Museum Education in Transition: What Are the

Education Research Journal Vol. 2(5): 156- 165, May 2012 Available online http://www.resjournals.com/ERJ ISSN: 2026 – 6332 ©2012 International Research Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Museum Education in Transition: What Are the Essential Elements? Responses to Interview Questions Elaine Smith Bontempi1 and *Susan Smith Nash2 1

University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma University of Oklahoma, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Tulsa, Oklahoma

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*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected], [email protected], Email: [email protected] Abstract

This paper reports the results of interviews with museum administrators in response to the following question: "What elements combine to make effective distance learning programs within museums?" The question is posed to solve a problem of how to prioritize elements. Museums are in transition due to quickly evolving technology and budget challenges. In order to make mission-driven decisions about the best way to develop museum education and outreach programs, it is important to understand which elements are considered most important to the transfer of knowledge. Key words: museum education, distance learning, elearning, m-learning, instructional design, informal learning INTRODUCTION Museums face unique issues because they handle real items and artifacts, and, since most are non-profit organizations, they are constantly challenged by budget constraints. Research suggests three main elements of design to incorporate in distance learning programs: motivational strategies, cognitive learning theories, and appropriate selection of mediums or methods of delivery. The instructional design should incorporate motivational techniques (Keller, 1983) to increase interest and perseverance, cognitive theories help learners process and retain information better, and certain technologies are preferred over others, with attention to subject matter and target audience. The views of museum administrators working in a resource-constrained environment, under conditions of rapid technological change and increasing demand for artifacts as instructional materials by schools, provide insights into real-world applications, and can answer questions about what works and what does not, particularly for the teachers who bring their students to the museum for enrichment courses (Grenier, 2010) and who implement informal learning. Museums and museum education are in a leadership

position when it comes to erasing the boundaries of learning spaces, categories, methodologies, and media (Alvermann and Eakle, 2007), and they also allow one to question what has been published regarding effective online course design (Brown, 1997). Also important is the notion of museum literacy (Eakle 2009), and the ability to “read” or derive cultural, sociological, psychological, or epistemological meaning from the way in which a museum education program is implemented. Further, social media and new interactive technologies are vital in engaging museum goers who use text messaging and other synchronous communication strategies to explore, discuss, and share their responses with peers, thus providing depth to the experience (Lewis and Fabos, 2005). The museum is a constructed place, and the exhibits may be simulacra rather than the real item. There is a wide variety of museum content, however (Saiki, 2010). At the core, however, is the need for authenticity, if for no other reason than to reinforce the notion of the “real” – not only of the object but also of the meaning of the interactions that one has with it (and its proxies). A case in point is the fabrication of the replica of a whale in the

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American Museum of Natural History (Rossi, 2010). Part of the goal of the exhibit was to demonstrate the enormity of the whale and the dangers that took place in whaling. If the model were not true to scale, the exhibit would actually undermine the message. The creation of an experience with the object / museum piece is at the heart of the immersive experiences that one finds in the immersive virtual worlds (Second Life Wiki, 2011). Interaction is enhanced in the physical museum space (Czajkowski, 2009) as well as in the virtual. Immersion can also take place via other media such as audio podcasts delivered through smartphones, tablets, or media devices (National Museum of the American Indian (www.nmai.si.edu/podcasts/ podcasts_ibd.html, 2010). New delivery modalities are constantly emerging, and the value of the learning experience is often a direct outcome of the quality of the interaction, which can be immersive, on-demand, and ubiquitous. METHODOLOGY Research conducted for this project reveals how to design more effective distance learning programs for museums by gathering information and opinions from various subject matter experts (SME’s). Settings varied for this particular study since most participants were interviewed at their place of employment, or at their University with the exception of five. One of the two lived out of state, necessitating the replacement of interviews with e-mailed surveys/questionnaires. The other participants chose to be interviewed outside of their offices. Data was obtained by interviewing employees from the following establishments: The Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History (located in Norman, OK); the University of Oklahoma’s College of Continuing Education (Norman, OK); the Ziff Jewish Museum (Miami, FA); The Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art (Norman, OK), and the University of Oklahoma (Norman, OK). Research Question This study focused around the central question, "What elements combine to make effective distance learning programs within museums?" An operational definition of distance learning, as agreed to by all participants in the study, was "any learning or instruction not done in residence, where the instructor is not physically present, in which there are previously set learning goals." In addition, distance learning includes the following qualities: it is synchronous and/or asynchronous, takes place in stages, the components build upon each other, there is physical and/or temporal separation, and it is a system.

