This thesis consists of four studies exploring exercise music's potential to assist ...... ten themes relating to music listening, where everyday contexts are ...... from http://ajourneyinmusic.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/music-industry-20101.pdf.
Music use and exercise: A mixed methods study of activity, autonomy and adherence
Rachel Justine Hallett
Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
December, 2014
Keele University
Student declaration
i
Abstract Regular exercise improves both physical and mental health but many people struggle to adhere to exercise programmes. Music is widely used by exercisers, and may aid adherence, but no evidence has yet substantiated this. This thesis consists of four studies exploring exercise music’s potential to assist adherence. In Study 1 (N = 282), online survey responses indicated that women were more likely to use exercise music and to synchronise movement to the beat than men, that running performance was superior among non-music users, and that music preference and personality are related. In Study 2, ten of the participants from Study 1 were interviewed, and interpretative phenomenological analysis revealed four main themes: Taking control, relating to managing the environment and internal challenges; It’s all about me, concerning individualisation and sense of self; Exercise music literacy, involving the capacity to source and access desired exercise music; and Embodiment, connected with the interaction of body, music and hardware. Study 3 (N = 60) was a correlational study, exploring relationships between individual differences, gym media use and exercise frequency. Retrospective exercise data was collected from the gym’s Fitlinxx computerised workout system, with participants supplying additional data for unrecorded exercise. Results indicated that men regularly listening to their own music exercised more frequently than those using other media. Study 4 (N = 99) was a longitudinal intervention study, comparing music and nonmusic pre-exercise interventions condition; the results indicated that listening to music prior to exercising to ‘get in the mood’ was associated with greater exercise frequency. The thesis demonstrates a music-adherence relationship: use of music both during and before exercise was found to relate to frequency of exercise. This may relate to indications that certain kinds of music evoke an ‘exercise mood.’ Combined, these studies support the use of music to help facilitate exercise adherence, and extend knowledge of the who, why and how of music use in exercise.
[298 words]
Key words: music, exercise, adherence, motivation, mixed methods
ii
Contents Chapter 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Music in everyday life ................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Music as potential motivator ...................................................................................... 3 1.2.2 Emotion and mood ..................................................................................................... 5 1.2.3 Music’s effects on behaviour ...................................................................................... 6 1.2.4 Individual differences in response to music ................................................................ 7 1.3 Music in exercise ........................................................................................................... 9 1.3.1 Sport, exercise and physical activity definitions .......................................................... 9 1.3.2 Music in exercise: previous research ........................................................................ 10 1.4 Theoretical frameworks from music psychology .......................................................... 21 1.5 Exercise behaviour and adherence ................................................................................ 30 1.5.1 Conceptualising adherence in health behaviours ....................................................... 31 1.5.2 Models of health behaviour ...................................................................................... 35 1.5.3 Individual differences............................................................................................... 49 1.6 Summary of questions raised........................................................................................ 61 Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................................... 64 2.1 Research aims .............................................................................................................. 64 2.1.1 What role do autonomous choices of music play in exercise? ................................... 65 2.1.2 What do people listen to, and how is it chosen? ........................................................ 66 2.1.3 What role does technology play? .............................................................................. 66 2.1.4 Can pre-exercise music help adherence? ................................................................... 67 2.1.5 Do individual differences affect how music is used in exercise? ............................... 68 2.1.6 When and why is music not listened to? ................................................................... 68 2.1.7 Does music affect adherence? .................................................................................. 68 2.1.8 Can music be used to assist adherence? If so, how? .................................................. 69 2.2 Theoretical Approach................................................................................................... 69 2.2.1 Overview ................................................................................................................. 69 2.2.2 Theoretical framework ............................................................................................. 70 2.2.3 Combining disciplines .............................................................................................. 74 2.2.4 Mixed methods ........................................................................................................ 75 2.2.5 Interpretative phenomenological analysis ................................................................. 79 2.2.6 Summary of theoretical approach ............................................................................. 82 2.3 Rationale ..................................................................................................................... 82 2.4 The Studies .................................................................................................................. 84 2.4.1 Study 1 .................................................................................................................... 85 2.4.2 Study 2 .................................................................................................................... 85 2.4.3 Study 3 .................................................................................................................... 85 2.4.4 Study 4 .................................................................................................................... 87
iii
2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
Methodological Practicalities ....................................................................................... 88 Precedents................................................................................................................ 88 Field-based research ................................................................................................. 89 Self-reported data ..................................................................................................... 90 Recruitment ............................................................................................................. 92 Online tools ............................................................................................................. 93 Reflexivity ................................................................................................................... 94 Ethics .......................................................................................................................... 97 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 97
