoding Patterns.” Dave Hewett et al., The Intensive Interaction Handbook (London: Sage, 2011). 169 Nicolas Guéguen, “Nonverbal Encouragement of Participation in a Course: The Effect of Touching,” Social Psychology of Education 7, no. 1 (2004). 170 Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions. 168
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Discussion three Community Musicians. Within interviews, Diana described them socially saying “there’s definitely some similarity there because it’s about that direct communication with someone and that’s definitely a more social thing”. Additionally, gestures were not just for musical purposes but also had social advantages, for example when made inclusive, which was coded 76 times. Inclusive gestures included pointing to everyone and saying “all together” with a circular movement. Inclusive gestures were also highlighted as aiding participation, coded 115 times. In interviews, Mary said that “gestures are important alongside the eye contact because you can’t be looking at everybody all the time but the gestures can be all-inclusive”. The participation in sessions also reflected this inclusivity such as when Florence pointed a Ukulele at a client accompanied by “would you like to have a go?”, crouched down in front of her with a look of excitement when she made a sound, accompanied by “That’s it! Brilliant” with reassuring nodding and a huge grin, showing the importance of the interlinking of nonverbal cues.
6.1.1.3 Interlinking and co-occurrences Further interlinking of nonverbal cues and themes was common, which was especially prominent in interviews. Mary suggested that “body language [is] all part of the same, it’s difficult to separate it out…as the whole body is involved in communication”. Participants were given the option on repertory grid scales to think about cues that were used on their own or that happen together. However, two of the three found this too challenging to separate cues, concluding that they all went together, even though there are times when they could be used separately. The repertory grid helped to find these links between nonverbal cues, for example with Florence saying “eye contact and facial expressions are happening simultaneously”. Encouragement closely following musical at 176 as the most coded theme. This reflects how important interlinking of nonverbal cues are within workshops, with Mary saying “Well the Page 58 of 107
Discussion eye contact and the facial expressions... when you’re encouraging enjoyment and… encouraging people to sing so you’re again with the expression… so eye contact without the facial expression would be useless”. Therefore, the impact of one without the other could be very different, and to create encouragement there needs to be a simultaneous use of cues. Florence described encouragement as “all the facial expressions and inclusion actions, to encourage people to contribute and interact with each other” with Diana also commenting on how this is created: “facial expression is about encouragement…and is often accompanied by enthusiastic and wild nodding”. The association between eye contact and encouragement is also mentioned in the literature as encouraging “a special kind of communication”171. Co-occurrence of themes also showed several strong links with Gestures, with the highest displayed within a radar chart. Excitement had the strongest co-occurrence at 66.2%. A key example is shown from Florence’s imitation of cymbals: “Then he goes - CRASH!”. This excitement was coded frequently (97), and could reflect the overall atmosphere created from such gestures. Excitement can bring everybody alive in Community Music sessions, where you can feel the energy in the room172. Assessment, coded 114 times, was also important and had a co-occurrence of 41% with gestures including ideas such as the clear thumbs up and nodding of the head. Diana mentioned this in her interview saying “It’s a nod that says ‘yeah, that’s valid’”. Another example, identified by all three, was scanning the room with their eyes. Florence said she used this because “it’s also feedback for me of how everybody’s responding so that something doesn’t go on too long or can go on longer if everyone’s enjoying it”. This idea of assessment can also relate to Community Musicians’ reflective nature, which is now discussed in terms of their awareness of their own nonverbal cues.
171 172
Ritchie Key, “Paralanguage and Kinesics (Nonverbal Communication)”. Hallam et al., “Perceived Benefits of Active Engagement with Making Music in Community Settings.”
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Discussion
6.1.1.4 Awareness To answer the second part of this research question, awareness was something that was considered throughout the whole process and discussed in interviews. Diana and Florence both classified cues on a scale from conscious to subconscious. They also both placed facial expressions and hand gestures as being more subconscious. Mary supported this notion by placing facial expression and gestures on the spontaneous side rather than something she would plan, suggesting she also considered them to be more subconscious. Considering that these types of nonverbal cues are the most frequent suggests that they support literature that describes people’s knowledge of nonverbal skills as tacit173. This means Community Musicians used many cues instinctively in situations and can also be linked back to nonverbal acts being largely innate174 or “beyond awareness, not only to an experimenter but also to interactants”175. This natural use of NVC was clearly illustrated by Florence saying “when I’m running a session, I’m not really aware of any of it because I’m just doing it”. When looking at facial expressions specifically, both Mary and Diana talked about their natural use saying “that’s a more natural thing rather than me kind of thinking I will put on this face now” and “Those I’m not really aware of, that’s my more natural…I’m not really thinking too much about that I’m just kind of doing it”. This links back to the key text of Darwin’s, where he suggested facial expressions are instinctive and have taken on specific functions through evolution176. Florence also discussed her subconscious use of hand gestures: “I’ll put hand gestures and eye contact together cos they’re happening subconsciously all the time whereas movement towards and away from people is probably more conscious”. This supports Jackson, who mentions how illustrators were subconscious,
173
Knapp, Hall, and Horgan, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. Jolly, “Understanding Body Language: Birdwhistell’s Theory of Kinesics.” 175 Gray and Ambady, “Methods for the Study of Nonverbal Communication.” 176 Darwin, Ekman, and Prodger, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. 174
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Discussion so gesturers may not be conscious of their use177. As mentioned briefly by Florence, there were examples where Community Musicians were more aware and conscious of their nonverbal cues. One example of this was proxemics, referring to level of approach and movement towards/away from people which were put as being a very conscious or planned aspect of NVC within Mary and Florence’s repertory scales. This was an interesting finding as research shows that “proxemic patterns, once learned, are maintained largely out of conscious awareness”178. Mary also highlighted how important it was that she was aware of using touch as well as proxemics, saying “Oh they link very much, the level of approach to be closer and the touch… used carefully of everything I do. That is the thing I triple think before I ever do because you know you don’t want to be invading people’s personal space. You don’t want them to be feeling uncomfortable”. This point suggests being aware of some nonverbal cues can be important and training alongside natural use could be helpful for facilitators.
6.2 How well do kinesics show Community Musicians’ use of NVC? Kinesics overall encompass a range of NVC that all three Community Musicians used. This was anticipated since kinesics includes all actions, including facial expressions, gestures and posture179. The classifications of kinesics was also useful in helping to identify some proxemics, an entirely different category. Touch was not addressed as an area of kinesics, but was mentioned regularly by Mary. Similarly, Diana’s discussion of posture was not reflected in observations of her practice. This could suggest a need for additional categories since using the existing kinesics categories could have restricted my observation of touch and posture. This suggests that kinesics are integral to NVC research but need to be used alongside other
177
Jackson, Introducing Language and Intercultural Communication. Edward T Hall, “A System for the Notation of Proxemic Behavior,” American anthropologist 65, no. 5 (1963). 179 Ritchie Key, “Paralanguage and Kinesics (Nonverbal Communication)”. 178
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Discussion categories of NVC with further tools other than the five types of classified Kinesics. Additionally, this research demonstrates how illustrators and affect displays were the most useful in finding nonverbal cues and that adaptors were not useful in workshops observations.
6.3 Variations between Community Musicians 6.3.1 Awareness of NVC As mentioned within the key findings, many of the main types of nonverbal cues used such as gestures or facial expressions were perceived as subconscious or spontaneous and there was also a similarity between proxemics being used at a more conscious level. However, eye contact appeared to create more variation between Community Musicians and their awareness of its use in their workshops. Diana thought that “eye contact is almost always certainly a conscious thing cos yeah if I make eye contact with someone accidentally it almost feels a bit strange, so yeah it’s always deliberate eye contact”. This enhanced selfawareness could play a central role in the effect of the observed eye contact180. In contrast, Mary thought that her use of eye contact was spontaneous, one of her reasons for this variance could be due to the amount of fixed gaze between her and the individual participants which she could not plan for, due to unexpected levels of reciprocity varying on the day. For example, she mentions “the quality of the eye contact that they give you is quite mind-blowing sometimes and it feels like a real privilege… it’s that kind of like it’s high engagement and err yeah it feels amazing”. Spontaneous affection and social interaction through ancillary behaviours such as eye contact have been proven to have positive effects in other studies181.
180
Aki Myllyneva and Jari K Hietanen, “There Is More to Eye Contact Than Meets the Eye,” Cognition 134, no. January (2015). 181 Marjorie H Charlop and Michele E Walsh, “Increasing Autistic Children’s Spontaneous Verbalizations of Affection: An Assessment of Time Delay and Peer Modeling Procedures,” Journal of applied behavior analysis 19, no. 3 (1986).