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Sampling For this research, purposeful sampling was conducted. Maxwell (1996) describes this type of sampling as a strategy in which particular settings, persons, or events are selected deliberately to provide important information that can’t be obtained as well from either convenience or probability sampling. In this study, the subjects were selected because of their fields, exposure to distance learning programs, and (or) museum education. Interviewing various subject matter experts (SME’s) contributed to insight in different areas. By reviewing the data, patterns appeared and data elements were revealed to contribute to the formulation of a new theory. Thus, individuals were chosen to provide the most information needed to answer the research questions. The following people were selected for the interview: the Chief Exhibits Designer at the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History (SNOMNH), the Exhibits Design Technician from SNOMNH, Distance Learning Specialist from Oklahoma’s College of Continuing Education (OCCE’s Department of Independent Studies), Editor (OCCE’s Department of Independent Studies), Technical Support Specialist (OCCE’s Department of Liberal Studies), Director (OCCE’s Department of Engineering and Geosciences), Director of Education (Ziff Jewish Museum), Curator of Education (Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art), Assistant Curator of Education (Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art), Instructor of Psychology (Seminole Junior College), Facilities Design Specialist and Adjunct CAD Instructor (Oklahoma City Community College), Doctoral Candidate and former high school teacher in the Educational and Instructional Psychology and Technology Department (EIPT) at the University of Oklahoma, Master's student and former elementary teacher in the EIPT program at the University of Oklahoma, and a Professor (OU’s Department of Educational/Instructional Psychology and Technology). Race and ethnicity varied among subjects. The following is the distribution of ethnic groups: two Native Americans, one Jewish, and the remaining an unspecified Caucasian. All participants held college degrees. Three of the participants held Ph.D.’s (Folklore, English, and Instructional Design), four had Master’s degrees (Art, English, MLS, Computer Programming), and one had a Bachelor’s of Science degree (Botany). Ages ranged from 34-65, with a mean age of 47. Data Collection Access to the sample population was gained by requests made over the telephone, through e-mail, and in person. Participants were informed of two interviews, each lasting about one hour. The first interview consisted of 15 or 16 open-ended questions regarding distance learning and

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museums. The second interview focused on four museum web sites, and participants’ reactions to each site. Upon obtaining verbal or written consent, forms were either e-mailed or hand delivered to each participant. Some subjects e-mailed consent, while others either sent them through the United States Postal Service (USPS), or handed them to the interviewer immediately before participating in the first interview. To gain feedback, two, one-and-a-half hour interviews were conducted with 14 participants (one later dropped out of the study). The first interview consisted of 15 openended questions concerning concepts of distance learning and what elements combined to make the most effective distance learning programs for museums (refer to Appendix A). The second interviews required the participants to access four museum web sites: The Smithsonian institute, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, The University of California at Berkeley's Museum of Paleontology, and the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History (refer to Appendix B). In general, research focused on the analysis of the variety and distribution of perspectives on issues and processes of distance learning techniques, as well as their application in museum distance learning programs. Cases were involved for specific groups, and generalization was formed by comparisons of cases and groups. Methods of data collection included face to face, audiotaped interviews (semi-structured and open-ended); documents (public websites and learning packets that accompanied traveling exhibits); audio-visual materials (photographs of traveling exhibits, URL’s, and taped interviews); and e-mailed surveys. Collecting information from a diverse range of individuals and settings using a variety of methods was intended to mitigate the risk of limitations of a specific research technique. Interview tapes were listened to prior to transcription and notes were taken on data collected during the interviews. By reviewing these notes, tentative ideas regarding categories and relationships were developed. Analysis Participants in the study suggested several forms in which distance learning can be delivered, including print, human, through technology, traveling exhibits/trunks, and (or) "art mobiles." Distance learning in print form includes learning packets, downloadable teacher resources, and correspondence. Technology included telecourses, internet-based and supplemented instruction, audio, video, streaming video, DVD and CD ROM. The human element included the involvement of a person (preferably a museum representative) in outreach programs, accompanying traveling exhibits, or visiting schools. It also includes a real instructor in an Internet based or supplemented program, who corresponds with