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................... 98 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 98 3.2 Methodological strategy ............................................................................................... 99 3.3 Method ........................................................................................................................ 99 3.3.1 Design ..................................................................................................................... 99 3.3.2 Participants .............................................................................................................100 3.3.3 Materials .................................................................................................................100 3.3.4 Procedure................................................................................................................102 3.3.5 Analysis ..................................................................................................................103 3.4 Results ........................................................................................................................106 3.4.1 Musical background and practices ...........................................................................107 3.4.2 Sport and exercise activities ....................................................................................119 3.4.3 Personality ..............................................................................................................128 3.4.4 Planning, adherence and ‘exercuses’ .......................................................................131 3.5 Discussion ..................................................................................................................136 3.5.1 Adherence...............................................................................................................137 3.5.2 Music training .........................................................................................................138 3.5.3 Synchronising .........................................................................................................139 3.5.4 Personality ..............................................................................................................140 3.5.5 Limitations..............................................................................................................140 3.6 Summary ....................................................................................................................141 Chapter 4 ...................................................................................................................................143 4.1 Aims ...........................................................................................................................143 4.2 Background ................................................................................................................143 4.3 Method .......................................................................................................................145 4.3.1 Participants .............................................................................................................145 4.3.2 Materials .................................................................................................................146 4.3.3 Interview process ....................................................................................................147 4.3.4 Analytical process ...................................................................................................147 4.4 Results ........................................................................................................................149 4.4.1 Taking control.........................................................................................................150 4.4.2 It’s all about me ......................................................................................................161 4.4.3 Exercise music literacy ...........................................................................................172 4.4.4 Embodiment ...........................................................................................................186
iv
4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.6
Discussion ..................................................................................................................193 Reflexivity ..............................................................................................................201 Studies 1 and 2: a comparison .................................................................................203 Summary ....................................................................................................................204
Chapter 5 ...................................................................................................................................206 5.1 Aims ...........................................................................................................................206 5.2 Background ................................................................................................................207 5.3 Method .......................................................................................................................208 5.3.1 Participants .............................................................................................................208 5.3.2 Equipment and measures .........................................................................................209 5.3.3 Procedure................................................................................................................212 5.3.4 Analysis ..................................................................................................................212 5.4 Results ........................................................................................................................213 5.4.1 Descriptive statistics ...............................................................................................213 5.4.2 Correlations ............................................................................................................221 5.4.3 Regressions .............................................................................................................225 5.5 Discussion ..................................................................................................................226 5.6 Summary ....................................................................................................................230 Chapter 6 ...................................................................................................................................231 6.1 Aims ...........................................................................................................................231 6.2 Background ................................................................................................................231 6.3 Method .......................................................................................................................233 6.3.1 Design ....................................................................................................................233 6.3.2 Participants .............................................................................................................238 6.3.3 Apparatus ...............................................................................................................238 6.3.4 Materials and measures ...........................................................................................238 6.3.5 Procedure................................................................................................................240 6.3.6 Analysis ..................................................................................................................242 6.4 Results ........................................................................................................................244 6.4.1 Baseline characteristics ...........................................................................................245 6.4.2 Attrition ..................................................................................................................250 6.4.3 Personality ..............................................................................................................253 6.4.4 Comparison of intervention groups and control condition ........................................255 6.4.5 Adherence comparisons ..........................................................................................257 6.4.6 Meeting official exercise recommendations .............................................................263 6.4.7 Fitness measurements..............................................................................................265 6.4.8 Interventions ...........................................................................................................267 6.4.9 Returners: the second 6 months ...............................................................................271 6.4.10 Participants’ comments .......................................................................................273 6.5 Discussion ..................................................................................................................276 6.6 Summary ....................................................................................................................281
v
Chapter 7 ...................................................................................................................................282 7.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................282 7.2 Overview of the studies...............................................................................................283 7.3 Music in exercise ........................................................................................................285 7.3.1 Intrinsic aspects of music ........................................................................................285 7.3.2 Situation and context ...............................................................................................288 7.3.3 The listener .............................................................................................................294 7.3.4 Applicability of music psychology theories .............................................................300 7.4 Can music help exercise adherence? ............................................................................303 7.4.1 Does music affect adherence? .................................................................................303 7.4.2 Can music be harnessed to assist adherence? And if so, how? ..................................305 7.5 Conceptualisations of adherence .................................................................................308 7.5.1 Targets ....................................................................................................................309 7.5.2 Percentage of target achievement ............................................................................311 7.5.3 Defining lapses .......................................................................................................312 7.5.4 Revisiting the definition of adherence .....................................................................313 7.5.5 Adherence, music and the health behaviour models .................................................314 7.6 Evaluation of approach and methods ...........................................................................318 7.6.1 Online research .......................................................................................................318 7.6.2 Sampling ................................................................................................................320 7.6.3 Self-report...............................................................................................................323 7.6.4 Attrition ..................................................................................................................324 7.6.5 Study design ...........................................................................................................326 7.7 Reflexivity ..................................................................................................................327 7.7.1 Personal reflexivity .................................................................................................327 7.7.2 Epistemological reflexivity .....................................................................................329 7.8 Future research ...........................................................................................................331 7.8.1 Verification and exploration of thesis findings .........................................................331 7.8.2 Longitudinal studies of music and exercise practices ...............................................333 7.8.3 Laboratory-based experiments.................................................................................334 7.8.4 Field-based experiments ..........................................................................................335 7.8.5 Qualitative studies ...................................................................................................335 7.9 Implications ................................................................................................................336 7.9.1 Music may help adherence ......................................................................................337 7.9.2 Music associated with exercise may induce an exercising mood ..............................337 7.9.3 Exercise music literacy levels are high, but difficulties are sometimes experienced ..338 7.9.4 The way in which music is used autonomously by exercisers is highly varied ..........338 7.9.5 New technological developments are widely applied by exercise music users ..........339 7.9.6 Exercising typically exceeds minimum recommendations........................................340 7.9.7 Novelty effects may affect data, particularly in shorter studies .................................340 7.10 Summary ....................................................................................................................341 References 343 Appendices Appendix A: Study 1 Survey .................................................................................................... 358
vi
Appendix B: Study 2 generic interview schedule....................................................................... 363 Appendix C: IPA process ......................................................................................................... 364 Appendix D: Study 3 Questionnaire ......................................................................................... 375 Appendix E: Rewordings of Reiss Questionnaire ...................................................................... 386 Appendix F: Motives scores calculated using Reiss’s tick system .............................................. 390 Appendix G: Study 4 sign-up survey ........................................................................................ 392 Appendix H: Study 4 monthly and quarterly surveys ................................................................. 395 Appendix I: Study 4 feedback survey ....................................................................................... 397 Appendix J: Ethical approval letters.......................................................................................... 398
vii
