ISSN 1995-0780, Nanotechnologies in Russia, 2016, Vol. 11, Nos. 11–12, pp. 696–715. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2016. Original Russian Text © A.S. Surtaev, V.S. Serdyukov, A.N. Pavlenko, 2016, published in Rossiiskie Nanotekhnologii, 2016, Vol. 11, Nos. 11–12.
Nanotechnologies for Thermophysics: Heat Transfer and Crisis Phenomena at Boiling A. S. Surtaev*, V. S. Serdyukov, and A. N. Pavlenko Kutateladze Institute of Thermophysics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090 Russia *e-mail:
[email protected] Received March 22, 2016; in final form, August 10, 2016
Abstract—This article reviews the recent research on the effect of micro- and nanomodified surfaces and coatings on heat-transfer enhancement and critical heat fluxes (CHFs) at boiling. The first part contains a detailed review of papers devoted to investigation of boiling heat transfer and crisis phenomena in nanofluids. The interest in this field is caused by a significant increase in the CHF value at boiling of nanofluid due to the sedimentation of nanoparticles and altered wettability and porosity of heat-releasing surfaces. Possible mechanisms of the increase in CHF and the main disadvantages of using nanofluids in practical applications are discussed. The second part is devoted to various techniques that are used to create micro- and nanostructured heat-exchange surfaces and to research the effect of modified heaters on boiling performance. DOI: 10.1134/S1995078016060197
INTRODUCTION Boiling is one of the most efficient heat-transfer mechanisms. It is characterized by higher heat-transfer coefficients than single-phase heat transport. For this reason, boiling is widely used in various industrial applications, e.g., for cooling nuclear reactors, in chemical industry and heat power engineering, etc. In addition, the problem of improving the functionality and reliability of various microelectronic devices in which components must be kept at a constant temperature is currently of importance. The highly efficient boiling heat transfer is known to be limited in terms of heat flux by the development of crisis. When a critical heat flux (CHF) is reached, a vapor film is formed between a heating surface and liquid. The appearance of vapor film drastically reduces heat-transfer intensity and leads to rapid increase the temperature of the heating surface and its subsequent destruction, thus putting the heat power (including nuclear power) equipment out of service. These are the reasons why a lot of attention has been paid recently to developing techniques for enhancement boiling heat- and mass-transfer processes and increasing CHFs [1–6]. The active development of methods to fabricate nanoscale objects and to create nanostructures, as well as the possibility to study them at nanoscale level, has intensified discussions about their possible use in actual industrial applications. This has had its effect on fundamental and applied problems in thermophysics, which provides a physical basis for various power industries.
First of all, researchers have paid attention to the possibility of replacing traditional fluids with the socalled nanofluids. Those are colloidal liquids with small additions of nanoparticles of metals with sizes of 1–100 nm, oxides (Al2O3, CuO, SiO2, TiO2, and so on), and various modifications of carbon. However, researchers noted that the addition of nanoparticles into a fluid has little effect on boiling heat transfer. In fact, most studies report that the use of nanofluids reduces heat-transfer intensity. The most interest of researchers is devoted to effect of nanofluids on crisis phenomena development at boiling. Nevertheless, many authors note that this is caused by changes in the characteristics and properties of a heat-releasing surface and the formation of a nanocoating when particles are deposited on the surface during boiling. A more promising and topical direction is the development of techniques for fabrication micro- and nanomodified surfaces with controllable properties in order to intensify heat transfer and increase CHF at pool boiling. It is mentioned in the literature that, depending on the used technique of micro- and nanomodification and the structural characteristics and properties of coatings, boiling heat-transfer increase, CHF value growth or both effects simultaneously can be observed. In particular, it was shown that surface modification leads to changes in wettability characteristics (the value of the contact wetting angle). At the same time, mechanisms of boiling heat-transfer enhancement may vary depending on the type, properties and material of structures. For example, for some types of modified surfaces the enhancement occurs due to an increase in nucleation site density; for
696
NANOTECHNOLOGIES FOR THERMOPHYSICS