participants via e-mail, or through discussion panels online. Finally, target populations of distance learning programs, according to participants, included students (on and off campus), corporate employees, families, and those with limited access such as the disabled, elderly, prisoners, service personnel, mothers of young children, etc. The participants were selected to represent five main fields: museums (exhibit design and education), instructional design, continuing education, instructional technology, and education (secondary and undergraduate). The data consisted of over 40 hours of audio tapes documenting 23 interviews, and 3 e-mails (due to work schedules, three participants e-mailed their second interview questions and answers). All interviews were transcribed verbatim by the researcher. The data consisted of over 370 pages of field notes, transcriptions, open and axial coding, and documents. The analytic process was based on immersion into the data gathered from semi-structured interviews and documents. Sortings, codings, and comparisons were made based upon the grounded theory approach. Data Analysis Thematic coding was chosen because this study involved researching a particular issue or perspective of a process (what elements combine to make effective distance learning programs for museums). The first step was to address the case involved, and to examine responses to each question in the first interview. First, a short description of each case was produced. The case description included a statement typical of the interview, a short description of the person interviewed, and the central topics mentioned by the interviewee concerning the research question. Next, the data was open coded for each line of every case. Categories were generated and properties were identified. The third step was to match the answers to categories and sub-categories, and explanations to answers, adhering to principles of Axial coding. Through the axial coding process, questions of who, when, where, why, how, and with what consequences were answered. (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). According to Creswell (1998), axial coding puts data back together in new ways by making new connections between its categories and subcategories. Through this process, general themes began to emerge. The overall theme included the elements that contributed to effective distance learning programs within museums, and under this subject were major points. Within these major categories, sub-categories soon developed. Another theme that emerged after examining the data thoroughly was that participants seemed to focus on one or more of these themes more heavily, depending on their profession.

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Next, the second interviews were coded in the same ways as above, and attention was focused not only on participants' comments on what makes effective distance learning programs through the examination of different museum websites, but also on the variation in answers according to the profession of the interviewee. In addition, some questions were examined more closely than others. In other words, to help answer the question, "What elements combine to make effective DL programs for museums," subjects responses to "what are the strengths and weakness of the website" were examined more closely than other questions in the second interview. Finally, the last steps were to build a "story" connecting findings to theoretical propositions (based on the results of this study and literature review) and to form a theory. The thematic structure served for comparing cases and groups by elaborating on correspondences and by highlighting differences between the various groups in the study. Thus, the social distribution of perspectives concerning the research question was analyzed and assessed. RESULTS Several findings surfaced from the data. First, across the subjects sampled in this study, and within the professions that they represented, twelve themes emerged under the overall theme of "effective elements." Several key components were repeatedly suggested as contributing towards the effective design of distance learning programs for museums. These elements were: a) contingencies; b) pre-requisite skills (for developers and learners); c) target populations; d) learner characteristics; e) appropriate topics for distance learning; f) the nature of the material (e.g., non-static, visual, physical nature); g) the importance of selecting the appropriate form of delivery; h) Instructional design principles; i) the use of cognitive learning strategies; j) motivational techniques; k) good design interface; and, l) the limitations to distance learning in museums. In general, participants suggested the development of effective DL programs within museums had several contingencies. Contingencies First, the methods of delivery selected are contingent on available funding, time constraints, knowledge base of the museum staff (if it is to be developed in-house), selected topic, target population, type of learning you want to take place (e.g., intellectual, verbal, cognitive, attitudinal, or motor skill), available technology, and learner characteristics (age, motivation, geographical location, abilities, etc.). While most topics are suitable for distance learning, participants agreed that there may be topics that are not appropriate.

Prerequisites/ Characteristics

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Populations/Learner

Next, participants suggested that there were prerequisite skills required of both the developer and the learners involved in the DL programs. It was suggested that the developer possess a knowledge of the tools and different media, what technology is most practical, access to a subject matter expert, the ability to plan properly. Overall, the developer should be able to properly assess, evaluate, and incorporate motivational strategies into the curriculum (Zvacek, 1991). Interviewees also believed that those who participate in museum distance learning programs will vary greatly in their characteristics and abilities. Accordingly, developers need to know their targeted audience-their skills, abilities, knowledge levels and limitations. Museums cater to students (both on and off campus), families, corporate employees, disabled populations, those with limited access, all grade levels, races, cultures, genders, beliefs, political parties, and socio-economic stati. Thus, they will need to make some instruction very generic, while other instruction will be targeted towards specific groups. In general, participants are most likely to succeed if they are motivated, computer literate, excited about the material, do not need supervision, and have an instructor who is both familiar and enthused with the material. Appropriate Topics DL in museums owes heavily to the methods of delivery and also to the composition of learners and their motivation. The topics mentioned most frequently as best suited for distance learning within museums were art (which included biographical information and the historical context of artists and their genres, to include information on how their works were made, as well as the preservation and interpretation of their art and memoirs, natural history (which included dinosaurs, paleontology and ancient civilizations), Other topics of interest included political issues, women's life, English, sociology, and theory-driven courses (Weinstein, 1994). Topics least suitable for distance learning by museums included topics that don't reproduce well, such as icons, are not familiar to all of the teachers (because teachers are less likely to incorporate it into their curriculum if they are unfamiliar with the topic), sexual topics (not suitable for young children), foreign languages (participants need an opportunity to practice with a real person), math, or those that require special equipment or laboratories). The Facilities Design Specialist and adjunct CAD instructor suggested: I would say anything that doesn't require power tools! Ha, Ha, Ha!!! No metal working, no wood working on the Internet…anything that you can learn by visual stimuli is good. Nothing that requires special equipment, safety

