Napier University Edinburgh

Napier University Edinburgh

Thesis in Submission of Degree of Master of Philosophy

‘NLP as an accessible framework for raising awareness of learning preferences and performance in police recruit training.’

School of Computing

Name: Bryan Rodgers Supervisors: Fred Percival, Sandra Cairncross and Shirley Earl

MPhil Thesis

Authorship Declaration I, Bryan Rodgers, confirm that this dissertation and the work presented in it are my own achievement.

1

Where I have consulted the published work of others this is always clearly attributed.

2

Where I have quoted from the work of others the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations this dissertation is entirely my own work.

3

I have acknowledged all main sources of help.

4

If my research follows on from previous work or is part of a larger collaborative research project I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself.

5

I have read and understand the penalties associated with plagiarism.

Signed:

Dated:

Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

2

MPhil Thesis

Acknowledgements This thesis represents the final section of a road I have travelled for five years, the preparation for which has been around for the two years that preceded that, I would not have reached this stage without a great deal of encouragement and support. Accordingly I would like to extend my thanks to;

•

My wife, Linda for her patience perseverance and support.

•

Dr. Sandra Cairncross, Ms Shirley Earl and Professor Fred Percival, Napier University for their advice and support throughout this undertaking.

•

Superintendent Derek Penman, Central Scotland Police for his continued support and advice.

•

The International Police Association for their Sponsorship.

•

Mr Trevor Silvestor, Quest Education and Development for his support, expertise and for being such a fine trainer.

•

Mr. Charles Milne, Former Deputy Commandant, Scottish Police College for his initial encouragement and support in undertaking this project.

•

Mr David Garbutt, Director, Scottish Police College for his support and kind permission to allow access to the staff and students of the Scottish Police College.

•

Superintendent John Thomson, Former Head of Research and Development Division, Scottish Police College for his advice and support.

•

The Students at the Scottish Police College who provided their time.


3

MPhil Thesis

Abstract The research questions posed and detailed within this thesis explore relationships between individual performance and learning preferences within a vocational training environment. The population for the research are recruits to the Scottish Police Service and was selected due to the background and formative environment of the author.

The initial chapter of the thesis explores the environment, as well as the reasons behind the desire to undertake the research. In addition the application of Representational Systems defined by Neuro-Linguistic Programming are introduced as the focus for the categorisation of learning preferences. The literature review in Chapter 2 breaks down into the clearly defined areas of learning, styles and strategies and NLP. This allows comparison between established theories and similarities to aspects of NLP.

Aside from the structure of the research approach as well as the reasoning behind it, the thesis goes on to explore links between lead preferences for the intake of information and making sense of learning, and performance in the different areas of the recruits training course, wrapped around this are qualitative research tools such as semi-structured interviews and ‘snapshot’ learning diaries.

The thesis concludes by exploring the reliability of NLP to identify the learning preferences of individuals in the vocational learning environment as well as areas of advantage or disadvantage to the individual for both their personal development and consideration in design and delivery by the Scottish Police College.


4

MPhil Thesis

Contents Authorship Declaration ...............................................................................................2 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................3 Abstract.........................................................................................................................4 Contents ........................................................................................................................5 List of Tables ..............................................................................................................10 List of Figures.............................................................................................................13 List of Appendices......................................................................................................16 Chapter 1 – Introduction...........................................................................................17 1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................17 1.2 Background ..................................................................................................17 1.3 Formative Environment ..............................................................................20 1.3.1 Early Application of NLP in Distance Learning Materials ........................20 1.3.2 Development through the Scottish Police College .....................................22 1.3.3 Applied use of NLP in Education ...............................................................23 1.3.4 Triggers to Undertaking Current Research .................................................24 1.3.5 Previous Educational Research Undertaken with regard to NLP ...............25 1.3.6 Intended Outcomes of Research .................................................................26 1.3.7 Background Summary ................................................................................26 1.4 The Scottish Police College .........................................................................27 1.4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................27 1.4.2 Management Structure ................................................................................27 1.4.3 Purpose of Police Training..........................................................................28 1.4.4 Structure of Training within the Scottish Police College ...........................29 1.4.4.1 Management Development Division ...................................................30 1.4.4.2 Crime Management Division ...............................................................30 1.4.4.3 Roads Policing Division ......................................................................31 1.4.4.4 Probationer Training Division .............................................................31 1.4.5 Training Support within the Scottish Police College..................................34 1.4.6 Assessment Mechanisms within the Scottish Police College .....................35 1.4.7 Selection and Recruitment of Training Staff ..............................................36 1.4.8 Current Developments ................................................................................37 1.5 Summary.......................................................................................................39 Chapter 2 – Literature Review .................................................................................40 2.1 Approach ......................................................................................................40


5

MPhil Thesis 2.2 Learning Styles and Strategies ...................................................................40 2.2.1 Theories on Learning ..................................................................................43 2.2.1.1 Cognitive Learning Styles....................................................................43 2.2.1.1.1 Verbaliser versus Imager ......................................................45 2.2.2.1.2 Wholist versus Analytic........................................................45 2.2.1.2 Constructivist Theory...........................................................................46 2.2.1.3 Experiential Learning...........................................................................47 2.2.1.4 Andragogy............................................................................................52 2.2.2 Individual Learning Strategies....................................................................53 2.2.3 Student Approaches with Higher Education...............................................55 2.2.3.1 Overview..............................................................................................55 2.2.3.2 Approaches to Learning .......................................................................57 2.2.3.3 Learning Outcomes ..............................................................................59 2.2.3.4 Quality Learning at University ............................................................60 2.2.4 Summary .....................................................................................................61 2.3 Neuro Linguistic Programming – An Introduction..................................62 2.3.1 Identified Research in NLP.........................................................................65 2.3.2 Principles of NLP........................................................................................66 2.3.3 Deep and Surface Structures.......................................................................69 2.3.4 Filters ..........................................................................................................69 2.3.4.1. Generalisation .....................................................................................71 2.3.4.2. Distortion ............................................................................................72 2.3.4.3 Deletion................................................................................................72 2.3.5 Meta Model.................................................................................................73 2.3.6 Representational Systems (Modalities).......................................................73 2.3.7 Sub-Modalities............................................................................................75 2.3.7.1 Visual Sub-Modalities .........................................................................76 2.3.7.2 Audio Sub-Modalities..........................................................................76 2.3.7.3 Kinaesthetic Sub-Modalities................................................................76 2.3.7.4 Digital Sub-Modalities.........................................................................76 2.3.8 Identification of Representational Systems ................................................77 2.3.8.1 Predicates .............................................................................................77 2.3.8.2 Physiology............................................................................................78 2.3.8.3 Visual Accessing Cues.........................................................................79 2.3.8.4. Representational Systems Bias Test ...................................................80 2.3.9 Strategies.....................................................................................................81 2.3.9.1 T.O.T.E Model.....................................................................................81 2.3.10 Summary ...................................................................................................82 Chapter 3 – Research Approach ..............................................................................84 3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................84 3.2 Research Methodologies ..............................................................................86 3.2.1 Ethnographic Methodologies ......................................................................86 3.2.2 Experimental Methodologies ......................................................................87 3.2.3 Alternative Methodologies..........................................................................88 3.2.3.1 Surveys.................................................................................................88 3.2.3.2 Focus Groups .......................................................................................89 3.2.3.3 Case Studies .........................................................................................89