other types the dynamic and geometrical characteristics of growth and detachment of vapor bubbles are changed, etc. Along with the search for optimum material and configuration of micro/nanostructures, researchers seek the most cost-effective technology of synthesizing and manufacturing modified surfaces and coatings that would satisfy industrial requirements. In this review attempt to present and concisely summarize the main results on the use of various nanofluids and micro/nanomodified surfaces and coatings for enhancement of heat transfer and increasing boiling CHF at boiling is made. HEAT TRANSFER AND DEVELOPMENT OF CRISIS PHENOMENA AT BOILING OF NANOFLUID Choi coined the term nanofluid as a fluid with the addition of nanoscale particles in [7]. He showed that suspending particles with high thermal conductivity to a base fluid could significantly improve its thermal properties; this makes the use of nanofluids attractive in many heat-engineering applications. Afterwards, many researchers proved experimentally [8–11] that even an insignificant concentration of nanoparticles considerably increases the thermal conductivity of the fluid and enhances heat transfer in forced-convection mode in both laminar and turbulent flow regimes [12– 18]. Unlike for forced convection, different authors report contradictory experimental data for free-convection mode and nanoparticles addition on the heat transfer in this mode is still open and required further investigations [18]. This chapter deals with the effect of suspending nanoparticles into a fluid on heat-transfer processes and the development of crisis phenomena at phase transitions. Wen and Ding [19] experimentally studied pool boiling heat transfer in nanofluids that are based on Al2O3 particles with typical sizes of 10–50 nm. They observed a heat-transfer increase by 20–40% compared to the boiling of pure liquid. Authors point out that there was no sedimentation of nanoparticles on the heating surface due to the high stabilization of the colloid. Park and Jung [20] also observed no sedimentation of nanoparticles on the surface during the boiling of R22 freon and water with carbon nanotubes and obtained a 27% increase in the heat-transfer coefficient in the range of low heat fluxes. At the same time, some researchers note that the addition of nanoparticles only slightly changes heat transfer [21–23] and in some cases leads to a reduction in the intensity of heat transfer. For example, the research in [24, 25] showed that the addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles to water reduces the heat-transfer coefficient as compared to the pure liquid. Authors believe the reduction to be due to the sedimentation of nanoparticles on the surface with the possible change NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN RUSSIA
Vol. 11
697
in the density of nucleation sites. Gerardi et al. [26] used high-speed measurement techniques (synchronized infrared thermometry and video recording) and studied not only integral heat-transfer characteristics and the value of CHF, but also local characteristics, such as nucleation site density, bubble growth and departure times, nucleation frequency at boiling of nanofluids with SiO2 and diamond particles in concentrations of up to 0.1%. Analysis of the experimental data showed that for the given values of wall superheating, the nucleation frequency and the nucleation site density at boiling of nanofluid substantially reduces compared to the pure fluid. The most researchers interest is related with substantial effect of nanofluids on the value of boiling CHF. One of the first paper devoted to the study of this phenomenon was work [21], in which different concentrations of Al2O3 nanoparticles in water were used. It can be seen from Fig. 1 that even a small amount of Al2O3 nanoparticles (0.001 g/L) increases the value of CHF from 540 kW/m2 to 670 kW/m2. For a concentration of nanoparticles of 0.005 g/L, the value of CHF grows 200% compared to the data obtained in boiling of the pure liquid. At the same time, further increase of the concentration up to 0.01 g/L did not lead to any substantial CHF value growth. One of the main conclusions in this work was that drastically increase in the value of CHF at boiling of nanofluids could not be associated only with the increase of thermal conductivity and viscosity. In many subsequent studies [22, 23, 25–38], authors noted the effect of the sedimentation of nanosize particles on heat-releasing surfaces on the value of CHF at boiling of nanofluids. SEM images of heatreleasing surfaces taken by different authors after the boiling of nanofluids are presented in Fig. 2. In one of the first papers [39] authors studied the effect of the addition of TiO2 particles with typical sizes of 27 and 85 nm to water on the value of CHF for different concentrations. Similar to many other works, it was noted that CHF increases and nanoparticles are deposited on the surface as it is shown in the photographs in Fig. 2. However, authors also carried out research on crisis phenomena at boiling of the pure liquid on a surface modified as a result of boiling nanofluid. The results demonstrated that the value of CHF at boiling of the pure liquid on a coated surface is not lower than that obtained at boiling of the nanofluid. Authors made a conclusion that CHF increase is not directly related to the use of nanofluid as a coolant. The main influence on the development of crisis phenomena is exerted by changes in the characteristics of the surface that had been modified by nanofluid boiling. Based on the conclusions of [39], further research was aimed at revealing the key properties and characteristics of the modified surface that lead to CHF growth. For example, in one of the first studies, Ding et al. [14] experimentally demonstrated that the sedi-
Nos. 11–12
2016
698
SURTAEV et al.
q, kW/m2 2000
1500
H2O 0.001 g/L 0.005 g/L 0.01 g/L 0.025 g/L 0.05 g/L
qcr(0.025 g/L) = 1680 kW/m2 qcr(0.05 g/L) = 1590 kW/m2 qcr(0.01 g/L) = 1480 kW/m2 qcr(0.005 g/L) = 1480 kW/m2
1000 qcr(0.001 g/L) = 670 kW/m qcr= 540 kW/m2
500
0
20
40 ΔT, °С
60
80
Fig. 1. Boiling curves for the pure liquid and a nanofluid based on Al2O3 nanoparticles of different concentrations [21].