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supplies, etc. I think that some courses could be complemented by the web, such as a chemistry course, but the lab work would be done in a lab. Or an art class, where the art history portion is provided over the Internet, but then you go into a studio to do the production of the artwork. But as far as a full blown course, strictly distance learning, the material would have to be able to be absorbed visually and auditorily. Nature of the Material/Form of Delivery Results indicated that chosen forms of delivery depend on budget, target population, age, topic, the nature of the material, and the type of learning you want to take place. First, the museums deal with real objects that are very visual and often non-static in nature (such as traveling exhibits, and temporary/rotating exhibits that are on loan from other museums). With this in mind, participants stressed the importance of selecting a method of delivery that incorporated a lot of visual and tactile stimulation. Those involved in the museum fields stressed human delivery as their first choice for method of delivery, whereas those representing other fields tended to select the Internet. Participants were specific in how media should be used. For human delivery, the person selected to deliver the instruction should be a museum representative with an understanding of the subject matter. These representatives should go into classrooms and accompany traveling exhibits. The second choice would be for museum representatives to train teachers. However, this results in a greater inconsistency in the quality, delivery, and content of the material. Another frequently mentioned form of human delivery was artists in residence. These can be artists who either go into classrooms or work in the museum and are commissioned to create a piece of art. In addition, when a person delivers the instruction, he or she can provide more attention and respond better to a patron. Plus, providing a human element is best for creativity and helps the museums be viewed as less sterile. The assistant curator of education emphasized the importance of the human element by saying: I think it is extremely important to have a personal element to the program- a real person. But everyone wants web-based projects to be interactive and have that spark to catch the attention of viewers, but I think a person can do that-you know nothing is more interactive than an individual. I mean you can respond to a child and give that child attention where with a computer, it is preprogrammed, nothing quite replaces that creativity that is there with a real person. The curator of education at the art museum supported this by saying, I just think the human element is so important because it is so easy for museums to be viewed as this large, white sterile place, you know, and I think that, some of

the most successful visits that I have seen, you know, are where the kids are even just introduced to the different jobs that people do within the museum. I think that it is so important to do this because so often when they come they don't see any of that-any of the goings on in the museum. It's all white and very clean, and usually very quiet. I think that it's important for them to see that there are people that work here and there are people that do things, and it has a human element. Whoever is selected to deliver instruction, an artist in residence, museum representative, or teacher, he or she should be very knowledgeable in the topic and provide feedback that is both consistent and positive. Supplemental visual aids can serve as "hooks to keep people listening." Posters of the work and displays in the museum help to keep children's attention during presentations prior to museum interacting with displayed items. PowerPoint presentations are also good for achieving attention and interest, if they contain high quality images and sound files (ex: dinosaur roars, bird sounds, etc.). Case studies can also be very effective because they tell a compelling story that incorporates the museum artifact (McDade, 1995). Again, the importance of visual aids was stressed by the assistant curator of education from the art museum when she stated, Lots of visual aids. There has to be a way, or a hook to keep people listening. Usually, when we go into the schools, the programs are about an hour long, so we have to have a way to keep their attention. So we have posters of the work that the people will be seeing when they go into the museum, or we have a little piece of the picture in a poster form (Ching-Yuan, 2007). According to museum employees interviewed, the next best thing to having an actual person deliver instruction is in the form of traveling exhibits and trunks. Trunks and traveling exhibits offer "hands-on" learning experiences, and were considered best for processing, retention and group learning. The director of traveling exhibits at the natural history museum supported the belief that this form of delivery was the most interesting, creative, and therefore the most motivating when he stated, I also feel that distance programs are most successful when they are composed of three-dimensional, tactile stimulation. It makes learning more interesting and memorable, and allows for deeper processing. Students who can pick up a replication of a dinosaur bone, for example, learn much more by feeling the texture and weight, and examining it by looking and feeling, than they would by looking at pictures or films. That's why we have taxidermy, furs, and replications of spear points, bones, and fossils. Hands-on learning is the way to go. Trunks and traveling exhibits aren't contingent upon technology, thus are appropriate for more populations, and encourage discussions, interactivity, team building, and motivation. These traveling exhibits and trunks should be fun and contain arts activities, replicas of