Tables Table 1.1: Summary of emotions in hearing music (Sloboda, 2010, p.510) ................................... 26 Table 1.2: The 16 Reiss Profile Motives (adapted from Reiss, 2004, p. 187)................................. 54 Table 1.3: Seligman’s 24 strengths (2011) .................................................................................. 58 Table 3.1: Age of participants................................................................................................... 100 Table 3.2: Cramer’s V effect values .......................................................................................... 103 Table 3.3: Styles grouped by umbrella headings ........................................................................ 105 Table 3.4: Highest level of education ........................................................................................ 107 Table 3.5: Musical training (5 levels) ........................................................................................ 108 Table 3.6: Musical training (3 levels) ........................................................................................ 108 Table 3.7: Highest grade achieved in music exams .................................................................... 109 Table 3.8: Music users ............................................................................................................. 110 Table 3.9: Length of time in years for which music had been used in exercise ............................ 112 Table 3.10: Style of self-selected music in Activity 1 ................................................................ 113 Table 3.11: Music type for Activity 1 where music was self-selected ......................................... 114 Table 3.12: Most important factor when selecting music ........................................................... 116 Table 3.13: Synchronising ........................................................................................................ 117 Table 3.14: Reasons for not using exercise music ...................................................................... 119 Table 3.15: Preferred activities ................................................................................................. 120 Table 3.16: First-named activity where music was used ............................................................. 121 Table 3.17: Gym and sports club membership ........................................................................... 121 Table 3.18: 5k times................................................................................................................. 122 Table 3.19: 5k times compared with UK average 2013* ............................................................ 123 Table 3.20: 5k average times in minutes:seconds ...................................................................... 124 Table 3.21: 5k Performance medians ........................................................................................ 124 Table 3.22: 5k Performance medians for music users and non-users........................................... 125 Table 3.23: 5k Performance medians for music preference ........................................................ 126 Table 3.24: 5k Performance medians for levels of synchronising ............................................... 126 Table 3.25: 5k Performance medians for levels of music training ............................................... 127 Table 3.26: Competitions ......................................................................................................... 127 Table 3.27: Exercise buddies and family support ....................................................................... 128 Table 3.28: Comparison of trait scores in the sample to trait score norms ................................... 129 Table 3.29: Propensity to make exercise plans .......................................................................... 131 Table 3.30: Adhering to plans................................................................................................... 131 Table 3.31: Adhering to plans: all-the-time planners.................................................................. 131 Table 3.32: Adhering to plans: some-of-the-time planners ......................................................... 132 Table 3.33: Exercuses (reasons given first) ............................................................................... 132 Table 3.34: Listening to music before an activity ...................................................................... 134 Table 3.35: Listening to music before exercise: reasons ............................................................. 134 Table 3.36: Not listening to music before exercise: reasons ....................................................... 135 Table 3.37: Using music before competitions (excludes non-competing participants) ................. 135 Table 3.38: Using music during competitions............................................................................ 136 Table 4.1: Participants’ age, location and occupation ................................................................. 145 Table 5.1: Participants’ gender, age and duration of gym membership ....................................... 208 Table 5.2: Calculation method of estimates of non-logged gym exercise .................................... 211
viii
Table 5.3: Frequency of exercise, comparing gender and exercise sessions................................. 214 Table 5.4: Media Use ............................................................................................................... 215 Table 5.5: Comparison of trait scores in the sample to trait score norms ..................................... 216 Table 5.6: High and low motivation frequencies........................................................................ 217 Table 5.7: Likert scores for motives .......................................................................................... 218 Table 5.8: Mean scores for strengths ......................................................................................... 220 Table 5.9: Correlations between Total Exercise and level of use of various media ...................... 221 Table 5.10: Correlations between Total Exercise and personality traits....................................... 222 Table 5.11: Correlations between Total Exercise and motives .................................................... 223 Table 5.12: Correlations between Total Exercise and strengths .................................................. 224 Table 5.13: Coefficients for mixed measurements regression, men and women .......................... 225 Table 5.14: Coefficients for mixed measurements regression, men ............................................. 226 Table 6.1: Years of exercise among regular exercisers ............................................................... 245 Table 6.2: Period of no exercise among returners ...................................................................... 246 Table 6.3: Planned number of exercise sessions per week: means .............................................. 247 Table 6.4: First-named activity ................................................................................................. 248 Table 6.5: Most important aim ................................................................................................. 249 Table 6.6: Barriers anticipated .................................................................................................. 250 Table 6.7: Attrition: rates and reasons ....................................................................................... 251 Table 6.8: Point of attrition: all participants, and by type, group and reason ................................ 252 Table 6.9: Differences between completers, part-completers and early withdrawers.................... 253 Table 6.10: Comparison of trait scores in the sample to trait score norms ................................... 254 Table 6.11: Adherence: means (intervention v no intervention) for completing exercisers (n = 50), calculated over the first 6 months of the study .............................................................. 255 Table 6.12: Correlations between adherence measurements ....................................................... 258 Table 6.13: Adherence: medians/means for the first six months of the study ............................... 259 Table 6.14: Comparison: participants achieving 150 minutes of exercise per week .... 263 Table 6.15: Comparison: participants exercising