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Discussion The different contexts to which eye contact is used could affect its awareness in use. For example, a natural and spontaneous approach could be more useful than something you are consciously aware of or have planned. Florence put eye contact in the middle of her subconscious and conscious scale and describes using it whilst playing the piano: “it took a long time to get to the point where I could then look up and make eye contact so I suppose that started off a bit more consciously and now it happens without me trying too hard cos I’ve got it as a habit more that something I would have naturally done when I was focusing on notes and singing at the same time, but it’s kind of important for people to feel you’re engaged”. This shows that sometimes the balance of conscious and subconscious use can be helpful within a music workshop situation, especially as NVC appears to involve both conscious and subconscious encoding182. Even though many nonverbal cues happened more subconsciously for all three participants, it was clear that Florence was less aware. The other two were able to talk in more detail within the repertory grid format about how they use nonverbal cues. To Florence, NVC was largely tacit knowledge, which was more difficult to articulate and share183. She described how “when I’m running a session, I’m not really aware of any of it because I’m just doing it”. This is supported by the idea that NVC is “often subtle, uncontrollable, spontaneous, rapidly and unconsciously communicated”184. Florence’s interview took a different format as she spoke more about her conscious and subconscious behaviour, contemplating different ideas. For example, she discussed the idea of having to be conscious of something you want to change before it can become subconscious, just like her using eye contact with piano playing “maybe you say you never use your hands, well you could consciously use your hands more and then it would become
182
W Edward Craighead and Charles B Nemeroff, The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2004). 183 Jensen and Marchetti, “A Meta-Study of Musicians’ Non-Verbal Interaction”. 184
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Discussion subconscious, but to change something you’d have to be really conscious about it.” Similarly, she viewed nonverbal cues as being tacitly learned and that too much conscious thought could ruin the natural use of her cues. She explained this as finding “what works, and I guess things...evolve…but it’s basically evolving subconsciously as opposed to consciously. So I think if I tried really hard to smile more it would probably not work”. Diana talked about her awareness slightly differently, but again talked about finding what works: “I’m certain I’m not aware of all of it, I think there’s a huge amount that’s deliberate because I’ve spent quite some time thinking about it and cultivating it…I’ve become aware of as things that work and things that don’t work but I’m aware there’s still…a lot of hand gesture that happens, there’s still a lot of facial expression.” This self-awareness of NVC can help understand client needs185. Mary also appeared to show greater awareness within her workshop space, thinking about what types of nonverbal cues she was going to use: “when you’re planning a session… you’re hoping to use to have at least room for all of these things that I’ve written down… I would aim to have a little bit of that in each of the sessions. I would feel if something was missing, even just the touch bit, maybe if there wasn’t time to be that close with somebody in the session, that would be a shame.” Overall, awareness was varied and depended upon the individual’s sense of “what works”, suggesting these ideas need to be explored further within research and practice.
6.3.2 Kinesic categories Kinesic categories did not vary greatly for the three Community Musicians. This could be because of the nature of the workshops, which naturally meant facilitators were using more musical gestures as illustrators and providing social support in the form of affect displays, encompassing facial expressions and eye contact. However, some subtle differences included Mary and Florence both using more affect displays, the primary way feelings are
185
Calero, The Power of Nonverbal Communication: How You Act Is More Important Than What You Say.
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Discussion 186
revealed nonverbally
.
Diana also used the most illustrators in balance overall as well as more emblems, which could be related to the type of workshops she was running during observations. Florence used the most regulators, involved mostly in one-to-one conversation, which again was occurring more naturally with her workshop style and client group.
6.3.3 NVC Use in workshops Diana used substantially more gestures within her workshops than the other two. The higher frequency of musical gestures could be related to the type of workshop she was running, however she also addressed in the interview that her use of nonverbal cues may not always be useful: “But I think if anything, I still have tendency to gesture too much with my hands when it’s not really necessary.” This posed an interesting thought which was contradictory to Mary’s view of trying to use as much NVC as she could because “the more things you include the more inclusive it will be.” Therefore, as facilitators, we should try to incorporate a range of nonverbal cues but effective nonverbal communication may also be about striking a balance between how much of a certain type is used. Sharma highlights this by mentioning how we must not overuse gestures, especially those which could potentially distract and have too much attention drawn to their movements187, so we can over-complicate nonverbally just as easily as we can verbally. Diana reflected on her overuse of encouragement, an interesting point as encouragement was the second most frequent code identified within this study for all three participants. This discussion stemmed from her thoughts about gesturing, and that overuse could sometimes be not as effective as using this approach selectively which she discussed in relation to a different style of workshop leader “when you get their encouragement you really feel you’ve earnt it and I sometimes wonder if it’s always right that I give away encouragement so
186 187
Ekman and Friesen, “The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding.” Meenakshi Sharma, Speak with Impact: Speak with Impact (India: Random House 2016).
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Discussion quickly and so freely and whether I need to adapt and find another version of me that is a lot more aloof”. Mary supported this idea mentioning how “we’re all different and some of us need different types of encouragement”. These suggest conflicting ideas about the personality of the Community Musician and if their natural use of NVC is always appropriate. Finding other versions of ourselves within workshops could be useful, at certain times, which is when more explicit knowledge as opposed to tacit could be needed within the profession since many people are never taught how to manage their congruent nonverbal messages188.
6.4 Additional Categories from Community Musicians Additional categories were introduced by Community Musicians during interviews which did not emerge in the observation stage.
6.4.1 Proxemics Proxemics came up within Kinesics classifications in observations of all three participants, for example, “crouching down to pupil’s level when talking to them”, “Sits down next to client to play- creates immediacy and they soon become involved” and “Close proximity to resident when playing the piano to encourage her to keep going”. However, proxemics are considered as a different strand of NVC to kinesics. Other examples were revealed in interviews, which shows the crossover between the ways individuals use space in their environment and the study of human body motion189. Mary and Florence chose it as one of the five main types of NVC that they used and both suggested a strong link between the level of approach or movement towards and away from people and eye contact suggesting that “you try to be at least at their eye level if not lower erm from that point of view and err, I think that’s a really good approach then particularly when people are using a wheelchair everybody’s always taller than them so it’s nice within that setting that you’re at least on
188 189
Calero, The Power of Nonverbal Communication: How You Act Is More Important Than What You Say. Battersby and Bolton, “Nonverbal Communication Implications for the Global Music Classroom.”
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Discussion parity some of the time” and that they are “both clearly a visual type of communication”. Interestingly, Diana naturally discussed proxemics within her interview even though it did not come up as a main type used, showing the interlinking with other nonverbal cues. As a Community Musician, she highlighted the importance of “not looming over people as well, just putting yourself at a level with the other participants”. Proxemics for Community Musicians are clearly important, which could be because space, communication and relationship building appear to be closely related190. Use of proxemics were regularly seen within observations alongside Immediacy, approaching clients individually, which regularly combined with eye gaze and many similar examples of moving “down to client’s level with a fixed gaze when going round individually”. Andersen supports this, highlighting that “at least four types of proxemic behaviour are related to the experience or communication of intimacy: interpersonal distance, lean, body orientation, and the physical plane”191. In her repertory grid, Mary also said that her use of proxemics was very social alongside her eye contact and facial expressions.
6.4.2 Posture Posture is identified as an example of kinesics192, but unlike proxemics is harder to naturally include within Ekman and Friesen’s classification of Kinesics in observation. Only Diana addressed Posture as a main type of NVC and was able to discuss this as much as any other nonverbal cue. This suggests that posture may go unnoticed, suggesting that “postural complementarity, with regard to dominant and submissive nonverbal behaviours, occurs without conscious intention or control”193. Diana mentioned her posture when talking about the message her body is giving, for example “I try and convey… in my body, you know that something is good, that something’s right…you know trying to be quite open with the body
190
Hans and Hans, “Kinesics, Haptics and Proxemics: Aspects of Non -Verbal Communication “. Andersen, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions. 192 Ritchie Key, “Paralanguage and Kinesics (Nonverbal Communication)”. 193 Larissa Z Tiedens and Alison R Fragale, “Power Moves: Complementarity in Dominant and Submissive Nonverbal Behavior,” Journal of personality and social psychology 84, no. 3 (2003). 191
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Discussion as well”. Mehrabian, previously mentioned for his work exploring meaning of the nonverbal cues of immediacy194, also said a communicator displaying open body positions is better liked195, suggesting how the positioning of our body is a valuable nonverbal tool. Diana also described posture as a preparation tool: “I think it’s partly a cueing tool…if I’m sat up straight that will indicate we’re ready and about to start”. She also mentioned an association between posture and facial expression: “if I was doing this posture stuff to get people ready, I would probably have either neutral expression… or I might go for very encouraging… So there would be a link between what the face is doing and that sort of posture and stillness”. This suggests that an emotional state can be magnified by using posture alongside facial expression and is supported by studies that show some emotions can be decoded from a static posture196. Another interesting comment made was “posture is almost the opposite…cos body gesture is…kind of the absence of the stillness that I’d aim for in posture”. Therefore, when we are not thinking about how our body moves we may still want to consider our posture.