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artifacts, and actual examples. The mobile learning, mobile applications, Internet, diskettes/CDs/DVD ROMs, PowerPoint presentation, videos and learning packets can all provide supplementation to trunks and traveling exhibits. As mentioned earlier, participants who worked in nonmuseum related professions preferred the Internet as the choice method of delivery. Again, there were specifics suggested in what internet sites should include. Optimally, internet sites should be interactive, provide virtual tours, contain 3-D rotating images of artifacts, downloadable teacher resources, online quizzes, e-mail, zoomable images, and a balance of text and graphics. It was suggested by many that the internet would be best for providing an introduction to the museum or supplemental educational material educational material to dioramas, traveling exhibits, etc. Some limitations of the internet are: it is better suited for individual learning than group learning, there are copyright issues, and it is difficult to replace real objects with simulations. In addition, unlike traveling exhibits or trunks, which encourage discussion, the internet discourages discussion. If the internet is selected as the form of delivery, it should only be web supplemented for young children, and should include games, coloring activities, etc. The psychology instructor stated, I think you need cognitively complex thinking skills (for distance learning), so I think that precludes extremely young children. And, it is necessary that they have a lot of social interaction anyway. As far as an age range, without being a specialist, I would think that maybe at the earliest, 10 or 11 years old. And the reason I say that is because kids, before that age, need social interaction. Tons of social interaction. It isn't particularly healthy for a kid of any age to be parked in front of a machine for very long. But that's not to say that you can't use these as an adjunct to instruction. I don't think that there would be any problem with younger children pulling u pa museum website for a supplement. But I think it should be very limited. Look at the lovely Tyrannosaurus Rex, and let's get on with the instruction, you know? For high school students, the preferred tools were human delivery (artists in residence), or websites that contain fewer games and more opportunities for self directed research on collections. In addition, websites should possess a "wow" factor-to be interesting and draw the attention of learners. Of course, one drawback to websites is that they are pre-programmed, which limits interactivity and breadth/depth of learning. Similarly, it was suggested that DVD and CD ROMs serve as supplemental educational material. The advantages of these mediums are that they are more portable, stable, provide maximum interaction, and are faster (no downloading time). The disadvantage of these mediums are that they are more expensive to develop and distribute, and even more costly to update. Thus, if you have material that is frequently updated, the Internet

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is the more practical choice. Choosing the appropriate medium is also contingent upon what type of learning you want to take place (ex: declarative, concept, procedural, etc.), as well as the learning style and age of the learners. Participants agreed that for very young children, human delivery with a lot of hands-on learning was best. Again, if a person is delivering the instruction, artists in residence and museum representatives were at the top of the list in preferred methods of delivery. Artists in residence were favored because they can either stay within the museum or go out into schools. Children (and adults) could see work being created and learn techniques, as well as ask questions. It is a creative way to get children interested. Finally, if instruction is designed to serve certain populations with disabilities, certain mediums are preferred. For example, instruction targeted towards the visually impaired should contain brail and/or voice-overs, and instruction designed for ADHD children should contain more hands-on activities. Instructional Strategies

Design

Principles

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Cognitive

In one way or another, instructional design principles were mentioned by most participants, as contributing towards the effectiveness of the distance learning programs. As discussed earlier, instructional design principles were referred to most often by participants who were employed in fields other than museums. In general, it was suggested that developers must first identify their learning population and their needs through a thorough needs analysis, and apply the results of the needs analysis to the design of instruction. "I think it's important to really focus on what the student's needs are, and the kinds of programs they are interested in, and understanding what your competition is doing" (Continuing Education). "You could have the intended audience fill out some sort of a questionnaire, about their backgrounds and their interests. And, you can use that to tailor your coursework" (Facilities Design Specialist, and adjunct CAD instructor at a Community College). Instruction should have clearly defined learning/performance objectives, and incorporate cognitive learning theories such as human information processing theory, which suggests that learners build upon previous schema, and have opportunities for feedback. Another cognitive strategy that was suggested was mastery learning, where information is provided in chunks, and learners are allowed to conquer each bit of information before going onto the next level. Included in mastery learning is the opportunity for remediation. Instructional strategies used in the design of instruction