6

MPhil Thesis 3.3 Lessons Learned from Initial Project ........................................................91 3.3.1 Classification of Initial Project Research....................................................93 3.3.2 Summary of Lessons Learned from Project................................................94 3.5 Research Design ...........................................................................................97 3.5.1 Selection of NLP.........................................................................................97 3.5.2 Ethical Issues ..............................................................................................98 3.5.2.1 Personal Data Storage ..........................................................................98 3.5.2.2 Impact on Student Time.......................................................................99 3.5.2.3 Participant Awareness........................................................................100 3.5.3 Population .................................................................................................101 3.5.4 Examination Results .................................................................................103 3.5.5 Identification of Learning Preferences......................................................104 3.5.5.1 Completion of Representational Systems Questionnaire...................106 3.5.6 Snapshot Learning Diaries........................................................................108 3.5.6.1 Introduction........................................................................................108 3.5.6.2 Design ................................................................................................108 3.5.7 Semi-Structured Interviews ......................................................................110 3.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................111 Chapter 4 – Results..................................................................................................113 4.1 Introduction................................................................................................113 4.2 Overview .....................................................................................................114 4.3 Performance by Lead Preference .............................................................115 4.3.1 Digital .......................................................................................................116 4.3.1.1 Student ‘A’.........................................................................................116 4.3.1.2 Module 1 Examination.......................................................................120 4.3.1.3 Module 2 Examination.......................................................................123 4.3.1.4 Module 3 Examination.......................................................................126 4.3.1.5 Module 4 Examination.......................................................................128 4.3.1.6 Student ‘B’ .........................................................................................131 4.3.2 Visual ........................................................................................................135 4.3.2.1 Student ‘C’ .........................................................................................135 4.3.2.2 Module 1 Examination.......................................................................138 4.3.2.3 Module 2 Examination.......................................................................142 4.3.2.4 Module 3 Examination.......................................................................144 4.3.2.5 Module 4 Examination.......................................................................147 4.3.2.6 Student ‘D’.........................................................................................150 4.3.3 Audio.........................................................................................................152 4.3.3.1 Student ‘E’ .........................................................................................152 4.3.3.2 Module 1 Examination.......................................................................155 4.3.3.3 Module 2 Examination.......................................................................157 4.3.3.4 Module 3 Examination.......................................................................160 4.3.3.5 Module 4 Examination.......................................................................163 4.3.3.6 Student ‘F’ .........................................................................................165 4.3.4 Kinaesthetic...............................................................................................168 4.3.4.1 Student ‘G’.........................................................................................169 4.3.4.2 Module 1 Examination.......................................................................173 Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

7

MPhil Thesis 4.3.4.3 Module 2 Examination.......................................................................177 4.3.4.4 Module 3 Examination.......................................................................179 4.3.4.5 Module 4 Examination.......................................................................182 4.3.4.6 Student ‘H’.........................................................................................184 4.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................187 Chapter 5 – Statistical Analysis of Quantative Results ........................................189 5.1 Introduction and Approach ......................................................................189 5.2. Selection of Statistical Tools.....................................................................189 5.3 Statistical Analysis of Lead Learning Preferences by Modular Examination Results Using Chi Square Test.................................................191 5.3.1 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Overall Mean Examination Results................................................................................................................191 5.3.2 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Module 1 Examination Results ............................................................................................................................195 5.3.3 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Module 2 Examination Results ............................................................................................................................199 5.3.3 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Module 3 Examination Results ............................................................................................................................203 5.3.4 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Module 3 Examination Results ............................................................................................................................207 5.4 Statistical Analysis of Lead Learning Preferences by Modular Examination Results Using Analysis of Variance .........................................211 5.4.1 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Overall Mean Examination Results................................................................................................................211 5.4.2 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Module 1 Examination Results ............................................................................................................................212 5.4.3 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Module 2 Examination Results ............................................................................................................................213 5.4.4 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Module 3 Examination Results ............................................................................................................................214 5.4.5 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Module 4 Examination Results ............................................................................................................................215 5.5 Summary of Statistical Analysis ...............................................................216 5.4.1 Results of Statistical Significance.............................................................218 5.4.2 Other Results of Interest ...........................................................................219 Chapter 6 – Conclusions..........................................................................................221 6.1 Introduction................................................................................................221 6.2 Representational Systems..........................................................................222 6.2.1 Individual Performance in Module 1 Examination within the Initial Training Course .................................................................................................222 6.2.2 Individual Performance in Module 2 Examination within the Initial Training Course .................................................................................................224 Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

8

MPhil Thesis 6.2.3 Individual Performance in Module 3 Examination within the Initial Training Course .................................................................................................226 6.2.4 Individual Performance in Module 4 Examination within the Initial Training Course .................................................................................................227 6.2.5 Summary of Individual Performance in Examinations within the Initial Training Course .................................................................................................229 6.3 Summary of Qualitative Information ......................................................231 6.3.1 Summary of Qualitative Information from Snapshot Diaries...................231 6.3.2 Summary of Qualitative Information from Case Studies .........................232 6.4 Improved Performance through Awareness of Individual Preferences238 6.4.1 Self Reflection by Students.......................................................................238 6.4.2 Matching Preferences to Individual Approach .........................................239 6.4.3 Teaching Strategies...................................................................................239 6.5 Future Development of Research Approach ...........................................240 6.6 Identified Future Work .............................................................................240 6.6.1 Access of Understanding to Learning Approaches...................................240 6.6.2 Reliable Indicator of NLP Lead Preference..............................................241 6.6.3 Distribution of Preferences within General Population ............................242 6.6.4 Impact of Supporting Preferences.............................................................243 6.7 Summary.....................................................................................................244


9

MPhil Thesis

List of Tables Table 1.1 Module Titles for 1st Stage Training Course ...............................................34 Table 1.2 New Module Titles for Initial Training Course ...........................................38 Table 2.1 Examples of Representational System Predicates .......................................78 Table 2.2 Examples of Representational System Posture and Body Cues ..................79 Table 4.1 Population by Lead Preference ..................................................................115 Table 4.2 Mean Results of Learners with a Digital Lead Preference ........................116 Table 4.3 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘A’ .....................117 Table 4.4 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘A’............................118 Table 4.5 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘B’ .....................131 Table 4.6 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘B’ ............................134 Table 4.7 Mean Results of Learners with a Visual Lead Preference.........................135 Table 4.8 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘C’ .....................136 Table 4.9 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘C’ ............................137 Table 4.10 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘D’ ...................150 Table 4.11 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘D’..........................151 Table 4.12 Mean Results of Learners with an Audio Lead Preference .....................152 Table 4.13 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘E’....................153 Table 4.14 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘E’ ..........................154 Table 4.15 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘F’ ....................165 Table 4.16 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘F’...........................167 Table 4.17 Mean Results of Learners with a Kinaesthetic Lead Preference .............168 Table 4.18 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘G’ ...................169 Table 4.19 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘G’..........................172 Table 4.20 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘H’ ...................185