6.4.3 Haptics Mary mentioned haptics as one of her main types of NVC. However, haptics, the study of communication by touch197, were not mentioned by the other two community musicians and could only be identified within observations. This is another important aspect to consider since a lack of nonverbal communication competence related to touch could have negative interpersonal consequences198. Touch was always a planned aspect within Mary’s workshops where she mentions that “touch is something that you’ve gotta be careful about, you’ve gotta have permission, and not necessarily verbal but there has to be an
194
Mehrabian, Nonverbal Communication. “Inference of Attitudes from the Posture, Orientation, and Distance of a Communicator,” Journal of consulting and clinical psychology 32, no. 3 (1968). 196 Mark Coulson, “Attributing Emotion to Static Body Postures: Recognition Accuracy, Confusions, and Viewpoint Dependence,” Journal of nonverbal behavior 28, no. 2 (2004). 197 Hans and Hans, “Kinesics, Haptics and Proxemics: Aspects of Non -Verbal Communication “. 198 Ibid. 195
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Discussion understanding”. A community musician should therefore be explicit in their use of touch. Mary talked about touch being used specifically with her client group “but obviously the sensory session..there’s a lot more touching as well, err as an engagement tool to again just to feel fingers but also just tapping rhythms and that kind of thing” and “there’s a lot more touch because there’s a lot of people who can’t speak… touch becomes even more important sitting alongside them”. This suggests musical as well as social reasons for touch. Mary considered touch to be more musical within her repertory grid scale and also by saying “now the touch can be like a beat or something, In fact virtually the only reason for touching somebody is to encourage some kind of musicality”. This also relates to the earlier example of Mary tapping her knees and her client’s knees, linking encouragement and immediacy through touch being used in a musical way. Touch is one way of providing musical and social
benefits
together,
highlighting
“a
fundamental
component
of
intimate
interaction…which further intensifies the experience of intimacy”199.
6.5 Influential factors 6.5.1 Different client groups and workshop context As mentioned in the literature review, Community Musicians work with a range of different clients, each with varying needs within workshops. This variety has an impact on the types of NVC used. It was clear that more gestures were used with client groups of children and more affect displays were used with client groups of elderly people and those with special needs. Other influences are described below, taking each client group in turn.
6.5.1.1 School groups Community Musicians working with youths are aiming to create and maintain pupil’s passion and interest in the subject200. A reason for more gestures being used could be, as the
199 200
Prager, “Intimacy in Personal Relationships.” Green, How Popular Musicians Learn: A Way Ahead for Music Education, Farnham.
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Discussion radar chart suggests, to create excitement. This had the strongest co-occurrence with gesture to create passion and interest for making music. Diana suggested that her hand gestures and body gestures showed physicality of movement, which is one way of creating excitement for pupils. The workshop content may also reflect why musical illustrators where more commonly used by Diana, as pupils were playing in percussion ensembles leading up to a performance. Additionally, because of the playing through of pieces that initially needed direction and behaviour management, gestures and other types of nonverbal cues were used more than in other workshops as a management strategy. Diana mentioned how gestures were used “as an attention tool” and she suggested “I tend to prefer to have eye contact with someone well before it gets to the point where they need telling to stop doing this or stop doing that.” A gesture or firm stare has been suggested as an effective behaviour management tool in the classroom opposed to words201 and this works effectively with groups of children in a musical context too.
6.5.1.2 People with special needs Through placement and observation of my second participant within music workshops, it was clear how sessions were a key form of expression and social outlet for individuals with varying disabilities. This supports how music can provide a vital lifeline to human interaction when other means may make this difficult202. The disability arts company encouraged an approach called Intensive Interaction203, aiming to enhance the communication and social abilities of people with profound intellectual disabilities using principles from caregiver–infant interaction204. This was a focal point of Mary’s nonverbal behaviour in sessions. A central feature to Intensive Interaction is the communication partner
201
i learn, “Promoting and Managing Positive Pupil Behaviour “ (2009). Miell, MacDonald, and Hargreaves, Musical Communication. 203 Hewett et al., The Intensive Interaction Handbook. 204 Judith Samuel et al., “An Evaluation of Intensive Interaction in Community Living Settings for Adults with Profound Intellectual Disabilities,” Journal of Intellectual Disabilities 12, no. 2 (2008). 202
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Discussion adjusting interpersonal behaviours, such as gaze and facial expression, in order to become more engaging and meaningful to the person. Mary went round clients individually using this approach, with observation examples including nodding head and wide eyes and kneeling on the floor with arms folded while face to face with her client, high eye contact and held gaze while singing. These gestures were copied from the client so were happening spontaneously. This automatic and behavioural mimicry can increase liking and dependence between partners, providing an efficient and adaptive way to increase social bonds205. Weekly workshops encouraged playing percussion and movement through dancing, with the aim of making activities participatory for all. Affect displays were important as a reaction to clients choosing to become involved, especially as these moments could be irregular or happening for the very first time, as Community Musicians encouraged further participation after these special moments. An example of this was when Mary regularly used approaches such as raised eyebrows and smiling when saying “you’ve got it”. Strong eye contact was important to encourage each client to initially participate, and Mary would go round the circle fixing her gaze to individuals for this purpose.
6.5.1.3 Elderly people within care homes The focus of music workshops within care homes can be very different to other client groups. While Florence regularly focused on trying out new music experiences with the group, there was also an emphasis on singing and playing percussion instruments along to familiar songs, providing reminiscence and music clients could engage with on personal levels. This supports literature that listening to familiar music can elicit pleasurable responses such as smiling or liking judgements for those with dementia206. The workshops also supported the idea that activities offer structure to a client’s day, keeping their brains engaged and giving
205
Hewett et al., The Intensive Interaction Handbook. Cuddy and Duffin, “Music, Memory, and Alzheimer’s Disease: Is Music Recognition Spared in Dementia, and How Can It Be Assessed?.” 206
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an uplifting and euphoric experience
207
Discussion . Florence used the most facial expressions of the
three within her workshops, with common expressions including smiling, laughter, surprise, cheekiness and excitement which all added to the fun and energy she created. This cheeky and giggling atmosphere worked well with this client group and encouraged them to relax and enjoy themselves. Some clients having dementia also made individual work within the room important. Florence also used the most regulators of the three Community Musicians, partly due to the individual conversations that happened within sessions with nonverbal cues such as nodding the head to encourage further conversation. Individual encouragement also happened regularly, for example when residents spontaneously played instruments to the whole group or started singing a song where encouraging affect displays were integral to maintain their participation and enjoyment in their spontaneous music-making.
6.5.2 Personality Traits of Community Musicians The personality of each Community Musician influenced their practice and they each referred to their personality in their repertory grid, relating it to the way they interact with clients when using nonverbal cues. Florence specifically mentioned how personality has a huge influence in the Community Music profession: “it is quite a lot about personality and just what happens and you know it’s difficult to train people to do it if it doesn’t just happen”. Specific personality traits were highlighted in analytical codes such as an encouraging nature, being fun and exciting, and having strong relationship building skills for creating an immediacy-rich environment. She also went on to say “the sort of interacting with people is actually the kind of person you are, opposed to something you’re trained to do, and I think if you’re trained to do it it’s probably not coming across as genuine, you’re sort of consciously doing it.” Our natural personality is reflected through our nonverbal
207
Hallam et al., “Perceived Benefits of Active Engagement with Making Music in Community Settings.”
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208
communication
Discussion and this genuine and authentic way of using our nonverbal cues could be
spoiled or be less effective to clients if we try to change it too much or force behaviours too consciously. Yarbrough also supports the idea that musicians possess particular traits, saying that certain nonverbal behaviours such as frequent eye contact, use of forward body lean, closeness to students, and variation of facial expression, as well as speaking voice, are all characteristic of many effective music ensemble directors209. This idea was further supported when looking at code co-occurrence, where encouragement had a strong relationship with immediacy and excitement with gestures. This links back to the previous discussion as to whether tacit or explicit knowledge of our cues is helpful in practice and if innate nonverbal communication is more effective than if it has been socially learned.