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are contingent upon the type of learning desired. To facilitate deeper cognitive processing, the Facilities Design Specialist suggested, Well, if you want to facilitate the deeper processing, you will have to have something that engages the learner and makes them think. Just to have the presentation of the materials-it's not going to engage them. Well, it will engage them, but it won't make them think. So you want to make sure that your site doesn't just provide declarative type knowledge stuff. You want to make sure your site keeps their interest and stirs up questions in their mind. So, you want to have leading questions, or provide a lot of information with the art that they are looking at, like the type of art, how you make it as an artist, the year it was, um, the medium and all of that. And, you want to link it in to something, like how can they use it today. You want to something that peaks their interest because once their interest is peaking, their cognitive processes start working. If you must provide a slide show, then, you know, ten minutes later, that person won't remember what they looked at, for the most part. Finally, every program should be evaluated for its effectiveness. The museum should always keep in mind that a needs analysis must be done at the outset. This is mission-critical. Motivational Strategies In addition, motivational strategies cannot be overlooked. It was stressed over and over again how important it is for learning to be interesting, relevant, and allow for self determination. One of the most challenging tasks in designing effective DL programs for museums has been keeping learners motivated. When motivation is low, it is safe to assume that learning achievement will be reduced. Motivation could easily be classified as a course pre-requisite for distance learners. In the traditional classroom, there are motivators such as group pressure, and familiar learning situation, but in the distance learning environment, these factors are often missing. Thus, designers of distance learning programs for museums should build motivational strategies into the program if at all possible. This can be accomplished by incorporating Keller's ARCS model (1983 and 1987), as well as Deci and Ryan's (1985) model for self determination. Some of these might include making the program interesting, relevant to the learner, promoting expectations for success, providing optimal levels of challenge, setting goals, and providing learners with a sense of self determination (or choice). The findings of this study also suggest that visual aids and hands-on learning activities can be another source of motivating learners by sparking interest in learning. Good graphics can be a way of presenting information in a novel and interesting way. The Director of Traveling Exhibits of a Natural History museum stated, "Well, I am biased, but I believe that

visual aspects are a key factor. An exhibit or learning program must include uniquely visual components." Similarly, the Assistant Curator of Education at an Art Museum said, "We ALWAYS have hands-on activities, ALWAYS. So they (the learners) can have something to hang on and look at, and hopefully put up in their own type of gallery, hallway, or room." Design Interface Another theme that evolved within the overall theme of elements that contribute to the effective design of distance learning programs within museums was design interface. Design interface refers not only to the aesthetic design of instruction (font, lay out, color, graphics, etc.) but also to the navigation and coherence of the instruction. Distance programs delivered through the use of technology (power point presentations, Internet, CD and DVD ROMs), must be easy to navigate, clear, interactive, allow for self determination, possess a balance of text and graphics, and must be cross platform. The Facilities Design Specialist and adjunct CAD instructor stressed, The site can't have any problems. In other words, it must be accessible for both PC and Mac users. Basically, that it is accessible, easy to navigate and have different venues for different types of learners. Make sure the site is user friendly for those who are not normally used to working with computers, because people who are interested in the arts may not be as literate in computers as those who work with them all of the time, such as programmers. So don't bury your information, and use the three click rule. The design interface should be developed with learning theories in mind (Hooper-Greenhill, 1994). Learning is an active process of building organized mental structures, thus the interface should be the place where such structures are represented via visual arrangement. Layout is critical. Within the interface, the links and graphics should make obvious connections that relate general information (prior knowledge) to the artifacts and conceptual frameworks. Because learning is influenced by the context in which it occurs, the website must always strive to engage the affect, create a pleasant, "rewarding" environment, and to entertain, without sacrificing integrity or intellectual rigor. Because learning is a process that is mediated by both memory constraints and social interaction, it is important not to clutter the interface design with too much information (Duchastel, 1996). The activities on the interface should encourage and reward creative thinking, innovative relationshipconstruction, and the application of the artifacts and concepts to one's life (Maehr, 1984, and Malone, 1981). Learning is constructive and reconstructive, thus an effective interface encourages the learner to look at the same items from multiple perspectives and points of