10

MPhil Thesis Table 4.21 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘H’..........................186 Table 4.22 Comparison of Examination Performance by Lead Preference...............188 Table 5.1 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in the overall Mean of the Examination Results .......................................192 Table 5.2 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in the overall Mean of the Examination Results .......................................193 Table 5.3 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in the overall Mean of the Examination Results ......................194 Table 5.4 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module One Examination Results ........................................................197 Table 5.5 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module One Examination Results ........................................................197 Table 5.6 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module One Examination Results........................................198 Table 5.7 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Two Examination Results........................................................201 Table 5.8 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Two Examination Results........................................................201 Table 5.9 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Two Examination Results .......................................202 Table 5.10 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Three Examination Results .....................................205 Table 5.11 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Three Examination Results .....................................205 Table 5.12 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Three Examination Results .....................................206 Table 5.13 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Four Examination Results.......................................209 Table 5.14 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Four Examination Results.......................................209 Table 5.15 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Four Examination Results.......................................210 Table 5.16 Summary of Analysis of Variance for Overall Mean Examination Results ............................................................................................................................212


11

MPhil Thesis Table 5.17 Summary of Analysis of Variance for Module 1 Examination Results ..213 Table 5.18 Summary of Analysis of Variance for Module 2 Examination Results ..214 Table 5.19 Summary of Analysis of Variance for Module 3 Examination Results ..215 Table 5.20 Summary of Analysis of Variance for Module 4 Examination Results ..216 Table 5.21 Comparison of Chi-Squared Values ........................................................217 Table 5.22 Comparison of P-Values from ANOVA..................................................218 Table 6.1 Summary of Representational Systems Bias Questionnaire for Case Studies ............................................................................................................................233


12

MPhil Thesis

List of Figures Figure 2.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain..........42 Figure 2.2 The Overarching Cognitive Styles. ............................................................44 Figure 2.3 Process and Structure in Experiential Learning. ........................................49 Figure 2.4 Experiential Learning Styles and Cycle. ....................................................50 Figure 2.5 Race’s Ripple Model (Ellington, Percival & Race, 1993) .........................52 Figure 2.6 Communication Model...............................................................................71 Figure 2.7 Eye Accessing Cues ...................................................................................80 Figure 3.1: Overview of Approach to Research Design ..............................................85 Figure 4.1 Breakdown of Population by Age ............................................................114 Figure 4.2 Performances of Learners with Digital Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination. ......................................................................................................120 Figure 4.3 Normalised Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preferences in Module 1 Examination.......................................................................................122 Figure 4.4 Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preference in Module 2 Examination .......................................................................................................123 Figure 4.5 Normalised Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preferences in Module 2 Examination.......................................................................................125 Figure 4.6 Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination .......................................................................................................126 Figure 4.7 Normalised Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preferences in Module 3 Examination.......................................................................................128 Figure 4.8 Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preference in Module 4 Examination .......................................................................................................129 Figure 4.9 Normalised Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preferences in Module 4 Examination.......................................................................................130 Figure 4.10 Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination .......................................................................................................139 Figure 4.11 Normalised Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preferences in Module 1 Examination.......................................................................................141 Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

13

MPhil Thesis Figure 4.12 Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 2 Examination .......................................................................................................142 Figure 4.13 Normalised Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preferences in Module 2 Examination.......................................................................................144 Figure 4.14 Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination .......................................................................................................145 Figure 4.15 Normalised Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preferences in Module 3 Examination.......................................................................................147 Figure 4.16 Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 4 Examination .......................................................................................................148 Figure 4.17 Normalised Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preferences in Module 4 Examination.......................................................................................149 Figure 4.18 Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination .......................................................................................................155 Figure 4.19 Normalised Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preferences in Module 1 Examination.......................................................................................157 Figure 4.20 Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 2 Examination .......................................................................................................158 Figure 4.21 Normalised Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preferences in Module 2 Examination.......................................................................................160 Figure 4.22 Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination .......................................................................................................161 Figure 4.23 Normalised Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preferences in Module 3 Examination.......................................................................................163 Figure 4.24 Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 4 Examination .......................................................................................................164 Figure 4.25 Normalised Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preferences in Module 4 Examination.......................................................................................165 Figure 4.26 Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination .......................................................................................................174 Figure 4.27 Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preferences in Module 1 Examination...................................................................................175 Figure 4.28 Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 2 Examination .......................................................................................................177


14

MPhil Thesis Figure 4.29 Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preferences in Module 2 Examination...................................................................................179 Figure 4.30 Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination .......................................................................................................180 Figure 4.31 Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination...................................................................................182 Figure 4.32 Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination .......................................................................................................182 Figure 4.33 Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 4 Examination...................................................................................184 Figure 5.1 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Overall Mean Examination Results. .........................................................................................191 Figure 5.2 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Overall Mean Examination Results. ..................................................................195 Figure 5.3 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Module 1 Examination Results. .........................................................................................196 Figure 5.4 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module 1 Examination Results. .........................................................................199 Figure 5.5 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Module 2 Examination Results. .........................................................................................200 Figure 5.6 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module Two Examination Results.....................................................................203 Figure 5.7 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Module Three Examination Results. .........................................................................................204 Figure 5.8 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module Three Examination Results...................................................................207 Figure 5.9 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Module 4 Examination Results. .........................................................................................208 Figure 5.10 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module Four Examination Results. ...................................................................211


15

MPhil Thesis

List of Appendices All appendices are contained within the accompanying CD-ROM at the rear of the thesis.

Appendix ‘A’ - Initial Project Appendix ‘B’ – Summary of Contents of 12 Week, 1st Stage Training Appendix ‘C’ – Sample Objective Examination Questions Appendix ‘D’ – Representational Systems Bias Test Appendix ‘E’ – Lesson Plan for Awareness Input Appendix ‘F’ – Presentation Materials for Awareness Input Appendix ‘G’ – Professional Questionnaire Appendix ‘H’ – Questionnaire Summary Appendix ‘I’ – Snapshot Learning Diary

Appendices are contained within an autorun CD that operates on all PC’s running Windows 98 or higher. Readers will also require Adobe Acrobat to view all appendices.


16

MPhil Thesis

Chapter 1 – Introduction

1.1 Introduction This chapter introduces the author, the basic foundations for the research undertaken as a core aspect of the thesis and the environment within which the research and review has been undertaken. The chapter describes the reasons the author was motivated to undertake the research as well as the reasons behind that motivation and recognises that the reader may not be familiar with policing, police training or Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) (fully explored within Chapter 2).