2
mentation of Al2O3, ZrO2 and SiO2 particles during boiling of nanofluid alters the surface energy and morphology, thus changing the wettability. Fig. 3 shows the results of measurements [40] of the static wetting angle on a surface that has been modified by the boiling of a nanofluid. It can be seen from the figure that the wetting angle for the smooth surface does not depend on the type of fluid (pure or with the addition of nanoparticles). On the other hand, for surfaces coated by nanoparticles, the wetting angle decreases several times for two classes of fluids. Dependence of critical heat flux on surface wettability can be explained in the following way. In [41–44], analyzing heater temperature field obtained by highspeed infrared recording, the so-called hot spots on heater surface in precrisis boiling modes were observed. These spots formed beneath vapor bubbles are the temperature response to the appearance of an unwetted zone on the heater and could be both reversible and irreversible. Reversible dry spots are characterized by their completely wetting after bubble departure and subsequent surface temperature drop in the area of active nucleation site. The irreversible spots, as a rule, are formed as a result of the coalescence of several dry spots under neighboring vapor bubbles in the
100 μm (b)
(a)
100 μm
100 μm (c)
1 163 nm
2 (d)
(f)
~ 5 nm ~ 20 μm
100 μm
5 μm
~ 2 μm
1 μm
(g)
59.2 nm
91.8 nm
25 nm (e)
500 nm
10 μm (h)
10 μm
Fig. 2. SEM images of surfaces after the boiling of nanofluids based on (a) TiO2 nanoparticles with a size of 85 nm (0.01%), (b) Al2O3 nanoparticles with a size of 47 nm (0.01%), (c) TiO2 nanoparticles with a size of 85 nm (0.01%) [27], (d) ZrO2 nanoparticles with a size of 15 nm (3.5 mol % Y2O3) [33], (e) Al2O3 nanoparticles with a size of 50 nm (0.1%) [34], (f) SiC nanoparticles with sizes of 50–100 nm [35], (g) SiO2 nanoparticles with sizes of 25–100 nm (0.25%) [23], and (h) AlSi nanoparticles [38]. NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN RUSSIA
Vol. 11
Nos. 11–12
2016
NANOTECHNOLOGIES FOR THERMOPHYSICS θ = 79°
699
θ = 73°
θ (b)
(a) θ = 22°
θ = 23°
(d)
(c)
Fig. 3. Measurements of the wetting angle by the method of a sessile 5-μL drop of (a) distilled water on the smooth surface, (b) water with addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles on the smooth surface, (c) distilled water on the surface with a coating deposited as a result of boiling of Al2O3 nanofluid, and (d) water with addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles on the modified surface [40].
crisis modes. The enlargement of the unwetted zone during the development of the crisis leads to the filmboiling site loses stability and propagates further to merge with other dry spots and eventually displace nucleate boiling mode. The formation of large irreversible dry spots is related to the deficiency of fluid inflow to the heater surface during the coalescence of neighboring vapor bubbles at the stage of their growth (the loss of stability of a two-phase layer near the heater surface). This worsens the wetting conditions for dry spots that form beneath vapor bubbles. It is clear intuitively that for well wetting liquids the thickness of a specific microlayer that forms under growing bubbles can be substantially lower, thus leading to higher heat-transfer coefficients in the area of microlayer and increasing the threshold of thermal stability of the film-boiling site. In the well-known hydrodynamic model of boiling crisis development suggested by Kutateladze [45], the value of the CHF does not depend directly on the properties of the surface, including its wetting characteristics:
q c r = kr ρv
12
( σ g (ρ l − ρv ))1 4,
(1)
where k is the constant for an incompressible twophase boundary layer. Later, Zuber [46] applied the Rayleigh method (a description of the stability of two plane-parallel nonviscous fluid flows) to a system of cubic cells of the fluid with inscribed spherical vapor bubbles to obtain that for such a model
π 1) heat-releasing surfaces [103]. 2016
710
SURTAEV et al.
(a)
10 μm
200 μm
(b) 1800 1600 q, kW/m2
1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0
5
10
15
20
25 30 ΔT, °C
35
40
45
Fig. 15. (Color online) (a) SEM images of hybrid micro/nanomodified silicon surface [105]; (b) water-boiling curves obtained for smooth, microstructured, and hybrid heat-releasing surfaces [107].
into account the effects of roughness parameters of the heat-releasing surface. The research [104] needs to be mentioned, in which heat transfer and the dynamics of separate vapor bubbles at ethanol boiling on both micro- and nanostructured surfaces were studied. Two types of ordered microstructures, the so-called “micro-pillars” and “micro-cavities,” were obtained with lithography followed by etching of the silicon substrate. Substrates were chemically etched in a mixture of silver nitrate (AgNO3) and hydrofluoric acid to prepare nanostructured surfaces with different values of porosity. The obtained experimental data indicate that at low-heat fluxes the surfaces with microstructures have much higher density of active nucleation sites than that on a smooth surface. At the same time, the nanostructuring of heating surface has practically no effect on the nucleation site density. The high rate of detachment of vapor bubbles at boiling on such surfaces preventing the formation of a vapor film and, as a consequence, raising the value of CHF. So-called hybrid surfaces (Fig. 15a) have recently become quite popular. Those are prepared by lithography and different physical–chemical methods [105]. To create them lithography and different physical–
chemical methods are usually used [105]. Ever increasing demands for the cooling of microelectronic devices, high-performance chips and microcircuits made by silicon are the main incentive for creating multiscale structures of this kind [5]. Kim et al. [106] created both separate micro- and nanostructures and multiscale structures on the surface of silicon heaters. The structures were microcolumns with a size of several dozens of microns with the edges coated with dense ordered arrays of nanofibers. The nanocoatings were produced by depositing a zincoxide film on the substrate and its subsequent etching in a mixture of zinc nitrate (Zn(NO3)2) and ammonia (NH3). It was shown that the hybrid surfaces are hydrophilic, which leads to an almost twofold increase in the value of CHF as compared to the unmodified surface. The results of studying the effect of modifying heater surfaces obtained by different techniques on boiling heat-transfer indicate that the highest heattransfer coefficients factors are achieved for only microstructuring. Yao et al. [107] carried out a research of pool boiling heat transfer on different silicon substrate with microchannels coated by SiNW (silicon nanowire) structures. The microchannels with a lateral size of
NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN RUSSIA
Vol. 11
Nos. 11–12
2016
NANOTECHNOLOGIES FOR THERMOPHYSICS
100 μm and a length of 10 mm were fabricated by photolithography and plasma etching. The nanofibers on the surface of the microchannels were fabricated by etching the substrates in a mixture of AgNO3 and HF. The average diameter and height of thus produced nanostructures were 50–80 nm and 15–20 μm, respectively. The experiments revealed a fourfold increase in the value of CHF at boiling on such hybrid surfaces (Fig. 15b). The analysis of the literature shown that lithography is currently actively used to modify surfaces with the aim of improving the cooling characteristics of various microelectronic devices. At the same time, in general photolithography is used for improvement of boiling performance. But it is known that this technique has a relative low spatial resolution allows only to create microstructures (which do not affect wettability properties) on the heat-exchange surface. The growth in the value of CHF at boiling on such surfaces, as a rule, is associated with an increase in the effective heated area due to structuring. Many authors link that the high heat transfer rate obtained at boiling of fluids on microstructured surfaces by photolithography is connected with high density of nucleation sites. The use of other varieties of lithographic techniques (X-ray, electron) with high high spatial resolution is rather costly and requires special equipment. Therefore, in order to create multiscale micro/nanostructures, lithography is used together with other physical and chemical methods. CONCLUSIONS In this review we tried to show nanotechnologies application in solving the topical problems of thermophysics related to boiling heat-transfer enhancement and critical heat flux increase. Based on an analysis of the literature on the boiling of nanofluids, we can draw the following conclusions: (i) in most works it is shown that the main effect on heat transfer and crisis phenomena is exerted by a nanomodification of the heater near-surface due to the sedimentation of nanoparticles during the boiling of nanofluid. At the same time the formation of such layer mainly negatively influence on the heat-transfer intensity; (ii) surface nanomodification during boiling of nanofluid significantly impacts on the surface wettability and the development of crisis phenomena. It has been shown that the value of CHF increases with the concentration of the nanoparticles. However, there is a limiting concentration value after which no further increase in the value of CHF is observed; (iii) the main mechanisms of influence of the characteristics and properties of nanomodified surface on pool boiling crisis phenomena have been considered. In particular, recent works show that an abnormal growth in the value of CHF is related not only to a NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN RUSSIA
Vol. 11
711
reduction of the wetting angle, but also to an additional effect of capillary wicking that promotes the more effective wetting of dry spots in precrisis modes of nucleate boiling. At the same time, theoretical models that are developed by different authors to describe their own experimental data and do not generalize the data of other researches. In the second part of this work, we considered in detail the main techniques for fabrication both microand nanostructured surfaces and coatings as applied to problems of boiling heat-transfer enhancement and CHF increase. The best results for the boiling of fluids on microstructured surfaces were observed for coatings produced by the sintering of metallic particles. The advantage of this method is the possibility to create highly porous coatings, with the drawback connected with the complexity of fabrication. Another promising way to create a porous coating is novel plasma spraying technique. It makes possible to produce three-dimensional capillary-porous coatings with high porosity, structure periodicity, and adhesion. At the same time, boiling heat transfer and crisis phenomena on such surfaces remain practically unstudied. Nowadays, the main attention of researchers is focused on problems of creating nanostructured surfaces and studying their influence on the boiling performance. In this review we described common physical and chemical methods, including vacuum sputtering, chemical vapor deposition, electrochemical deposition, lithography, etc., as well as their various combinations. The review of the literature indicates the high potential of the above-described methods. At the same time, the main mechanisms that lead to heat-exchange enhancement on modified surfaces are still unstudied. Despite the fact that there are theories that explain boiling CHF increase, there are no generally accepted theoretical model. A lot of attention has also been paid to studying the effect of the properties of nanomodified surface on the heat transfer and the value of CHF, although fouling of the heat exchange surface also is one of the most important problems. The fouling can lead to drastic increase in the thermal resistance and consequently to worse of heatexchange performance. At the same time, little attention has been paid to these issues in experiments with nanomodified surfaces. Such local characteristics of the process as the density of nucleation sites, the nucleation frequency, the bubbles departure diameter, etc., and the effect of the modified surface on these microcharacteristics also remain poorly understood. Knowledge of these parameters is important both for scientific understanding of the physics of the process and for determination reasons of increase or reduction of the heat transfer intensity at boiling. Therefore, for successful development of this topic in both fundamental and applied aspects further investigations are required.
Nos. 11–12
2016
712
SURTAEV et al.