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view so that knowledge is continuously generated. Limitations of DL Programs within Museums Finally, participants in the study suggested several limitations or issues unique to distance learning within museums. These included funding, copyright issues, nature of the material, and lack of technical and instructional design expertise within museums (Hein,1998). First of all, interviewees mentioned that many employees don't have the technical expertise to develop instructional programs for CD's or the Internet. Also, being non-profit institutions, funding may not be available to implement certain types of technology (in terms of purchasing equipment or outsourcing work). As a result of funding issues, many museum employees will have an incredible amount of pressure placed upon them to learn software programs and become developers themselves. The Instructor of Psychology compared this phenomenon to what is happening in academia when he stated, I am seeing a lot of pressure to adopt technology when often they don't feel ready for it. I really don't see a need for it. Where I'm at now, if you don't have technology skills, they won't hire you. You are unemployable. If you are not willing to consider doing things on the web, do power point presentation in the classroom…if you are not willing to do that they will not hire you….I mean, you yourself know that learning how to do something on the computer with a software program, developing a particular protocol, can take 50, 60, 80 hours. Now how do they dig up the extra 80 hours to learn how to do these things? There's only enough hours in the week to do one thing. Another issue unique to museums is the nature of the material, mentioned earlier in the paper. In review, museums deal with physical objects that are visual and often non-static in nature. This creates problems for DL programs, because it means that artifacts either have to be reproduced for traveling exhibits/trunks, or simulated in websites. Probably the most complex issue discussed by interviewees was that of copyrights. If material is put on the Internet, there are concerns about whether or not the material is "fair use" because it is intended for educational purposes, or if the museums will be required to get access to copyrights (which go back to time and funding constraints). In addition, many artists are reluctant to have their work put online. The following quote from the Curator of Education best describes the copyright issue within museums. I don't know anybody who really knows how this works with museums right now. It's really very confusing. And, obviously, since it is visual, you have to have the images. So is it educational website, so this is fair use, or do you have to go and get all of the rights? Which is a huge pain in the neck, and very, very, expensive. It can be very

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expensive and time consuming, if you have to, every time you have an image, check into whether the artists' rights society is going to let you do that free of charge, or charge you $2,000? It can put some serious limitations on what you do. I think it's all relatively new, with the web technology. So people are still trying to figure out what to do. So it's something we are running into right now about how much of the collection we can put online and all of that. And there's the issue of even if you have the rights…I mean, once you put the images online you have no idea how people are going to be using them. Whether they are going to be downloading them and trying to sell it as a reproduction, or what. I mean it's very complicated, and I kind of don't like to think of it at all, but unfortunately, we have to. I know a lot of artists who are concerned about putting their work up on the Internet. They are concerned with how to prevent others from using it. Or even using it you know, like an advertisement of something. Something in a use completely different than how it was intended. So, you know, it really leaves the control totally, you know, it's just out there. Finally, peoples' reactions to DL programs within museums may present possible limitations as well. This applies to reactions among both the public and museum staff. There are mixed emotions, and while some people think it's great, there are others who have their reservations regarding both the effectiveness and satisfaction of instruction via distance education. While it may eliminate some of the economic and geographical barriers, and potentially reach out to more people, some people may be reluctant to participate. The Museum Technician of a Natural History Museum commented, "I don't think all of this new technology is necessarily for the best." Similarly, the Course Developer from the College of Continuing Education stated, Museums, libraries, churches, places of learning, and movie theatres were always 'sacred places' for me because in these places I was exposed to the 'other worlds' that lay outside my small town existence in Southern Illinois. Going to a museum for me was a pilgrimage. We had to travel a considerable distance to a large city and step inside an imposing building. Now, when a museum reaches out through distance learning programs, it tells me that its contents and programs are inclusive; it is no longer a 'sacred' place for those who can make the journey. But in a way, I feel sorry for the children who live in a world where everything is suddenly accessible. On the other hand, the Facilities Design Specialist expressed another view of distance learning programs when she said, I like it because it enables me to learn or look at something that I wouldn't normally get to do, because we live in a culture where there aren't a lot of museums. For somebody like me, it's the closes I'm ever going to get to it unless I leave the state. So, for me, I think it's wonderful. In fact, I go and look at those museum sites all of the time, and I think they're cool, but

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I don't actually have to leave home. DISCUSSION In review, the results of this study indicated that there are at least twelve elements that are essential elements in the design of effective distance learning programs for museums. These include: contingencies, pre-requisite skills of both learners and developers, target populations, learner characteristics, appropriate topics for distance learning, the nature of the material, instructional design principles, the use of cognitive learning strategies, the incorporation of motivational techniques, interface design, and limitations unique to museums. As initially suspected, emphasis on certain elements was contingent, to some degree upon the profession of the interviewee. In general, museum employees emphasized the importance of visual aids, hands-on, tactile experiences and the human element, whereas non-museum employees focused more on instructional design principles, cognitive learning and motivational strategies. In addition, those employed within museums were much more cognizant of copyright issues. A partial explanation for these variances might be the educational backgrounds of participants. In general, participants who were employed within museums held degrees in art, art history, museum studies, anthropology, or the physical sciences (depending upon the position and type of museum). In contrast, those who did not work within the museum profession had backgrounds in technology, Education, English, or Psychology, thus, were more familiar with instructional design principles, learning theories and motivational strategies. There exist significant opportunities to convert static "catalogue" or "virtual tour" type museum websites into truly effective learning spaces, with lessons and activities that could be used in a number of settings (Caro, 2006). Museums could use their educational websites as complements to their onsite tours and programs in a highly-effective "hybrid solution." They could partner with educational institutions, both K-12 and institutions of higher education, to provide content and activities within the context of a course or a degree program. Museums could also partner with continuing education and professional development programs to develop online learning modules used in conjunction with leadership, management, advertising, cultural diversity and inclusion, creativity-building, and community development programs. The fresh, innovative, and engaging content provided by the museums can provide material for case studies, research projects, collaborative activities, as well as an understanding of art, culture, and history (Kolb and Osland, 1995). It is an open field, and the primary challenge involves identifying the most effective structure so that learning goals are truly achieved (Chall, 2000). Further, such programs should