1.2 Background The concept that drove this work began to develop in May 1999. The work has emerged from the perspective of a serving police officer that the actual delivery and support of centralised police training (in particular for recruits to the police service) could be improved by a greater focus on individual approaches to learning with particular reference to Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP).

The purpose of this research was to identify ways in which the organisation (Scottish Police College) could provide support for new recruits to the police service as well as how those recruits could personally optimise their performance through the application of aspects of NLP. This introductory chapter goes on (in Section 1.2.3) to look in more detail at the formative environment in which the research concepts grew as well as the initial reasons and circumstances in which NLP was introduced to the Scottish Police College. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

17

MPhil Thesis

The Scottish Police College has an institutional style in its training in that it is vocationally based and the emphasis is on those who have successfully carried out their duties, acting as instructors and passing on the theory combined with practical advice. As this is an environment that most outwith the Police service will not be familiar with, I have then gone on to explain the recruit training at the Scottish Police College in Section 1.3 of this Chapter.

Given that this research sets out to assess the practical application and indeed meaningfulness of NLP in a vocational training environment, a detailed literature review was undertaken prior to the planning of the research phase.

In order that both similarity and difference between recognised academic educational theory and NLP itself could be assessed, a general review of learning styles and strategies was undertaken. This review is presented in Chapter 2 within Section 2.2.

Both the approach to the literature review (Chapter 2) and the research methodology (Chapter 3) demonstrate a genuine paucity of writing regarding the use of NLP in Education in general and the undertaking of research in this area in particular. This situation has somewhat changed during late 2003 and 2004 and this is again reviewed within Chapter 2.

NLP has been almost exclusively applied to therapy, although there are large organisations now applying elements of NLP to management, sales and more generally interpersonal skills. During the initial literature review, I failed to trace even


18

MPhil Thesis one research project that has applied NLP to either vocational training or higher education.

One aspect of my interest was the simplicity and flexibility of the use of representational systems as defined within NLP. My personal experience was that principles were easily conveyed to students and learners could adapt to work to their strengths rather than be bracketed into categories.

I moved from this initial point of view to wonder if it was possible to design text based or web based flexible learning materials that would provide learning elements for everyone as opposed to favouring particular preferences and how effective this could be.

The initial work undertaken was a project (Appendix ‘A’) in 1999. The project stemmed from a personal interest in the impact of individual preferences on performance within the learning environment combined with a drive to explore the viability and reliability of utilising aspects of NLP in training. The undertaking of the project was personally valuable as it demonstrated gaps in knowledge that would detract from properly constituted research. The two primary areas identified for development were statistical analysis and research methodologies. The former was tackled through completion of a flexible learning module on Statistics as mentioned in the research methodology in Chapter 4. The latter was an area for extended study and is explored within the literature review in Chapter 2 as well as the actual Research Methodology detailed in Chapter 3. In particular lessons learned from this review are detailed within Chapter 3.


19

MPhil Thesis The results of the research period are presented within Chapter 4 and these are further analysed as well as explored with a view to drawing conclusions in order to both make recommendations, identify further work and of course to assess the initial hypothesis (as outlined in Section 1.2.4 of this Chapter).

As previously outlined, the next section seeks to explain the environment in which the concept of the research was developed and the motivation for the undertaking.

1.3 Formative Environment This section outlines the status quo at the Scottish Police College at the time the research was formally undertaken as well as the factors that contributed to the decision to actually carry out the work. The purpose of reproducing the information below is partially to demonstrate the length of the journey, partially to introduce the author and crucially to orientate the reader.

1.3.1 Early Application of NLP in Distance Learning Materials

In 1995, the Training Branch of Lothian and Borders Police first became involved with the concept of distance learning and developed the materials and systems for use within that Police Force. These systems are still in place today. An evident appeal of the materials noted by participants and observers alike was the fact that different aspects struck chords with different students, observations that are discussed in detail in Chapter 2, Section 1 - Learning Styles and Strategies and Section 2 - An Introduction to Neuro-Linguistic Programming.


20

MPhil Thesis During the pilot stage of the distance learning materials at Lothian and Borders Police, focus groups were vociferous when discussing benefits of text based materials. Perhaps the best example is the use of graphics. Some students stated graphics were the most beneficial aspect of materials, while others lambasted them as pointless and childish (Megaughin and Rodgers, 1995). The same was true to different degrees, of examples, exercises and varying layouts.

Another personally considered issue within the Training Branch at this time was a lack of training for trainers. Staff were identified as public speakers rather than educators and as such there was a great deal of imposition of approach by trainer to learner (Downs, 1993), this was borne out by the selection processes of the time which revered public speaking. Of course even those who would revere public speaking, recognised the importance of steering training towards the needs of individuals (Janner, 1981). It should be stated that views of staff stemmed not only from an unwillingness to be flexible in approach but more a lack of knowledge of options. This factor in particular was an impetus for undertaking this research and is further discussed in Section 1.3 of this Chapter as well as in Chapter 3 - Research Approach. This approach could be likened to the old joke about the ‘British Abroad’ mentality; the learner doesn’t understand the first time so the trainer will say the same thing again but louder.

This then, became a starting point for individual skills development and knowledge acquisition through self-instruction as well as developing knowledge of flexible learning with the support of Professor Derek Rowntree at the Open University and by staff attendance at a number of workshops run by the Institute of Educational Development at the Open University.


21

MPhil Thesis

1.3.2 Development through the Scottish Police College

In 1998, the Scottish Police College assumed responsibility for the development and co-ordination of all flexible learning across the eight Scottish Police Forces with the implementation of a Flexible Learning Unit (Illingworth and Rodgers, 1998). This undertaking led onto the design of accredited staff training and student support as well as all facets of flexible learning including strategy, training, and multiple media development.

During this period relationships were developed with the Metropolitan Police Training School at Hendon and in particular with Sergeant Trevor Silvestor who ran the student support section. In addition to being a police trainer, Sergeant Silvestor is a trainer in NLP and was using NLP techniques to support learners; his evidence of success was anecdotal but persuasive. A detailed introduction to NLP is a major aspect of Chapter 2 and of course as the primary investigative tool, it is also discussed in Chapter 3 with regard to the research approach. After the provision of demonstrations and explanations of techniques involved in NLP, Sergeant Silvestor was invited to the Scottish Police College to provide training for staff.

At the Scottish Police College, the Learning Support Unit initially used NLP with students who were having problems with their studies. This was done on a purely voluntary basis and the results were impressive in terms of advantageous changes in individual performance, although changes were anecdotal rather than recorded systematically. Initial intervention consisted of a half hour interview with students exploring their learning preferences using representational systems. There are of


22

MPhil Thesis course questions surrounding whether NLP was something new or simply an accessible way of discussing approaches and styles that were already established within each learner. These questions are discussed in Chapter 2.