208
Michael R Cunningham, “Personality and the Structure of the Nonverbal Communication of Emotion,” Journal of Personality 45, no. 4 (1977). 209 Cornelia Yarbrough, “Effect of Magnitude of Conductor Behavior on Students in Selected Mixed Choruses,” Journal of Research in Music Education 23, no. 2 (1975).
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Conclusions
7 Conclusions This study was an initial step in systematically exploring the nature of NVC used by Community Musicians within their workshops, addressing crucial gaps in the literature about the relationship between NVC and the effectiveness of music210. This study found that gestures are a key part of nonverbal use, especially in providing musical illustrators to create access points and provide understanding for participants. These illustrators also had social purposes, with inclusive movements also being key to participation in workshops. Many key nonverbal cues also had a social dimension with encouragement and immediacy showing the strongest link in analysis of code co-occurrence. Many of the key examples of nonverbal cues, including facial expression, eye contact and proxemics, were easily classified within the kinesics framework. This study has therefore found that kinesics is a useful tool, identifying some of the proxemics. However, this tool needs to be used as part of a broader theoretical framework as using kinesics alone restricted observation of areas such as posture and haptics, which were mentioned as important during interviews. The personal construct frameworks created as part of each participant’s repertory grid suggest ways that NVC can be analysed as part of reflective practice and how they can prompt discussion and awareness of NVC. Many nonverbal cues within workshops occurred simultaneously, and interlinking of cues was important for effective use and impact, for example to encourage participants. Gestures also had a strong co-occurrence with other codes, including their use for creating excitement and for assessment purposes. NVC also appeared to be happening largely subconsciously, supporting previous studies into gestures and facial expression and that many cues are examples of tacit knowledge. However, this awareness varied between Community Musicians and their beliefs about what works and how desirable it is to be self-aware in their
210
Kurkul, “Nonverbal Communication in One-to-One Music Performance Instruction.”
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Conclusions use of NVC. Participants’ differing views on what made NVC genuine also influenced whether they saw nonverbal cues as something which subconsciously evolved through practice, was part of their personality, or as something which must be planned for. Use of NVC within the illustrator category of kinesics was broadly similar for all three participants as they all drew heavily on gestures. NVC in the affect displays category of kinesics showed greater differences based on workshop context, for example greater use of facial expression and eye contact were seen slightly more often with the client groups including those with special needs and residents in a care home. This suggests that some clients will have a greater need for this social emphasis and individual attention than others within Community Music workshops. Both personal style and context interacted where NVC was used more consciously, such as in encouragement (the second most commonly observed function of nonverbal cues). For example, while Diana had a personal style which heavily used gestures for encouragement, she reflected that this could sometimes be too much for a particular client group. This reflection led her to use NVC more consciously in some contexts as she tried to present another “version” of herself. Conscious use of NVC in particular contexts was also highlighted in the category of haptics and proxemics. Discussion here showed the importance of explicit use of NVC in a particular professional context since appropriate body positioning and touch should be part of the training for anyone working with vulnerable groups. Finally, this study aimed to start a discussion about how NVC related to the practice of Community Musicians. Based on the discussion of findings, some suggestions can be made for the direction of future research. The high frequency of illustrators and affect displays suggests that a focussed study on just these categories could further explore the musical and social communicative roles of NVC. The extensive interlinking of proxemics similarly suggests that future observational studies could use proxemics to better understand how space is used as part of NVC, a perspective which would otherwise be missed by observers Page 75 of 107
Conclusions only using kinesics in their theoretical framework. Finally, reflective discussion during the repertory grid stage suggests that these grids could form a useful part of reflective practice for Community Musicians, which could be combined to better understand the conscious/subconscious distinction in how NVC is used in our profession.
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References
8 References Andersen, Peter A. Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions. Mayfield, CA: Mayfield Mountain View, 1999. Argyle, Michael. The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour. London: Penguin UK, 1994. Association, British Sociological. “Statement of Ethical Practice” (2002). http://www.britsoc.co.uk/media/27107/StatementofEthicalPractice.pdf?1470927483191. Bailey, C.A. A Guide to Field Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1996. Baird, A, and S Samson. “Music and Dementia.” In Progress in Brain Research, Vol. 217, edited by E Altenmuller, S Finger and F Boller. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2015. Battersby, Sharyn L, and Jami Bolton. “Nonverbal Communication Implications for the Global Music Classroom.” Music Educators Journal 99, no. 4 (2013): 57-62. Birdwhistell, Ray L. Introduction to Kinesics: An Annotation System for Analysis of Body Motion and Gesture. Washington DC: U.S. Department of State Foreign Service Institute, 1952. ———. Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania press, 2010. ———. “Some Body Motion Elements Accompanying Spoken American English.” In Communication: Concepts and Perspectives. London: Macmillan, 1967. Boyes Bräm, P, and T Bräm. “Expressive Gestures Used by Classical Orchestra Conductors.” In The Semantics and Pragmatics of Everyday Gestures edited by C.Mueller and R.Posner, 127-43. Berlin: Weidler, 2004. Burgess, Robert G. “Elements of Sampling in Field Research.” In Field Research: A Sourcebook and Field Manual 76-78. London: Allen and Unwin, 1982. Burgoon, Judee K, Laura K Guerrero, and Kory Floyd. Nonverbal Communication. London: Routledge, 2016. Calero, Henry H. The Power of Nonverbal Communication: How You Act Is More Important Than What You Say. Aberdeen, WA: Silver Lake Publishing, 2005.
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References Camic, Paul M, Jean E Rhodes, and Lucy Ed Yardley. Qualitative Research in Psychology: Expanding Perspectives in Methodology and Design. Washington: American Psychological Institute, 2003. Charlop, Marjorie H, and Michele E Walsh. “Increasing Autistic Children’s Spontaneous Verbalizations of Affection: An Assessment of Time Delay and Peer Modeling Procedures.” Journal of applied behavior analysis 19, no. 3 (1986): 307-14. Charmaz, K. “Grounded Theory.” In Rethinking Methods in Psychology. London: SAGE, 2005. Cohen, Louis, Lawrence Manion, and Keith Morrison. Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge, 2013. Coker, Deborah A, and Judee K Burgoon. “The Nature of Conversational Involvement and Nonverbal Encoding Patterns.” Human Communication Research 13, no. 4 (1987): 463-94. Consortium, White Rose. “Expressive Nonverbal Communication in Ensemble Performance.” http://wrocah.ac.uk/network/expressive-nonverbal-communication-inensemble-performance/. Coughlan, Michael, Patricia Cronin, and Frances Ryan. “Step-by-Step Guide to Critiquing Research. Part 1: Quantitative Research.” British journal of nursing 16, no. 11 (2007): 65863. Coulson, Mark. “Attributing Emotion to Static Body Postures: Recognition Accuracy, Confusions, and Viewpoint Dependence.” Journal of nonverbal behavior 28, no. 2 (2004): 117-39. Craighead, W Edward, and Charles B Nemeroff. The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Cuddy, Lola L, and Jacalyn Duffin. “Music, Memory, and Alzheimer’s Disease: Is Music Recognition Spared in Dementia, and How Can It Be Assessed?”. Medical hypotheses 64, no. 2 (2005): 229-35. Cunningham, Michael R. “Personality and the Structure of the Nonverbal Communication of Emotion.” Journal of Personality 45, no. 4 (1977): 564-84. Dahl, Sofia, and Anders Friberg. “Visual Perception of Expressiveness in Musicians’ Body Movements.” Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 24, no. 5 (2007): 433-54.