be accompanied by a well-defined program evaluation, even if it is a fairly simple one. Experiential learning strategies are heavily employed in museum education, and the connection to one’s personal life are important (Kolb and Kolb, 2001). Something that initially struck the researcher as the coding was being reviewed, was that both museum and non-museum interviewees were able to describe elements that contributed towards successful educational programs, but when asked how to apply these in a distance setting, the elements didn't seem quite as clear. There was a substantial gap between the information provided, and initially it was thought that it might be that participants were simply not familiar enough with the technology to know how to apply these elements in a distance setting. This original assumption was disproved when participants reviewed websites. When the subjects looked at the museum websites, they were able specifically describe strengths and weaknesses of each site. Another explanation could be the limitations in funding and copyright accessibility. The primary research is prone to believe that funding is a larger contributor, since developers may know what makes an effective distance learning program, but without the technology or technical expertise to develop them, these elements are omitted. Other possible explanations may be that although designers may know what they want as a viewer or participant in a program, they are limited by constraints in time or budget, so they are unable to apply these elements into the program. Finally, developers may simply be distracted by other duties, thus unable to recollect and apply all of the necessary elements. Limitations of the Study Some of the limitations of this study include external validity, or the generalizability of the study. There were only 13 participants who participated in the complete study, and each participant was a college-degreed professional residing in the mid-west area of the United States (the States of Oklahoma and Florida). In addition, the participants were all middle to upper middle class adults without learning disabilities. Implications for Future Research In order to fully understand which distance learning programs are the most effective and why, future research should include protected groups such as participants under the age of 18, those from varying SES groups, residing in various geographical locations (rural, urban, United States and other countries), from different educational levels (including the learning disabled and ADHD children and adults), and those who are

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handicapped. Future studies should also include senior citizens. In other words, future research should consist of information gathered from the groups who will actually use the distance programs within museums. In addition, evaluations of various museum education interface designs would be useful, as well as assessments and evaluations to determine whether or not various learning and program objectives are being met. References Alvermann DE, Eakle AJ (2007). Dissolving learning boundaries: The doing, re-doing, and undoing of school. In D. Thiessen, A Cook-Sather (Eds.), International handbook of student experience in elementary and secondary school Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. pp. 143– 166. Andersonon JR (1993). Rules of the mind. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brown A (1997). Designing for learning: What are the essential features of an effective online course? Australian J. Educ. Technol., 13(2): 115-126. Caro MA (2006). You are here: The NMAI as site of identification. American Indian Quarterly, 30(3); 543–557. Chall JS (2000). The academic achievement challenge: What really works in the classroom? New York: Guilford. Ching-Yuan Huang, Lichun Chiang. (2007). Ethics and Behavior, 17(4):367–386 Creswell JW (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Czajkowski JW (2009). Changing the rules: Making space for interactive learning in the galleries of the Detroit Institute of Arts. J. Museum EduC., 36 (2):171–178. Csikszentmihalyi M (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Perennial. Deci EL, Ryan RM (1985). Intrinsic motivation and selfdetermination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press. Do J, Lee I (1999). World Wide Web in the virtual classroom. [On-line}. Available: http://computed.coe.wayne.edu/Vol3/do.html . Doolittle P (2000). Constructivism and Online Education. 1999 Online Conference in Teaching Online in Higher Education. http://edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/workshops/tohe1999/pedagog y.html Duchastel P (1996). A motivational framework for web-based instruction. [On-line}. Available: . Eakle, A. J. (2009) Museum literacies and adolescents using multiple forms of texts “on their own.” Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy. 53(3) November 2009: P.206 Grenier RS (2010). “Now this is what I call learning! A case study of museum-initiated professional development for teachers.” American Association for Adult and Continuing Education. 60 (5) 499-516. Hein GE (1998). Learning in the museum. New York: Routledge.

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