These interventions led to staff, by their own admissions, becoming much more aware of the elements they included when both training and writing text based flexible learning materials.

1.3.3 Applied use of NLP in Education

Initial academic exploration of the use of NLP in education was made in the belief that NLP was a method of allowing an individual to reach their full potential with acknowledgement that other aspects, such as motivation, also play their part.

In reviewing learning styles such as experiential learning and deep/surface learning (discussed in the literature review in Chapter 2), it seemed, however, that there was an understandable focus on the educator knowing and understanding such styles but these were largely something that was ‘done’ to the learner, that is to say they were encouraged to take a deep approach through for example material or resource design without an explicit understanding of what that approach meant. In this way individuals may have achieved a learning gain but not an understanding of the process used which supported that learning and could not therefore extrapolate those strategies to other elements of their learning.

A comparable example may be the modern

approach to healthcare. Education rather than an enforced diet or fitness regime is preferred because an individual can take responsibility through understanding rather than blindly following the guidance of others.


23

MPhil Thesis

During the initial sessions with students using NLP, they demonstrated an understanding of the concepts very quickly and became active participants in identifying their preferences and designing their own approaches.

When NLP was originally developed from cognitive psychology it was combined with therapy. Fritz Perls idea of the Gestalt Memory (Perls, 1973) was taken along with the view that, as individuals gathered data through their sensory and intellectual preferences (modalities), this provided a representation of the world and so those modalities could act as triggers to memory. If individuals then use preferred systems for representing and making sense of data, logically if they are made aware of this then they could maximise information input through utilisation of those senses.

There is also a strong practice of modelling used within NLP, this is based upon a realisation that doing something well is not an accident but a process; it may simply be that the individual is not aware of the process. The argument for modelling is that if an individual can identify why they can do one process well then they can apply that process to other learning events and succeed in those.

1.3.4 Triggers to Undertaking Current Research

The purpose of this research is to explore the possibility of a link between representational systems and attainment. All of this is to be undertaken within the context of vocational learning in general and recruit training within the Scottish Police Service in particular.


24

MPhil Thesis Attainment is assessed at the Scottish Police College through modular objective examinations (detailed in Section 1.3 of this Chapter) as well as observation and skills development exercises. The observation is very general and very subjective whereas the examinations are based upon much more objective criteria as are the skills development exercises. The initial exploration sought to map an individual’s lead and secondary preferences with regard to their attainment and progress through the course.

The hypothesis being that there will be patterns in success that can be seen through the representational systems. In addition to this it is postulated that performance can be improved through simple awareness that will allow the learner to match approach to their strengths. It is not intended to suggest that this approach can stand alone, nor that it is the panacea for all learning needs, but rather that it is through the senses that the individual makes sense of the world around them and through these senses that they recall experience and exposure to learning.

1.3.5 Previous Educational Research Undertaken with regard to NLP

A key point to be made here was the emerging trend that much of the commentary made in relation to the use of NLP in training and education is anecdotal. In informal reading and research a lack of previously undertaken research in relation to NLP and education as well as a lack of experimentation with regard to identification of preferences was identified.

A good example is a standard questionnaire which is used throughout the UK in NLP practitioner training, however despite research which included a questionnaire sent to registered NLP practitioners (detailed in Chapter 3 – Research Approach), no source


25

MPhil Thesis for the questionnaire nor any work which has been completed with a view to assessing its reliability has been traced.

1.3.6 Intended Outcomes of Research

The intended outcomes from this research are the development of awareness, and guidance for both learners and trainers at the Scottish Police College as regards NLP and NLP Interventions, in addition to identifying guidelines that can assist the development of flexible learning materials and that take into account representational systems and the support required for individual learners.

1.3.7 Background Summary

Although the experimentation element of this research is directly related to a very specific area of vocational training, it is believed that the findings have the potential to be significant on a much broader basis. There is little difference between the approaches to training police officers in the UK given that this is centrally coordinated and so there can be specific benefits with regard to all police training establishments. However, the exploration of a link between representational systems and attainment has not been previously undertaken and therefore any such approach has broader implications to the area of education as a whole. In summary this would mean that there would be a wholly unexplored area of learning style.


26

MPhil Thesis

1.4 The Scottish Police College

1.4.1 Introduction

The focal point for this research is the students at the Scottish Police College (SPC). These students are for the most part members of the public who have been successful in application to the police service and are embarking on the first elements of their two-year training programme. Broader details of their backgrounds are discussed in the introduction to the results within Chapter 4. I would therefore propose here to introduce the current structure and approach to the training as well as provide an overview of the purpose of the training and an insight into the curriculum.

The structure and processes detailed below are those that were in place at the time the research within the SPC was undertaken. Changes have been made in the detailed structure for Probationer Training Division and in order to provide a complete overview these are detailed at Section 1.3.8 as well as the perceived impact on the results of the research, although these are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4.

1.4.2 Management Structure

The Scottish Police College is responsible for the centralised training of all police officers and some support staff in Scotland. It is what is termed, a common police service. The College was formerly operated under the auspices of the Secretary of State for Scotland but since the inauguration of the Scottish Parliament is now a part of the Scottish Executive. The Scottish Executive forms the civil service support to the Scottish Parliament and to its Ministers. The Scottish Executive and the eight Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

27

MPhil Thesis Scottish Police Forces fund the College jointly, the latter providing finance on a prorata basis.

A Board of Governors supervises the College. The Board consists of representatives from the College Executive, the Scottish Executive; the police staff associations and the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA) as well as independent members. There are also various mechanisms for ensuring quality and communication including the Training Review Committee and the independent Quality Assurance Committee. This comprises senior police management and academics who advise the college on best practice in relation to training delivery, curriculum and strategic approach. It is also common for individual Police Forces to contribute to elements of the training and support as shown in the previous section, through the introduction of flexible learning to the College.

1.4.3 Purpose of Police Training

The stated objective for police training is;

“…to produce competent police officers who, in addition to having the theoretical knowledge and practical skills necessary for police work, can exercise appropriate judgement and discretion in their dealings with the public.” (Police Advisory Board for Scotland, 1983)

In order to achieve this objective, training at the Scottish Police College is institutionally orientated and competency driven. That is to say, that the Police Service itself in conjunction with advisory groups drives the curriculum. The


28

MPhil Thesis curriculum is further informed through training needs analysis and the review cycle used within the Learning Support Division at the College.

This stated, the training staff are ultimately aware of the competency element required by the remit provided by the Police Advisory Board for Scotland (PABS) and it is this factor more than anything which has meant that the majority of the training staff are serving police officers who rotate back to operational duties after a three year secondment in order to maintain the currency of experience and operational credibility. The skills and selection of staff are further discussed later in this chapter.

Given the recognition of the vocational nature of the training and the importance of policing effectiveness that rests upon the quality of training provided to recruits. The Scottish Police College’s own ‘Strategy for Police Training’ (1993) states;

“The direct linkage between police effectiveness and training means that the principal responsibility for policy on training lies with each Chief Constable who must retain primacy in establishing requirements which will include the parameters of local training resources.”