However, insufficient insight into the processes physics does not prevent successful practical application of several technologies, in particular, in the USA and China. For example, in 2015, researchers from Massachusetts Institute of Technology proposed to use graphene nanocoating in some elements of heat exchangers and steam condensers. That would increase the efficiency of thermal power stations by several percent, resulting in multimillion dollars savings for each station annually. The high potential of using these technologies proves that interest in nanomodified heat-exchange surfaces and coatings will only grow in the future. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project nos. 15-38-20982mol_a_ved and no. 14-08-00635-a. REFERENCES 1. M. E. Poniewski and J. R. Thome, “Nucleate boiling on micro-structured surfaces,” LTCM-BOOK-2008001 (Heat Transfer Res. Inc., USA, 2008). 2. I. A. Popov, Kh. M. Makhyanov, and V. M. Gureev, Physical Principles and Industrial Application of Heat Exchange Intensification (Tsentr Innovats. Tekhnol., Kazan, 2009) [in Russian]. 3. D. Attinger et al., “Surface engineering for phase change heat transfer: a review,” MRS Energy Sustainability 1, E4 (2014). 4. M. Shojaeian and A. Kosar, “Pool boiling and flow boiling on micro-and nanostructured surfaces,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 63, 45 (2015). 5. C. M. Patil and S. G. Kandlikar, “Review of the manufacturing techniques for porous surfaces used in enhanced pool boiling,” Heat Transfer Eng. 35, 887 (2014). 6. M. McCarthy, “Recent advances in micro-nano-scale surface modifications and their effects on pool boiling critical heat flux and heat transfer coefficient,” in The Encyclopedia of Two-Phase Heat Transfer and Flow II (World Scientific, Singapore, 2015). 7. S. U. S. Choi, “Enhancing thermal conductivity of fluids with nanoparticles,” in Developments and Applications of Non-Newtonian Flows, Ed. by D. A. Siginer and H. P. Wang, Fluids Engineering Division FED, Vol. 231, Materials Division MD, Vol. 66 (ASME, New York, 1995), p. 99. 8. J. A. Eastman et al., “Anomalously increased effective thermal conductivities of ethylene glycol-based nanofluids containing copper nanoparticles,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 718 (2001). 9. M. S. Liu et al., “Enhancement of thermal conductivity with Cu for nanofluids using chemical reduction method,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 49, 3028 (2006). 10. S. Jana, A. Salehi-Khojin, and W. H. Zhong, “Enhancement of fluid thermal conductivity by the
addition of single and hybrid nano-additives,” Thermochimica 462, 45 (2007). 11. X. Q. Wang and A. S. Mujumdar, “Heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids: a review,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 46, 1 (2007). 12. Q. Li et al., “Experimental investigation on flow and convective heat transfer feature of a nanofluid for aerospace thermal management,” Yuhang Xuebao (J. Astronaut. (China)) 26, 391 (2005). 13. Y. Yang et al., “Heat transfer properties of nanoparticle-in-fluid dispersions (nanofluids) in laminar flow,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 48, 1107 (2005). 14. Y. L. Ding, H. Alias, D. S. Wen, et al., “Heat transfer of aqueous suspensions of carbon nanotubes (CNT nanofluids),” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 49, 240 (2006). 15. Y. Ding, H. Chen, L. Wang, et al., “Heat transfer intensification using nanofluids,” KONA Powder Part. J., No. 25, 23 (2007). 16. W. Yu et al., “Review and comparison of nanofluid thermal conductivity and heat transfer enhancements,” Heat Transfer Eng. 29, 432 (2008). 17. V. I. Terekhov, S. V. Kalinina, and V. V. Lemanov, “Mechanism of heat transfer in nanofluids: state of the art (review). Part 1. Synthesis and properties of nanofluids,” Thermophys. Aeromech. 17, 1 (2010). 18. V. I. Terekhov, S. V. Kalinina, and V. V. Lemanov, “The mechanism of heat transfer in nanofluids: state of the art (review). Part 2. Convective heat transfer,” Thermophys. Aeromech. 17, 157 (2010). 19. D. Wen and Y. Ding, “Experimental investigation into the pool boiling heat transfer of aqueous based γ-alumina nanofluids,” J. Nanopart. Res. 7, 265 (2005). 20. K. J. Park and D. Jung, “Enhancement of nucleate boiling heat transfer using carbon nanotubes,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 50, 4499 (2007). 21. S. M. You, J. H. Kim, and K. H. Kim, “Effect of nanoparticles on critical heat flux of water in pool boiling heat transfer,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 3374 (2003). 22. P. Vassallo, R. Kumar, and S. D’Amico, “Pool boiling heat transfer experiments in silica water nano-fluids,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 47, 407 (2004). 23. A. Minakov, M. Pryazhnikov, and V. Rudyak, “The investigation of boiling crisis of nanofluids,” in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Interfacial Phenomena and Heat Transfer, Novosibirsk, Russia, March 2–4, 2016, p. 22. 24. S. K. Das, N. Putra, and W. Roetzel, “Pool boiling characteristics of nano-fluids,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 46, 851 (2003). 25. I. C. Bang and S. H. Chang, “Boiling heat transfer performance and phenomena of Al2O3 water nanofluids from a plain surface in a pool,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 48, 2407 (2005). 26. C. Gerardi et al., “Infrared thermometry study of nanofluid pool boiling phenomena,” Nanoscale Res. Lett. 6 (1), 1 (2011).
NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN RUSSIA
Vol. 11
Nos. 11–12
2016
NANOTECHNOLOGIES FOR THERMOPHYSICS 27. S. J. Kim et al., “Effects of nanoparticle deposition on surface wettability influencing boiling heat transfer in nanofluids,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 89 (15), 153107 (2006). 28. S. J. Kim et al., “Surface wettability change during pool boiling of nanofluids and its effect on critical heat flux,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 50 (19), 4105 (2007). 29. H. D. Kim, J. Kim, and M. H. Kim, “Experimental studies on CHF characteristics of nano-fluids at pool boiling,” Int. J. Multiphase Flow 33 (7), 691 (2007). 30. Z. Liu and L. Liao, “Sorption and agglutination phenomenon of nanofluids on a plain heating surface during pool boiling,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 51 (9), 2593 (2008). 31. J. S. Coursey and J. Kim, “Nanofluid boiling: the effect of surface wettability,” Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow 29 (6), 1577 (2008). 32. Y. H. Jeong, W. J. Chang, and S. H. Chang, “Wettability of heated surfaces under pool boiling using surfactant solutions and nano-fluids,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 51 (11), 3025 (2008). 33. B. P. Fokin, M. Ya. Belen’kii, V. I. Almjashev, V. B. Khabensky, O. V. Almjasheva, and V. V. Gusarov, “Critical heat flux in a boiling aqueous dispersion of nanoparticles,” Tech. Phys. Lett. 35, 440 (2009). 34. T. I. Kim, Y. H. Jeong, and S. H. Chang, “An experimental study on CHF enhancement in flow boiling using Al2O3 nano-fluid,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 53, 1015 (2010). 35. Yu. A. Kuzma-Kichta, A. V. Lavrikov, M. V. Shustov, et al., “Studying heat transfer enhancement for water boiling on a surface with micro- and nanorelief,” Therm. Eng. 61, 210 (2014). 36. M. M. Sarafraz, T. Kiani, and F. Hormozi, “Critical heat flux and pool boiling heat transfer analysis of synthesized zirconia aqueous nano-fluids,” Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer 70, 75 (2016). 37. M. M. Sarafraz and F. Hormozi, “Experimental investigation on the pool boiling heat transfer to aqueous multi-walled carbon nanotube nanofluids on the micro-finned surfaces,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 100, 255 (2016). 38. B. I. Bondarenko, V. N. Moraru, S. V. Sidorenko, D. V. Komysh, and A. I. Khovavko, “Nanofluids for energetics: effect of stabilization on the critical heat flux at boiling,” Tech. Phys. Lett. 38, 856 (2012). 39. H. D. Kim and M. H. Kim, “CHF enhancement in pool boiling of nanofluid: effect of nanoparticle-coating on heating surface,” in Proceedings of 2005 Spring Meeting of the Korean Nuclear Society, Korea, 2005. 40. S. J. Kim et al., “Surface wettability change during pool boiling of nanofluids and its effect on critical heat flux,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 50 (19), 4105 (2007). 41. T. G. Theofanous et al., “The boiling crisis phenomenon. Part I: Nucleation and nucleate boiling heat transfer,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 26 (6), 775 (2002). 42. T. G. Theofanous et al., “The boiling crisis phenomenon. Part II: Dryout dynamics and burnout,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 26 (6), 793 (2002). NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN RUSSIA
Vol. 11
Nos. 11–12
713
43. T. G. Theofanous and T. N. Dinh, “High heat flux boiling and burnout as microphysical phenomena: mounting evidenceand opportunities,” Multiphase Sci. Technol. 18, 3 (2006). 44. C. D. Gerardi, “Investigation of the pool boiling heat transfer enhancement of nano-engineered fluids by means of high-speed infrared thermography,” PhD Thesis (Massachusetts Inst. Technology, 2009). 45. S. S. Kutateladze, “Hydrodynamic model of the crisis of heat transfer in a boiling liquid with free convection,” Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 20 (11), 1389 (1950). 46. N. Zuber, “Hydrodynamics aspects of boiling heat transfer,” PhD Thesis, No. AECU 4439 (California Univ., Ramo-Wooldridge, Los Angeles, 1959). 47. I. I. Gogonin and S. S. Kutateladze, “To the dependence of critical heat flux from the heater size for boiling liquid in a large volume,” Inzh.-Fiz. Zh. 33 (5), 802 (1977). 48. I. I. Gogonin, “The critical heat flux under boiling and its dependence on the characteristics of heat-transfer wall,” High Temp. 48, 77 (2010). 49. S. G. Kandlikar, “A theoretical model to predict pool boiling CHF incorporating effects of contact angle and orientation,” J. Heat Transfer 123 (6), 1071 (2001). 50. M. N. Golubovic et al., “Nanofluids and critical heat flux, experimental and analytical study,” Appl. Therm. Eng. 29 (7), 1281 (2009). 51. H. Kim and M. Kim, “Experimental study of the characteristics and mechanism of pool boiling CHF enhancement using nanofluids,” Heat Mass Transfer 45 (7), 991 (2009). 52. H. Kim, “Enhancement of critical heat flux in nucleate boiling of nanofluids: a state-of-art review,” Nanoscale Res. Lett. 6, 1 (2011). 53. H. D. Kim and M. H. Kim, “Effect of nanoparticle deposition on capillary wicking that influences the critical heat flux in nanofluids,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 014104 (2007). 54. H. Kim, E. Kim, and M. H. Kim, “Effect of nanoparticle deposit layer properties on pool boiling critical heat flux of water from a thin wire,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 69, 164 (2014). 55. J. Buongiorno et al., “A feasibility assessment of the use of nanofluids to enhance the in-vessel retention capability in light-water reactors,” Nucl. Eng. Des. 239, 941 (2009). 56. K. Hadad et al., “Neutronic study of nanofluids application to VVER-1000,” Ann. Nucl. Energy 37 (11), 1447 (2010). 57. I. C. Bang and G. Heo, “An axiomatic design approach in development of nanofluid coolants,” Appl. Therm. Eng. 29, 75 (2009). 58. J. Lee and I. Mudawar, “Assessment of the effectiveness of nanofluids for single-phase and two-phase heat transfer in micro-channels,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 50, 452 (2007). 2016
714
SURTAEV et al.