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References Darwin, Charles. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. New York: Oxford University Press, 1872. Darwin, Charles, Paul Ekman, and Phillip Prodger. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Oxford University: Oxford University Press, 1998. De Jong, Otto. Skype Interview with Claire Blanchard (April 5th 2016). de Jorio, Andrea. Gesture in Naples and Gesture in Classical Antiquity. Naples1832. DfE. “Music Programmes of Study: Key Stages 1 and 2.” London: HMSO/Department for Education, 2013. DiCicco‐Bloom, Barbara, and Benjamin F Crabtree. “The Qualitative Research Interview.” Medical education 40, no. 4 (2006): 314-21. Efron, David. Gesture and Environment. New York: King’s Crown Press, 1941. Ekman, Paul. “Emotional and Conversational Nonverbal Signals.” In Language, Knowledge, and Representation, 39-50. London: Springer, 2004. Ekman, Paul, and Wallace V Friesen. “Constants across Cultures in the Face and Emotion.” Journal of personality and social psychology 17, no. 2 (1971): 124-29. ———. “The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding.” Semiotica 1, no. 1 (1969): 49-98. Everitt, Anthony. Joining In: An Investigation into Participatory Music. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation London, 1997. Foucault, Michel, Ian Mc Leod, Patricia Bizzell, and Bruce Herzberg. The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present. Boston: Bedford Books, 1990. Fransella, Fay, Richard Bell, and Don Bannister. A Manual for Repertory Grid Technique. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Frith, Chris. “Role of Facial Expressions in Social Interactions.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 364, no. 1535 (2009): 3453-58. Garrett, Steve. “The Role of Community Music in Helping Disadvantaged Young People in South Wales to Confront Social Exclusion.” International Journal of Community Music 3, no. Page 79 of 107
References 3 (2010): 371-77. Giles, Howard, and Beth Le Poire. “The Ubiquity and Social Meaningfulness of Nonverbal Communication.” In The Sage Handbook of Nonverbal Communication, xv-xxvii. London: SAGE Publications, 2006. Gomm, Roger. Social Research Methodology: A Critical Introduction. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. Grant, Barbara M, and Dorothy Grant Hennings. The Teacher Moves: An Analysis of NonVerbal Activity. Columbia University: Teachers College Press, 1971. Gray, David E. Doing Research in the Real World. London: Sage, 2013. Gray, M. Heather, and Nalini Ambady. “Methods for the Study of Nonverbal Communication.” In The Sage Handbook of Nonverbal Communication. London: SAGE, 2006. Green, Lucy. How Popular Musicians Learn: A Way Ahead for Music Education. Vol. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2002. Guéguen, Nicolas. “Nonverbal Encouragement of Participation in a Course: The Effect of Touching.” Social Psychology of Education 7, no. 1 (2004): 89-98. Hall Edward, T. The Silent Language. New York. Doubleday1959. Hall, Edward T. “A System for the Notation of Proxemic Behavior.” American anthropologist 65, no. 5 (1963): 1003-26. Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966. Hallam, Susan, Andrea Creech, Maria Varvarigou, and Hilary McQueen. “Perceived Benefits of Active Engagement with Making Music in Community Settings.” International Journal of Community Music 5, no. 2 (2012): 155-74. Hans, Anjali, and Emmanuel Hans. “Kinesics, Haptics and Proxemics: Aspects of Non -Verbal Communication “. Journal of Humanities and Social Science 20, no. 2 (2015): 47-52. Hecht, Marvin A, and Nalini Ambady. “Nonverbal Communication and Psychology: Past and Future.” Atlantic Journal of Communication 7, no. 2 (1999): 156-70.
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References Hewett, Dave, Mark Barber, Graham Firth, and Tandy Harrison. The Intensive Interaction Handbook. London: Sage, 2011. Higgins, Lee. “Community Music and the Welcome.” International Journal of Community Music 1, no. 3 (2009): 391-400. ———. Community Music: In Theory and in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. ———. “One-to-One Encounters: Facilitators, Participants, and Friendship.” Theory Into Practice 51, no. 3 (2012): 159-66. Hogan, Christine. Understanding Facilitation: Theory & Principles. London: Kogan Page Publishers, 2005. Jackson, Jane. Introducing Language and Intercultural Communication. New York: Routledge, 2014. Jensen, Karl Kristoffer, and Emanuela Marchetti. “A Meta-Study of Musicians’ Non-Verbal Interaction.” Jolly, Stephen. “Understanding Body Language: Birdwhistell’s Theory of Kinesics.” Corporate Communications: An International Journal 5, no. 3 (2000): 133-39. Kendon, A. “Introduction: Andrea De Jorio and His Work on Gesture.” In Gesture in Naples and Gesture in Classical Antiquity, xix-cvii. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000. Kendon, Adam, Thomas A Sebeok, and Jean Umiker-Sebeok. Nonverbal Communication, Interaction, and Gesture: Selections from Semiotica. New York: Mouton Publishers, 1981. King, E. “Collaboration and the Study of Ensemble Rehearsal.” Paper presented at the Eighth International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition Evanston, IL, August 2004. Kleinke, Chris L. “Gaze and Eye Contact: A Research Review.” Psychological bulletin 100, no. 1 (1986): 78. Klineberg, Otto. “Reviewed Works: Gesture and Environment by David Efron; La Civilisation Et La Folie Raciste by Georges Lakhovsky.” Jewish Social Studies 4, no. 2 (1942): 167-69. Knapp, Mark L. “An Historical Overview of Nonverbal Research.” In The Sage Handbook of Nonverbal Communication, 3-19. London: SAGE Publications, 2006. Page 81 of 107
References Knapp, Mark L, and Judith A Hall. Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. 4th Edition ed. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1997. Knapp, Mark L, Judith A Hall, and Terrence G Horgan. Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. 8th Edition ed. USA: Cengage Learning, 2014. Krauss, Robert M, Yihsiu Chen, and Purnima Chawla. “Nonverbal Behavior and Nonverbal Communication: What Do Conversational Hand Gestures Tell Us?”. Advances in experimental social psychology 28 (1996): 389-450. Kumar, Ranjit. Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners. London: SAGE, 2011. Kurkul, Wen W. “Nonverbal Communication in One-to-One Music Performance Instruction.” Psychology of music 35, no. 2 (2007): 327-62. ilearn. “Promoting and Managing Positive Pupil Behaviour “, 2009. Levasseur, Susan. “Nonverbal Communication in the Applied Voice Studio.” Columbia University, 1994. Lincoln, YS, and EG Guba. “Naturalistic Inquiry.” Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1985. Lindblom, Jessica. Embodied Social Cognition. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2015. MacQueen, Kathleen M, Eleanor McLellan, David S Metzger, Susan Kegeles, Ronald P Strauss, Roseanne Scotti, Lynn Blanchard, and Robert T Trotter. “What Is Community? An Evidence-Based Definition for Participatory Public Health.” American journal of public health 91, no. 12 (2001): 1929-38. Manusov, Valerie, and Miles L Patterson. The Sage Handbook of Nonverbal Communication. London: Sage, 2006. Mason, Jennifer. Qualitative Researching. London: Sage, 2002. Matarasso, François. “Use or Ornament the Social Impact of Participation in the Arts.” In The social impact of participation in the arts. London: Comedia, 1997. Matsumoto, David, and Hyi-Sung Hwang. “The Messages of Emotion, Action, Space, and Silence.” In The Routledge Handbook of Language and Intercultural Communication, 13047. New York: Routledge, 2012. Page 82 of 107
References Matsumoto, David, Seung Hee Yoo, and Johnny Fontaine. “Mapping Expressive Differences around the World the Relationship between Emotional Display Rules and Individualism Versus Collectivism.” Journal of cross-cultural psychology 39, no. 1 (2008): 55-74. McKay, GA, and Ben Higham. “Community Music: History and Current Practice, Its Constructions of ‘Community’, Digital Turns and Future Soundings.” International Journal of Community Music 5, no. 1 (2011). Mehrabian, Albert. “Inference of Attitudes from the Posture, Orientation, and Distance of a Communicator.” Journal of consulting and clinical psychology 32, no. 3 (1968): 296. ———. Nonverbal Communication. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1972. ———. Silent Messages. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth 1971. Melia, Kath. “Conducting an Interview.” Nurse Researcher 7, no. 4 (2000): 75-89. Miell, Dorothy, Raymond MacDonald, and David J Hargreaves. Musical Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Moore, Nina-Jo, Mark Hickson, and Don W Stacks. Nonverbal Communication: Studies and Applications. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Moser, Peter, and George McKay. Community Music: A Handbook. Dorset: Russell House, 2005. Myllyneva, Aki, and Jari K Hietanen. “There Is More to Eye Contact Than Meets the Eye.” Cognition 134, no. January (2015): 100-09. Negi, Janak Singh. “The Role of Teachers’ Non-Verbal Communication in ELT Classroom.” Journal of NELTA 14, no. 1 (2009): 101-10. Neimeyer, Greg J, and John F Leso. “Effects of Occupational Information on Personal Versus Provided Constructs: A Second Look.” Journal of counseling psychology 39, no. 3 (1992): 331. Pease, Allan. Body Language: How to Read Other Thoughts by Their Gestures. 4th ed. London: Sheldon Press, 2000. Pidgeon, Nick. “Grounded Theory: Theoretical Background.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for Psychology and the Social Sciences. Leicester: The British Psychological Society, 1997. Page 83 of 107