It is therefore accepted that Chief Constables are strongly represented on the management committees of the College.

1.4.4 Structure of Training within the Scottish Police College

The College has four main teaching divisions, which cover, Management Development Training, the two general specialities within the police service, Crime


29

MPhil Thesis Management and Roads Policing Training, and finally the core training function of Probationer (Recruit) Training.

1.4.4.1 Management Development Division

Management Development Division is responsible for training police and support staff in supervisory positions. This includes officers from the rank of sergeant to superintendent and their support staff equivalents. The training is predominantly classroom based with an emphasis on the inputs of external lecturers who are either practitioners or experts in their respective fields.

The main course delivery can be summarised as the development of newly promoted staff in each of the ranks. Whilst there are elements of examinations in the assessment process, assessment consists largely of objective comments by instructors and observation of the practical elements of courses. As with all of the teaching divisions, courses are reviewed by means of Training Needs Analysis and content and assessment methods are revised as necessary. Many of the courses are externally validated and accredited such as the Chief Inspectors Course in 1997 (Scottish Police College, 1998).

1.4.4.2 Crime Management Division

Crime Management Division hosts a wide variety of courses relating to the prevention and the investigation of crime. Officers in Scotland attend an initial Detective Training Course when appointed as a Detective Officer and can thereafter specialise in any one of a number of areas such as drugs, child protection or fraud. The division Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

30

MPhil Thesis is also responsible for Crime Prevention Training. The delivery methods vary widely, with some courses such as the Hostage Negotiators Course being predominantly practically orientated and others such as the Fraud Course being largely classroom based. As might be expected, this also means a wide range of assessment tools being applied. On some courses students are examined; on others practical performance is assessed and on others no assessment of student performance is made.

1.4.4.3 Roads Policing Division

Roads Policing Division again hosts a wide variety of courses ranging from the initial Traffic Patrol Officers course through to the even more specialist Hazardous Chemicals, Tacograph and vehicle examiner courses. The nature of the training delivery is again varied and ranges from didactic classroom inputs on the traffic patrol officers’ course where the student is assessed using examinations through to the many driving courses where psychomotor skills are tested.

1.4.4.4 Probationer Training Division

At the time the Research was undertaken, recruits to the police service initially attend a twelve-week residential training course held under the auspices of Probationer Training Division. The basis for this course is the recommendations made by PABS in 1983 and subsequent reviews under the auspices of the College Board of Governors (1991) and the Association of Chief Police Officers Scotland via the Personnel and Training Standing Committee. A further review has now taken place and a new curriculum was introduced in the autumn of 2003.


31

MPhil Thesis This training division forms the focus for the research outlined within this thesis. As this is initial research aimed at identifying links between attainment and learning preferences within the police service, the logical corollary is to begin at the entry point to the police service. Whilst no formal recruitment profiles currently exist, an informal analysis is undertaken in relation to every probationer-training course held at the College and these demonstrate that recruits to the service come from varied backgrounds in terms of both education and previous occupations (where applicable). Examples of this can be seen in the description of the quantative research undertaken at the College as reproduced in Chapter 4.

The varied backgrounds of recruits provides a great deal of scope for research as each individual brings different and fresh experiences (or lack of them) in learning terms to the police training environment. Undertaking the research at this stage of the individuals’ careers means that no adaptation to the roles and responsibilities of the police service has taken place particularly as the recruits have not been exposed to operational policing which is heavily reliant on mentoring and may affect their learning choices if their mentor is uncomfortable with changing style. This thesis recognises that this phase can only be a starting point and this and associated issues are fully discussed in Chapter 6, under further identified research.

The 1st Stage course is of 12 weeks duration and covers a broad range of legal, social and physical subjects. It is designed to prepare a new officer for general beat duties as previously described. The student thereafter returns 12- 14 months later and attends the six-week 2nd Stage Training Course; this course is also based upon the initial PABS review in 1973 and the subsequent reviews. This course develops the operational knowledge gained by the recruit prior to returning them to operational


32

MPhil Thesis duties and local training. The range of training delivery is broad in relation to these courses but all aspects of the courses are underpinned by classroom-based lectures. This places a degree of importance on the skills and knowledge of the teacher or instructor as regards their knowledge of approaches to learning (Foley, 2000). Accordingly, the selection and training of the instructors will be covered later in this chapter.

The assessment tools for the course include, practical performance and instructor evaluation, however the primary tool is examinations. As examination results form an important element of this research, their format and evolution are discussed in detail later in this chapter.

The 1st Stage course is modularised and contains seven such modules that are key to successfully completing the course. Four of the modules are based on law and associated procedures and three of the modules are practically orientated. The modules are detailed in table 1.1.


33

MPhil Thesis

Module

Title

1

Police Powers and Procedures#

2

Crime#

3

General Police Duties#

4

Traffic#

5

Officer Safety Training*

6

Investigative Interview Technique Training*

7

Report Writing*

# Theoretical modules based primarily on legislation *Practical modules based on core police skills Table 1.1 Module Titles for 1st Stage Training Course

Full details on the contents of each module are contained within Appendix ‘B’. Modules 1-4 are theoretically based and the main tool for assessment of learning in relation to these modules are objective examinations. Instructors continually assess modules 5 and 6 in order to check competence and the assessment mechanism for module 7 is report based.

1.4.5 Training Support within the Scottish Police College

The training undertaken by all divisions at the college is supported by; Graphics Unit, Reprographics Unit, Learning Resources Centre, Flexible Learning Centre and an Audio Visual Unit. In addition, Learning Support Division undertakes course design, evaluation and administers examinations. Finally, the Police Information Net for Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

34

MPhil Thesis Scotland who provides an intranet based legal database as well as flexible learning materials to the College as well as the Scottish Police Service in both text and technology based formats.

1.4.6 Assessment Mechanisms within the Scottish Police College

All examinations within the Probationer Training Division consist of objective style examinations administered by the independent examination unit within Research and Development Division. The current system is based on a competence-based examination following a review of the system in 1998 (Milne, 1998). That system in turn was largely adopted from the framework previously identified by Fletcher (Fletcher, 1992).

The focal point for the examinations was created through the linking of modular and lesson outcomes to the examination process. This approach was taken in order to ensure the breadth of the syllabus was examined. The College system thereafter departed from the competence framework through the creation of an additional level of performance ‘merit’. This was introduced in order to provide recognition of the level of performance of the top layer of students and to encourage those students to perform to those levels.

Each examination paper is made up of three elements. The first two elements are the main body of the examination and consist equally of questions designed to test knowledge and understanding and comprehension and application respectively. Both of these aspects must be successfully completed in order to attain a result of ‘achieved’. If either or both of these elements is not successfully completed a result of


35

MPhil Thesis ‘not yet achieved’ is recorded, in that event a student will be afforded another two attempts to record an ‘achieved’ result. If a student successfully completes the examination on their first attempt then the third element becomes relevant. This involves five ‘synthesis’ questions that are made up of the most difficult questions available. If a student successfully answers four out of the five then an award of a ‘merit’ is given. Two sample questions from a Scottish Police College examination are included in Appendix ‘C’.