59. S. M. Kwark et al., “Nanocoating characterization in pool boiling heat transfer of pure water,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 53 (21), 4579 (2010). 60. D. H. Min et al., “2-d and 3-d modulated porous coatings for enhanced pool boiling,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 52, 2607 (2009). 61. S. G. Liter and M. Kaviany, “Pool-boiling CHF enhancement by modulated porous-layer coating: theory and experiment,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 44, 4287 (2001). 62. C. Li and G. P. Peterson, “Geometric effects on critical heat flux on horizontal microporous coatings,” J. Thermophys. Heat Transfer 24, 449 (2010). 63. C. Byon, S. Choi, and S. J. Kim, “Critical heat flux of bi-porous sintered copper coatings in FC-72,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 65, 655 (2013). 64. Z. Zak Fang, Sintering of Advanced Materials: Fundamental and Processes (Woodhead, Cambridge, UK, 2010). 65. X. S. Wang, Z. B. Wang, and Q. Z. Chen, “Research on manufacturing technology and heat transfer characteristics of sintered porous surface tubes,” Adv. Mater. Res. 97, 1161 (2010). 66. R. G. Scurlock, “Enhanced boiling heat transfer surfaces,” Cryogenics 35, 233 (1995). 67. V. I. Kalita and D. I. Komlev, Plasma Coatings with Nanocrystalline and Amorphous Structure (Lider, Moscow, 2008) [in Russian]. 68. A. S. Surtaev, A. N. Pavlenko, V. I. Kalita, D. V. Kuznetsov, D. I. Komlev, A. A. Radyuk and A. Yu. Ivannikov, “The influence of three-dimensional capillary-porous coatings on heat transfer at liquid boiling,” Tech. Phys. Lett. 42, 391 (2016). 69. L. B. Boinovich and A. M. Emel’yanenko, “Hydrophobic materials and coatings: principles of design, properties and applications,” Russ. Chem. Rev. 77, 583 (2008). 70. L. Feng, et al., “A super-hydrophobic and super-oleophilic coating mesh film for the separation of oil and water,” Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43 (15), 2012 (2004). 71. A. M. Muzafarov, “The development of coatings that give superhydrophobic properties to the surface of silicone rubber,” Nanotechnol. Russ. 3, 587–592 (2008). 72. L. B. Boinovich, A. G. Domantovskii, A. M. Emelyanenko, A. B. Miller, Yu. F. Potapov, A. N. Khodan, “Antiicing performance of superhydrophobic coatings on aluminum and stainless steel,” Russ. Chem. Bull. 62, 380 (2013). 73. B. Bourdon et al., “Enhancing the onset of pool boiling by wettability modification on nanometrically smooth surfaces,” Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer 45, 11 (2013). 74. I. I. Gogonin, “The effect of wetting angle on heat transfer at boiling,” Thermophys. Aeromech. 17 (2), 243 (2010). 75. Q. Yang, J. Ding, and Z. Shen, “Investigation on fouling behaviors of low-energy surface and fouling fractal characteristics,” Chem. Eng. Sci. 55 (4), 797 (2000).