References Poggi, Isabella. “Body and Mind in the Pianist’s Performance.” Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 9th international conference on music perception and cognition, 2006. ———. “The Lexicon of the Conductor’s Face.” In Language Vision and Music: Advances in Consciousness Research Selected Papers from the 8th International Workshop on the Cognitive Science of Natural Language Processing, Galway, Ireland 1999, 271-84. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2002. ———. “Music and Leadership: The Choir Conductor’s Multimodal Communication.” Integrating gestures (2011): 341-53. ———. “Music and Leadership: The Choir Conductor’s Multimodal Communication.” In Integrating Gestures the Interdisclipinary Nature of Gestures, 341-53. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011. Prager, Karen J. “Intimacy in Personal Relationships.” In Close Relationships: A Sourcebook, 229-42. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000. Price, M, S Bloxham, J Hudson, and B Outer. “External Examiners’ Understanding and Use of Academic Standards.” (2013). Rimmer, Mark. “‘Instrumental’playing? Cultural Policy and Young People’s Community Music Participation.” International journal of cultural policy 15, no. 1 (2009): 71-90. Ritchie, Jane, and Jane Lewis. Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers. London: Sage, 2003. Ritchie Key, Mary. “Paralanguage and Kinesics (Nonverbal Communication).” Scarecrow Press Inc. Robson, Colin, and Kieran McCartan. Real World Research. Chicester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 2016. Rosa, Susan B. “Understanding the Role and Potential Impact of Nonverbal Communication in the Primary Inclusion Classroom.” University of Massachuetts, 2002. ———. “Understanding the Role and Potential Impact of Nonverbal Communication in the Primary Inclusion Classroom.” In Eastern Educational Research Association. Sarasota, FL, 2002. Samuel, Judith, Melanie Nind, Amy Volans, and Issy Scriven. “An Evaluation of Intensive Interaction in Community Living Settings for Adults with Profound Intellectual Disabilities.” Page 84 of 107
References Journal of Intellectual Disabilities 12, no. 2 (2008): 111-26. Sharma, Meenakshi. Speak with Impact: Speak with Impact. India: Random House 2016. Shawn, T. Every Little Movement: A Book About Francois Delsarte. Pittsfield, MA: Eagle Print & Binding, 1954. Strauss, Anselm, and Juliet Corbin. Basics of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1990. Thomas, Eileen, and Joan Kathy Magilvy. “Qualitative Rigor or Research Validity in Qualitative Research.” Journal for specialists in pediatric nursing 16, no. 2 (2011): 151-55. Tiedens, Larissa Z, and Alison R Fragale. “Power Moves: Complementarity in Dominant and Submissive Nonverbal Behavior.” Journal of personality and social psychology 84, no. 3 (2003): 558. Veblen, Kari K. “The Many Ways of Community Music.” International Journal of Community Music 1, no. 1 (2007): 5-21. Wang, Wenyi. “Verbal Versus Nonverbal Communication in Music Performace Instruction.” Contributions to music education (2001): 41-60. Warren, Carol , and Tracy X Karner. The Interview. Discovering Qualitative Methods: Field Research, Interviews, and Analysis. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury, 2005. Yarbrough, Cornelia. “Effect of Magnitude of Conductor Behavior on Students in Selected Mixed Choruses.” Journal of Research in Music Education 23, no. 2 (1975): 134-46. Zalar, Konstanca, Urban Kordeš, and Barbara Sicherl Kafol. “Non-Verbal Communication in Music Lessons.” Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 186 (2015): 704-12.
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Appendices
9 Appendices 9.1 Appendix one: participant information sheet
The use of Nonverbal Communication by Community Musicians in music sessions and workshops Participant Information Sheet
About the study This qualitative research project will include three small-scale, individual and progressive case studies looking at how Nonverbal Communication is used by Community Musicians in their natural workshop settings. The research will be less concerned with replicating finds than with achieving authentic accounts. It aims to look at kinesics which include nonverbal behaviours such as body movement and gestures and facial expressions and if these are important in areas such as accessibility, immediacy and inclusion. Relatively little is known about how Community Musicians specifically use these cues in their settings so this smallscale study can be used to inform future research and practice.
Some questions you may have about the research project:
Why have you asked me to take part? I want to better understand how Nonverbal Communication is used by Community Musicians within their sessions and workshops and how this has an impact on what they are able to do and achieve. You will enable these explorations with the study.
What will I be asked to do? Page 86 of 107
Appendices Firstly, you will lead a series of workshops as normal whilst I am working alongside you as a participant observer. Secondly, when observations are completed and have been analysed, you will take part in a semi-structured interview lasting no longer than an hour. This will be to discuss the findings that have emerged from your workshops.
Where will this take place? Observations will happen within your normal setting of work. If it is not possible to arrange a private space within these sites for interviews, I will arrange to carry these out on campus or in another place convenient to you.
How often will I have to take part and for how long? The time frame for this study will vary according to your work schedule, with observations running the length of your workshops (up to two hours) with no more than six of these being observed. There will only be one interview, lasting up to an hour. All research should be finished by the end of June.
When will I have the opportunity to discuss my participation? You can ask questions before, during and after observations and interviews, including being given the option of reviewing any observation notes and transcripts.
Who will be responsible for all the information when the study is over? I will store the information digitally as an audio recording and fieldnotes using the Atlas.ti software, which securely encrypts data.
Who will have access to it? Your data will only be accessible by me and my research supervisors/examiners.
How long will data be kept and where? Data will be kept on a secure hard drive with online backup for the duration of the study. The data will also be kept for up to 5 years after the end of my MA to allow for follow-up studies or re-examination.
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Appendices What will happen to the information when this study is over? After this time has passed, the data will be deleted.
How will you use what you find out? The data is mainly for my Community Music Masters Research Project but it is hoped to inform other Community Music organisations on the impact of our Nonverbal Communication within our work.
Will anyone be able to connect me with what is recorded and reported? No, all personal information will be removed. Pseudonyms will also be used.
How long is the whole study likely to last? The study is due to be completed by September 2016, and I hope to have collected all my data by July 2016.
How can I find out about the results of the study? You will be sent a copy of any findings or published material by email.
What if I do not wish to take part? Your participation in the study is entirely voluntary.
What if I change my mind during the study? You are free to withdraw from the study at any time without having to provide a reason for doing so. In addition you will have certain editing rights during the recorded interview, for example if you wish to retract something you have just said, it will be wiped from the recording.
Will I need to sign any documentation? You will be asked to sign a consent form before participating in the study. Page 88 of 107
Appendices Whom should I contact if I have any further questions? Please contact the researcher directly (details below).
Complaints All complaints from the participants are in the first instance to be directed to Bruce Cole, Department of Music, University of York, Heslington, YO10 5DD
Researcher Contact Information:
Claire Blanchard Mobile: 07835 223935 Email:
[email protected]
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Appendices
9.2 Appendix two: consent form
Are Community Musicians aware of the Nonverbal Communication that they use and how important are these cues in music workshops?
Claire Blanchard Community Music Masters Student, University of York
Statement of Informed Consent
Please read and complete this form carefully. If you are willing to participate in this study, ring the appropriate responses and sign and date the declaration at the end. If you do not understand anything and would like more information, please feel free to ask.
I have had the research satisfactorily explained to me in verbal and / or written form by the researcher
YES/NO
I understand what the research will involve: (participant observations of several workshops run by myself including a small section of my own field notes alongside other Nonverbal observations and a no more than 1 hour semi- structured interview when observations have been completed and analysed)
YES/NO
I understand that I may withdraw from this study at any time without having to give an explanation I understand that strict confidentiality will be preserved throughout the research project. My identity will be protected at all times, my contributions will be anonymous and I will not be named in any written work arising from this study I understand that any interviews will be recorded and transcribed and that once an interview has been transcribed, the researcher will check the transcription with me for accuracy, to ensure that I agree with it and to give me an opportunity to make changes if necessary
I understand that any audio material of me will be used solely for research purposes and will be destroyed on completion of your research Page 90 of 107
YES/NO
YES/NO
YES/NO
YES/NO
Appendices I understand that you will be discussing the progress of your research with Bruce Cole at the University of York
YES/NO
I freely give my consent to participate in this research study and have been given a copy of this form for my own information.
Signature: …………………………………………………………………….………….