1.4.7 Selection and Recruitment of Training Staff

The training staff at the College is predominantly made up of serving police officers who are seconded from their Forces, normally for a three year period. The staff may or may not have a training background within their own Forces, however a training background is not a prerequisite. The key consideration in this process is that staff have recent extensive experience in an operational setting, thus helping to ensure that training is practical, relevant and up to date.

The selection process for staff includes presentation and interview followed by a continually assessed residential selection course. More recently (from 2000) the College has, through partnership with Napier University in Edinburgh introduced a Diploma in Training and Development in order to professionally develop staff.

Police staff at the College are therefore selected for their operational experience primarily and thereafter for their identified potential to become an instructor. This potential is then developed according to the individual’s role at the College that may vary from division to division. Exceptions to this exist in very specialised training


36

MPhil Thesis areas where members of support staff are employed via Fife Council whose region covers the College. This is an area that is currently under review with a new Probationer Training Review Team and increasingly arguments have been put forward for the recruitment of Support Staff trainers rather than police officers.

1.4.8 Current Developments

As previously mentioned, the nature, structure and content of training within the Scottish Police Service are under constant review. A Training Needs Analysis undertaken in 1995 has been the subject of several review teams under the Direction of the Association of Chief Police Officers (Scotland) (ACPOS) Personnel and Training Committee and at the end of 2003 a new structure for Recruit Training was introduced which was based on their recommendations.

The Initial Training Period has now been renamed the Initial Training Course and changed from 12 weeks to 15 weeks and restructured into 6 modules as detailed below;


37

MPhil Thesis

Module

Title

1

Police

and

the

Community

(incorporates

Diversity

Training

Communication Skills) 2

Evidence (incorporates Police Powers and Procedures)

3

Crime

4

General Police Duties

5

Roads Policing (Formerly Traffic

6

Investigative Skills (Formerly IITT and Report Writing)

Table 1.2 New Module Titles for Initial Training Course

As can be seen from the previous titles (in brackets) much of the content has been simply re-structured, indeed content additions have largely been added in transference from the former second stage training course.

Changes have occurred in terms of the supporting lesson notes, which have been restructured to incorporate greater areas for note taking, more graphics have been added and the notes are not printed in full colour. Additional changes include structured reflection and the introduction of learning logs.

The second stage training course is currently in the process of being re-designed and will be launched in December 2004.

While there are numerous changes to the former 1st Stage Training Course, this research is orientated to exploring patterns in performance relating to the preferences Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

38

and

MPhil Thesis of individuals as defined within NLP. The new course structure may or may not be more supportive of the breadth of individual preferences, but this will not affect the research results as the delivery of the training and the material provision has been identified for future research (as detailed in Chapter 6).

It is considered that the research results if consistent with the hypothesis will accurately reflect on the effectiveness of many of the changes and either support them through assisting the identification of individual need by performance or otherwise detract from the changes by questioning relevance. This of course assumes that NLP can be demonstrated as an accurate method of reflecting and vocalising an individuals preferred approach.

1.5 Summary This chapter has detailed the research hypothesis and sought to contextualise the research in terms of the motivation, the author’s background and the environment in which the research and the associated learning take place.

In addition, the structure of the thesis has been outlined with an initial overview being given of the links between elements of the content. The next chapter explores the methodology for the literature review and focuses on key areas of learning styles and strategies as well as Neuro Linguistic Programming.


39

MPhil Thesis

Chapter 2 – Literature Review

2.1 Approach The literature review has been divided into three distinct areas, firstly learning styles and strategies, secondly NLP and thirdly research methodologies. The research methodologies elements are contained at the beginning of Chapter 3 in order that a clear correlation can be made in regard to the way in which the approach has been designed.

The purpose behind this approach is to ensure that all core strands of the research aim are met in that an evaluation of learning preferences as outlined in NLP can be compared and contrasted with existing recognised theories, existing research in education concerning NLP can be identified and commented upon with regard to the hypothesis and finally, that the research methodology can be seen to be considered and the reasoning behind the approach transparent.

2.2 Learning Styles and Strategies As discussed in Chapter 1, the focal point for this thesis is the way in which individuals approach their learning, interpreted through theories relating to NeuroLinguistic Programming (NLP). In order to fully explore both the individual’s approach and the emergence of NLP applications in learning, broad reading had to be undertaken with reference to current and developing theories of learning.


40

MPhil Thesis It is not an understatement to say that theory and practice have evolved over thousands of years. Confucius sought individual learners prepared to take the initiative 2,500 years ago and made distinctions between academic and vocational learning (Huang, 1997).

Since the nineteenth century, however, the basis of many of the theories of learning and the fundamental impetus for the identification of learning preferences and classification of learning styles has been the science of psychology. Particular examples of schools of psychology that have influenced the development of our understanding of learning are behaviourism, humanistic and cognitive psychology.

The distinction may be made between style and strategy in relation to learning.

Learning style is a psychological construct classified as a fixed element in relation to the way a person thinks, whereas a learning strategy relates to the methods a person applies or develops to tackle individual learning events (Riding and Rayner, 1998).

The theories and preferences outlined here demonstrate the breadth of these learning theories and the areas of commonality and disparity. In some theories and approaches the context and the learning outcome are key to the individual’s approach or orientation (Rogers and Freiburg, 1994, Laurillard, 1993 and Prosser and Trigwell, 1999). The methodology commonly adopted in the design of educational objectives also demonstrates the broad range of learning events that can be undertaken. This implies a need for flexibility in personal learning preferences, although I shall explore this issue later.


41

MPhil Thesis Bloom (1972) first explored and categorised behavioural objectives in education in order to quantify the outcome of an event or course. Bloom assigned three domains to objectives. These are described (Ellington, Percival and Race, 1993) as;

Cognitive: Objectives relating to knowledge, theory and understanding.

Affective: Objectives relating to feelings attitudes and perspectives.

Psychomotor: Objectives relating to skills, practical abilities and manipulation.

Bloom sub-divided each of these domains into different levels, for example the levels of Blooms’ Cognitive Domain are reproduced in Figure 2.1;

Lowest Level

Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis

Highest Level

Evaluation

Figure 2.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain.

Whilst Blooms’ Taxonomy is not perhaps strictly speaking a theory in relation to learning, it does indicate the range of tasks placed upon learners particularly at a


42

MPhil Thesis further education level. The very nature of differing objectives in these terms means that learners may commonly approach an individual objective in a different way.

For example; Police Officer Safety training revolves around more than one domain, not only does it revolve around learning to use equipment such as baton and handcuffs, which would clearly predominantly fall into the psychomotor domain Consequently, this would imply some form of ‘learning by doing’. It also involves the ability to recognise the appropriateness of when to use force that would fall into the cognitive domain and may not require genuine sight of a violent incident but rather an impression and recall from legislation such as the Police (Scotland) Act 1967.