76. Y. Cai, M. Liu, and L. Hui, “CaCO3 fouling on microscale-nanoscale hydrophobic titania-fluoroalkylsilane films in pool boiling,” AIChE J. 59 (7), 2662 (2013). 77. L. Hui et al., “Fouling resistance on chemically etched hydrophobic surfaces in nucleate pool boiling,” Chem. Eng. Technol. 38 (3), 416 (2015). 78. L. L. Wang and M. Y. Liu, “Pool boiling fouling and corrosion properties on liquid-phase-deposition TiO2 coatings with copper substrate,” AIChE J. 57, 1710 (2011). 79. H. O’Hanley, et al., “Separate effects of surface roughness, wettability, and porosity on the boiling critical heat flux,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 103, 024102 (2013). 80. S. Prakash and J. Yeom, Nanofluidics and Microfluidics: Systems and Applications (William Andrew, Norwich, NY, 2014). 81. R. Kelsall, I. W. Hamley, and M. Geoghegan, Nanoscale Science and Technology (Wiley, UK, 2005). 82. S. Li et al., “Nature-inspired boiling enhancement by novel nanostructured macroporous surfaces,” Adv. Function. Mater. 18, 2215 (2008). 83. M. S. El-Genk and A. F. Ali, “Enhanced nucleate boiling on copper micro-porous surfaces,” Int. J. Multiphase Flow 36, 780 (2010). 84. P. Xu, Q. Li, and Y. Xuan, “Enhanced boiling heat transfer on composite porous surface,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 80, 107 (2015). 85. Y. Y. Li, Z. H. Liu, and B. C. Zheng, “Experimental study on the saturated pool boiling heat transfer on nano-scale modification surface,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 84, 550 (2015). 86. B. J. Zhang, K. J. Kim, and H. Yoon, “Enhanced heat transfer performance of alumina sponge-like nanoporous structures through surface wettability control in nucleate pool boiling,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 55, 7487 (2012). 87. H. S. Ahn et al., “Pool boiling CHF enhancement by micro/nanoscale modification of zircaloy-4 surface,” Nucl. Eng. Des. 240 (10), 3350 (2010). 88. H. S. Ahn et al., “The effect of capillary wicking action of micro/nano structures on pool boiling critical heat flux,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 55, 89 (2012). 89. C. Li et al., “Nanostructured copper interfaces for enhanced boiling,” Small 4, 1084 (2008). 90. J. Y. Ho, K. C. Leong, and C. Yang, “Saturated pool boiling from carbon nanotube coated surfaces at different orientations,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 79, 893–904 (2014). 91. R. Bertossi et al., “Influence of carbon nanotubes on deionized water pool boiling performances,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 61, 187 (2015). 92. M. Dharmendra et al., “Pool boiling heat transfer enhancement using vertically aligned carbon nanotube coatings on a copper substrate,” Appl. Therm. Eng. 99, 61 (2016).
NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN RUSSIA
Vol. 11
Nos. 11–12
2016
NANOTECHNOLOGIES FOR THERMOPHYSICS 93. J. A. Weibel et al., “Carbon nanotube coatings for enhanced capillary-fed boiling from porous microstructures,” Nanoscale Microscale Thermophys. Eng. 16 (1), 1 (2012). 94. H. S. Ahn et al., “Pool boiling experiments on multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) forests,” J. Heat Transfer 128 (12), 1335 (2006). 95. H. S. Ahn, V. Sathyamurthi, and D. Banerjee, “Pool boiling experiments on a nano-structured surface,” IEEE Trans. Compon. Packaging Technol. 32 (1), 156 (2009). 96. S. Ujereh, T. Fisher, and I. Mudawar, “Effects of carbon nanotube arrays on nucleate pool boiling,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 50 (19), 4023 (2007). 97. J. P. McHale et al., “Pool boiling performance comparison of smooth and sintered copper surfaces with and without carbon nanotubes,” Nanoscale Microscale Thermophys. Eng. 15 (3), 133 (2011). 98. R. Chen et al., “Nanowires for enhanced boiling heat transfer,” Nano Lett. 9 (2), 548 (2009). 99. M. C. Lu et al., “Critical heat flux of pool boiling on Si nanowire array-coated surfaces,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 54 (25), 5359 (2011). 100. Z. Yao, Y. W. Lu, and S. G. Kandlikar, “Effects of nanowire height on pool boiling performance of water on silicon chips,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 50 (11), 2084 (2011).
NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN RUSSIA
Vol. 11
715
101. H. Honda, H. Takamastu, and J. J. Wei, “Enhanced boiling of FC-72 on silicon chips with micro-pin-fins and submicron-scale roughness,” J. Heat Transfer 124 (2), 383 (2002). 102. J. J. Wei and H. Honda, “Effects of fin geometry on boiling heat transfer from silicon chips with micropin-fins immersed in FC-72,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 46 (21), 4059 (2003). 103. K. H. Chu, R. Enright, and E. N. Wang, “Structured surfaces for enhanced pool boiling heat transfer,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 100 (24), 241603 (2012). 104. L. Dong, X. Quan, and P. Cheng, “An experimental investigation of enhanced pool boiling heat transfer from surfaces with micro/nano-structures,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 71, 189 (2014). 105. B. S. Kim et al., “Micro-nano hybrid structures with manipulated wettability using a two-step silicon etching on a large area,” Nanoscale Res. Lett. 6 (1), 1 (2011). 106. S. Kim et al., “Effects of nano-fluid and surfaces with nano structure on the increase of CHF,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 34 (4), 487 (2010). 107. Z. Yao, Y. W. Lu, and S. G. Kandlikar, “Fabrication of nanowires on orthogonal surfaces of microchannels and their effect on pool boiling,” J. Micromech. Microeng. 22 (11), 115005 (2012).
Nos. 11–12
2016