Date: ………………………………………………………………………………………
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Appendices
9.3 Appendix three: detailed examples of observation and interview coding 9.3.1 Diana Code
Observations
Interview
Musical
Strong beat with fist “I think I wouldn’t know how to do it without on palm of hand Nonverbal communication, erm yeah, I’m aware that it’s absolutely woven throughout Nodded head on how I would go about creating music.” beat 8 to accentuate this beat
Encouragement
Keep going- arm “Yeah, so facial expression I think is different movement round in I mean I’ve even written it on the card, is circles about encouragement. I mean I would never use facial expression or at least not intentionally to erm, indicate that someone had done something wrong. It will be used Bouncing and more kind of to encourage, to yeah, give a nodding head- this sense that someone is doing the right thing.” sounds good
Understanding
Making up a 4 note “I was thinking of the more illustrating a point tuneshowing type of hand gestures that I do all the time.” number 4
Small repeated pattern- pinch
Access Point
Counting and “I prefer to have eye contact with someone… pointing to the 6 you’ve actually got that friendly parts communication first.”
Tapping obvious words on knee to help play the piece Participation
Mixing movement-
hand “Posture I wrote down as being different to all body gesture and again I think it’s partly a Page 92 of 107
Appendices Code
Observations
Interview
together
cueing thing, you know, if I’m sat up straight that will indicate we’re ready and about to Let’s dive right into start.” our showy offy movement- hands moving all over at speed Assessment
Final nod with a “Yeah and I think I try and convey some in my happy face- showing body, you know that something is good, that approval something’s right erm, you know trying to be quite open with the body as well.” Looking around with eyes to scan and also regulate the music “It’s a nod that says yeah that’s valid.” Thumbs up- that’s great
Gestures
Demonstrating how “I also use hand gesture very deliberately as a to play rhythm on way of teaching.” both sides of hands with words Showing the shape “Yeah I think both those gestures are used to of a circle- space for cue and to get attention or hold attention as well.” everyone to sit in
Excitement
I think we are braced and ready to go- rocking with a N/A horse racing movement
Awareness
Hands on ears- “A lot of my nonverbal stuff a lot is quite heard this before deliberate but I know there are still bits that are subconscious and probably loads I’ll see on that list that are conscious.”
Comfortable environment
Demonstrating how “In some of the settings that we work in you to sit with feet and need to create a space that is safe that people crossing legs feel validated and erm you know open and comfortable to share their own views.” Nodding head when Page 93 of 107
Appendices Code
Observations
Interview
people play and give a bow and a clapshowing approval Whole Body
Hands opening to stretch out- finale N/A Everything is brought togetherlike drawing a curtain movement
Social
Nodded head to “Ok… I think of the facial expression and eye show agreement contact… there’s definitely some similarity with what participant is saying there because it’s about that direct communication with someone and that’s definitely a more social thing.”
Immediacy
Fixed gaze and smile in one-to-one N/A interaction
Close proximity when talking to clients individuallyleaning in posture Inclusive
Stick together as a “Ensuring that you direct to everybody.” groupcircling everyone
Eye Contact
Eyes scanning and “Whereas eye contact is very much checking- can we all communicative see? and very much making a direct connection with somebody.”
Ownership
If we think that N/A sounds right- hands
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Appendices Code
Observations
Interview
wavering Interlinking
Actions- on verbs- “It’s highly possible that they all blur sing, dance & playacross the two” (when talking about if NVC is claps musical or social)
Facial Expressions
Breaking into a grin- “I suppose facial expression is used a little bit showing they are to cue, I know maybe the eyebrows go up to satisfied ceiling when it’s about to be time to come in and perform.” Excited facial expression There’s probably quite a lot of subconscious accompanied by facial expression. oooh
Proxemics
Crouching down to “not looming over people as well just putting pupils level when yourself at a level with the other participants” talking to them
9.3.2 Mary Code
Observations
Interview
Musical
Crescendoboth “touch can be like a beat or something” hands high in the air “there’s a natural musical Imitating shakers element to it, so the idea being, in their body with a shaky hand they’ll feel a whhooooosh!”
Encouragement
That was really “when you’re encouraging good- wide eyed enjoyment and erm and encouraging people Claps- to give a to sing so you’re again with the expression” round of applause Raised eyebrows and smiling- that’s Page 95 of 107
Code
Observations
Appendices Interview
it, great Understanding
Showing how to play N/A handbells- pressing button on topthumb on clenched fist
Access Point
Moving client “music is a great leveller everybody’s the around in a same” wheelchair and occasionally moving in (with musical “there needs to be an invitation isn’t there timing) within what you’re doing and that invitation is Going round to each partly vocal but it is also the way that you’re client and showing behaving within the group situation” very gestures
Participation
different
Look at each client N/A to get them to play spontaneously accompanied by nodding and an encouraging face
Assessment
What do you think? “with a big group you have to rely more on –questioning handspalms facing catching people’s eyes and checking that people are centring on the activity from a upwards distance” Smiling at other workshop facilitatorassessment- happy with the activity
Gestures
Get ready to shake- “gestures are important alongside the eye arms up contact because you can’t be looking at everybody all the time but the gestures can be Rolling hands all-inclusive.” around… we are Page 96 of 107
Code
Observations
Appendices Interview
doing lots today.
“kind of bringing people together with the arm movements and so on”
Excitement
Moving whole body with excitementpraising and encouraging what has been done
“it’s your just err being more dramatic about it I mean it’s a little bit like acting on a stage you need to be that little bit bigger erm over encouragement, reinforcement confidence building and so on”
and
for
Awareness
Use of the stop sign “whatever you’re doing you have to believe in when playing it because it has to reach your eyes” instruments “you’re doing a gesture it has to be a big gesture so that everybody can see it”
Comfortable environment
Reassuringtry N/A again and leaning in with eye contact
Whole Body
Belly laughing- hand “your whole body is involved with the on belly and slightly communication” leaning over when retelling a story Arm movementdown to the floor and arms togetherillustrating how to play boomwhackers
Social
Back again- yay- “There’s a lot more touch because there’s a lot excited and hands in of people who can’t speak but can sing erm the air but touch becomes even more important sitting alongside them” Close proximity when talking to clients individuallyleaning in posture
Immediacy
Tapping her knees “Mirroring when they smile at you is great cos and then clients then you know it’s just like it’s contagious then Page 97 of 107
Code
Observations
Appendices Interview
kneescreating and so your smile gets bigger so that’s nice” immediacy and “holding hands that again is an important engagement human thing and it’s nice to bring that into the through rhythm session” Inclusive
Nodding in “The more things you include the more agreement to good inclusive it will be” suggestions in conversation
Smiling and look around at all participants- getting everybody involved Eye Contact
Scanning the room from the keyboard with eyes and smiling- checking for understanding and encouraging clients
“eye contact is important as well because err as you’re circling the room erm wth the gestures you’re also following it up with eyes too”
“eye contact that they give you is quite mindblowing sometimes and it feels like a real High eye gaze privilege” directly at client when engaging in conversation Ownership
Improvisational N/A singing- leaning in with clients- lots of smiling, fixed gaze and nodding
Interlinking
Hand in the air on “Well again the body language thing really it’s the word time all part of the same, it’s difficult to separate it out”
Natural Use of Huge grin- pleased N/A NVC with the outcome Jokey face at silly Page 98 of 107
Code
Observations moments workshop
Facial Expressions
in
Serious face accompany marching
Appendices Interview the
to “that’s a more natural thing rather than me kind of thinking I will put on this face now”
“Those I’m not really aware of that’s my more Look at each client natural, facial expressions, is more my natural, to get them to play I’m not really thinking too much about that I’m spontaneously just kind of doing it.” accompanied by nodding and an encouraging face Proxemics
Sits down next to “try and approach people from the same level client to play- that they are rather than standing over them” creates immediacy and they soon become involved
9.3.3 Florence Code
Observations
Interview
Musical
Then he goes CRASH! “It’s a visual way of demonstrating a beat” Imitating cymbals crashing together Conducting when singing- keeping the beat
Encouragement
That’s it! Brilliant! “That would be all the facial expressions and Reassuring nodding inclusion actions, to encourage people to and huge grin contribute and erm interact with each other” Yeah we could do “oh that was a praise noise, aha, that kind of that- finger pointing thing” to everybody
Understanding
Arm forward and N/A clenched fist- imitate Page 99 of 107
Code
Observations
Appendices Interview
playing handbell So you boom at the same time- 2 fingers pointing towards residents Access Point
Asking residents “eye contact and hand gestures are probably what they would like the most useful for people who can’t hear to sing- eye contact very well” & encouragement
This one’s for youlooking at a resident with eye contact Participation
Would you like to N/A have a go? Pointing the ukulele in the lady’s direction Directs eye contact to each participant in a handbell activity to encourage participation
Assessment
You hit your “it’s also feedback for me of how everybody’s instrumentresponding so that something doesn’t go on demonstrates with too long or can go on longer if everyone’s hitting hand gesture enjoying it. So I’m judging them as well as Do you like having engaging them” (on using eyes) the words up therepointing
Gestures
Bang a drum- hand “hand gestures are much bigger displays of out to imitate hitting communication” a drum Miming playing the piano- if I was Page 100 of 107
Code
Observations
Appendices Interview
playing. Excitement
We’re on the beach- N/A arms spread out Swayingencouraging enthusiasm
Awareness
Just stop- hand “I think it’s all useful in its own right” slicing on flat palm “I guess the whole group is picking up on facial expressions and gestures… I think is just a case of being aware that whatever you’re doing at the front is being observed by everybody”
Comfortable environment
You can do abit N/A more- mimes playing the piano
Whole Body
Popping his head upimitating head suddenly popping up and fingers going upwards
“you can also give a mood and an emotion to the music using your body. I think that the best performers kind of use their bodies when they’re playing anything”
Moving arms out like dancing- it’s quite rhythmic
Social
That’s it! Brilliant! “it’s kind of important for people to feel Reassuring nodding you’re engaged” and huge grin Eye gaze and leaning down posture when individual talking to residents
Immediacy
This one’s for you- N/A looking at a resident with eye contact Page 101 of 107
Code
Observations
Appendices Interview
Crouched in front of the lady and playing the ukulele with her Inclusive
Yeah we could do N/A that- finger pointing to everybody
Eye Contact
Raised eyebrows and “I had to learn how to maintain eye contact at eyes- in amusement the same time as playing and singing.” Eye contact moving “eye contact is one person at a time.” around the room when talking
Ownership
Asking residents N/A what they would like to sing- eye contact & encouragement
Interlinking
Hello greeting in “eye contact and facial expressions are African- with arm in happening simultaneously” the air
Natural Use of Look of surprise “when I’m running a session, I’m not really NVC when resident plays aware of any of it because I’m just doing it” the piano “what people respond to is genuineness and if I don’t know if this you, you know, it’s got to be natural otherwise will work but we can they’re just going to be like, yeah don’t try- hands out patronise me.” Facial Expressions
Cheeky grin- is it a bit “Making a facial expression when you are cheeky? making eye contact and therefore you’re Look of surprise giving a signal during the eye contact through when someone likes facial expression without moving.” rock music and a smile
Proxemics
Close proximity to resident when playing the piano to encourage her to
“movement towards and away from people is probably more conscious cos you make a decision to get up and move whereas you don’t make a decision with the rest of it really,
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Code
Observations keep going
Appendices Interview consciously.”
9.4 Appendix four: examples of detailed repertory grid discussions 9.4.1 Diana NVC/s being discussed
Interview Example
Similar Body Gesture & Hand “body gesture and hand gesture are both physical, I Gesture think they’re both used to cue stuff as well or to prepare people… so facial expression I think is different I mean I’ve even written it on the card is about encouragement” Different Facial Expression Similar Facial Expression & Eye “facial expression and eye contact because, there’s a Contact connection and a communication with people, like feeling part of the same thing” “I think of the facial expression and eye contact… it’s about that direct communication with someone and that’s definitely a more social thing” Similar Facial Expression & Body “eye contact is before anything else, eye contact Gesture would be before facial expression or before body gesture” Different Eye Contact
“I was just thinking of a link between facial expression and body gesture… facial expression is often accompanied by enthusiastic and wild nodding”
Similar Hand Gesture & Eye “Let’s say, like if there was a rhythm I might do a Contact gesture to go with it and that would be very much with eye contact as well to communicate to (no difference articulated) somebody this is what you’re doing, this is your part” Similar Posture & Eye Contact
“in that it’s often something that comes before another verbal or nonverbal instruction, there will often be the posture and the eye contact.”
Different Body Gesture
“posture is almost the opposite, in a way, cos body gesture is the, it’s kind of the absence of the stillness that I’d aim for in posture Page 103 of 107
NVC/s being discussed Similar Posture Expression
Appendices Interview Example
&
Facial “if I was doing this posture stuff to get people ready, I would probably have either neutral expression… or I might go for very encouraging… So there would be a (no difference articulated) link between, what the face is doing and that sort of posture and stillness” “I think probably facial expression and posture are more similar with that openness” Similar Hand Gestures & Facial “hand gestures and facial expression I think have a Expression similarity erm, cos partly they are… that decoration. I think there’s partly abit of that just trying to give a character to what you’re saying. Erm, whereas eye contact I think is a more direct communication” Different Eye Contact “eye contact is a much more a I need you the individual person to think about what I am saying or to think about what is about to happen” Similar Body Gesture & Hand “body gesture and hand gesture are kind of about Gesture movement and action whereas posture tends to be about readiness and preparation.” Different Posture
9.4.2 Mary NVC/s being discussed
Interview Example
Similar Eye Contact & Gestures
“the eye contact is important as well because err as you’re circling the room erm wth the gestures you’re also following it up with eyes too”
(no difference articulated)
“I think the good thing about using gestures and eye contact from a distance with the big group is that as long as you’re careful everyone can feel included but that is again something that I am very aware of.” “gestures are important alongside the eye contact because you can’t be looking at everybody all the time but the gestures can be all-inclusive.” Page 104 of 107
NVC/s being discussed
Appendices Interview Example
Similar Eye Contact & Facial Well the eye contact and the facial expressions... Expressions when you’re encouraging enjoyment and erm and encouraging people to sing so you’re again with the (no difference articulated) expression… So eye contact without the facial expression would be useless” Similar The level of approach to “Oh they link very much, the level of approach to be be closer & touch closer and the touch… used carefully of everything I do that is the thing I triple think before I ever do because you know you don’t want to be invading people’s personal space. You don’t want them to be Different Facial expression feeling uncomfortable.
“And then again the facial expressions… that’s a more natural thing rather than me kind of thinking I will put on this face now.” Similar Touch, Eye Contact & “well putting those three together just reminds you Facial Expression of intimacy again… particularly with people who have no verbal skills erm at all the quality of the eye (no difference articulated) contact that they give you is quite mind-blowing sometimes and it feels like a real privilege… it’s that kind of like it’s high engagement and err yeah it feels amazing” Similar The level of approach to “So I’ve tried to do that whenever possible so you be closer & eye contact kneel down as you are moving towards them rather than looming over them, you know so you try to be at least at their eye level if not lower erm from that point of view and err I think that’s a really good approach then particularly when people are using a wheelchair everybody’s always taller than them so it’s nice within that setting that you’re at least on parity some of the time”
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Appendices
9.4.3 Florence NVC/s being discussed
Interview Example
Similar Hand Gestures & “your movement towards and away from people Movement towards and away might be at the same time as the hand gestures erm from people and that’s more body than the subtlety of the facial expressions. So that would be the odd one out. That’s Different Facial Expressions more visual and that’s probably happening more subconsciously for people” Similar Movement towards and “well that’s auditory so that’s things that people hear, away from people & eye contact the noises and the other two are visual” Different Nonverbal noises Similar Facial Expression & Eye “you’ll be making a facial expression when you are Contact making eye contact and therefore you’re giving a signal during the eye contact through facial Different Hand Gestures expression without moving.” “eye contact and facial expressions are happening simultaneously” “You could group the facial expressions and the eye contact again and the hand gestures are much bigger displays of communication.” Similar Hand Gestures & Facial “so you could group facial expressions and hand Expression gestures as something that everybody is experiencing again whereas eye contact is one person.” Different Eye Contact Similar Hand gestures & “Hand gestures and movement are probably more movement towards and away commonly used than noises erm so that sets them from people apart, erm noises are obviously auditory whereas hand gestures and the movement is visual Different Nonverbal noises communication.” Similar Hand gestures & eye “Probably hand gestures and eye contact are more contact important and more necessary. I think noises just happen if they happen” Different Nonverbal noises Similar Hand gestures & eye “I’ll put hand gestures and eye contact together cos contact they’re happening subconsciously all the time whereas movement towards and away from people Page 106 of 107
NVC/s being discussed
Appendices Interview Example
Different Movement towards is probably more conscious” and away from people
Frith, Chris. "Role of Facial Expressions in Social Interactions." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 364, no. 1535 (2009): 3453-58.
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