The purpose of briefly covering one of the fundamental approaches to writing educational objectives is the diversity of learning (and the diversity of theories relative to learning). These theories are in some areas diverse and in others complementary, however they often only cover small areas of Bloom’s domains implying multiple approaches to individual learning rather than one right or wrong approach.

2.2.1 Theories on Learning

2.2.1.1 Cognitive Learning Styles

Cognitive styles relate to the way the individual handles or processes information. Such styles relate an individual’s typical mode of thinking, remembering or problemsolving. They are the underlying style adopted by the individual in the learning process. The nature of research in this area has been such that at one stage over 30 Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

43

MPhil Thesis cognitive styles were identified (Riding and Cheema, 1991). A review of all of these styles identified two overarching families of style, as identified below, and from which all other styles may be classed as sub-categories;

•

Verbaliser-Imager.

•

Wholist- Analytic.

These groupings are further described below, however they may be seen as complementary and are certainly not mutually exclusive in that a combination of the styles is appropriate as demonstrated in Figure 2.2;

Wholist

Wholist – Analytic Dimension

Verbaliser

Imager

Verbaliser - Imager Dimension

Analytic Figure 2.2 The Overarching Cognitive Styles. (Rayner and Riding, 1997) An individual may display a combination of styles in that, for example, they may be a Wholist Verbaliser or and Analytic Verbaliser.


44

MPhil Thesis 2.2.1.1.1 Verbaliser versus Imager

This style relates to the cognitive representation of information. Verbalisers use language and imagers use pictoral information to represent their thought processes. One style is not viewed as stronger or more effective than the other but rather has strengths and weaknesses in relation to different tasks (Riding and Buckle, 1990). Imagers deal well with events relating to actions and abstraction whereas Verbalisers cope well with new and non-familiar phrases and text as well as with spatial information.

2.2.2.1.2 Wholist versus Analytic

The cognitive approach wholist-analytic (Rayner and Riding, 1997) again deals with the methods in which individuals process information and identifies various traits of learners who adopt this overarching style as their underlying process. A wholist would deal with information as a whole in the context of the event, whereas a learner adopting an analytic approach would break down the event and process and deal with ‘chunks’ of information.

Examples of sub-styles of the wholist-analytic group would include field independence-field dependence (Witkin and Asch, 1948). This relates to an individual tendency to adopt an analytical, in context, approach rather than a global approach to their learning. This would also be demonstrated by dependant learners’ greater social orientation compared by an independent individual. This style has been linked to learning in structured and unstructured environments in that a field independent


45

MPhil Thesis learner would be better placed to work more independently and without rigid structure.

Another example of this group would be wholist-serialist. This deals with an individual’s preference to dealing with learning in a step-to-step method (serialist) as opposed to first obtaining the overview of the subject at hand and thereafter fleshing out detail and content (wholist). This is closely related to the parent wholist-analytic cognitive style.

2.2.1.2 Constructivist Theory

The Constructivist Theory (Bruner, 1960) focuses on learning as an active process. In this context the cognitive styles outlined above are still applicable, however, the information to be processed as part of the learning event should be discovered by the learner themselves in order to maximise the benefit. This then means that the learner is equipped to take much more from an experience by application of a cognitive process, however it is the experience that is the enabler in this context.

Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro, R.J., Coulson, R.L., Feltovich, P.J. and Anderson, D. 1988) builds upon Constructivist Theory. The focus for the Cognitive Flexibility Theory is learning in either complex or ill-structured areas. It could be described as the individual’s ability to process information across a series of styles. This would then allow the individual to be responsive to different tasks and learning situations. The theory is based upon a broad range of delivery methods in order to develop such flexibility and is particularly linked to the use of interactive media and technologies. Emphasis is placed upon the importance of constructed knowledge and


46

MPhil Thesis the opportunity for experiential learning. While experiential learning would be included within Cognitive Flexibility Theory, there has been a great deal of work on Experiential Learning alone.

2.2.1.3 Experiential Learning

Whilst the examples of cognitive styles above deal with the processing of information, many make reference to the requirement for individuals to construct knowledge and process information based upon their experiences.

Recognition of the importance of experience in learning has been a relatively late development in the field of education. Cognitive Theorists, such as Bloom, concentrated on the hierarchical relationship between levels of knowledge in the cognitive domain. Those psychologists working in the affective domain, such as Maslow, concentrated predominantly on learners’ attempts to take control of their own processes for learning (Kelly, 1997). Both Bloom and Maslow identified the importance of experience in learning, but did not theorise about its actual function in learning.

Kolb (1984) ascribes much of the early guiding principles of experiential learning to John Dewey.

‘I take it that the fundamental unity of the newer philosophy is found in the idea that there is an intimate and necessary relation between the processes of actual experience and education.’ (Dewey, 1938)


47

MPhil Thesis

The development of theories pertaining to Experiential Learning can be seen in Saljo’s hierarchy of student views of learning (Saljo, 1979);

•

Learning brings about an increase in knowledge.

•

Learning is memorising.

•

Learning is about developing skills and methods, and acquiring facts that can be used as necessary.

•

Learning is about making sense of information, extracting meaning and relating information to everyday life.

•

Learning is about understanding the world through re-interpreting knowledge.

In steps four and five there is clear link to the application of the experiences of the individual learner in their approach to the learning.

Whilst Kolb is not the only exponent of Experiential Learning, his 1984 book made him prominent in this area. Kolb explored the learning models developed by Lewin, Dewey and Piaget and identified the commonality between the models. This led Kolb to summarise that the best perception of learning was as a process rather than a series of outcomes and that the process was continuous and cyclic.

Thus, Kolb describes a four stage learning cycle (Figure 2.3) that begins with a concrete experience for the learner, in effect an event that leads the learner to reflective observation of that event. Abstract conceptualisation leads the learner to extrapolate the experience and the reflection of the experience to other events. This


48

MPhil Thesis leads to active experimentation of the experience in different situations, which in turn leads to en experience and the re-commencement of the cycle.

Experience Active Experimentation

Critical

Abstract Figure 2.3 Process and Structure in Experiential Learning.

Kolb went on to support learners in the identification of their strengths and weakness in relation to experiential learning. He developed the learning styles inventory that related to an individuals’ preference to one aspect of the experiential learning cycle or another. In other words, a preference for one aspect of the cycle e.g. active experimentation indicated a specific learning style. Honey and Mumford (1992) describe the styles in their Manual of Learning Styles. They are summarised below;

Activist: An open-minded individual who will try anything once. They tend to respond with activity prior to analysis. They are excited by a task but easily bored and keen to move on to the next challenge;

Reflector: Enjoys the observation of events from different perspectives. They tend to be gatherers of information and like to thoroughly analyse it prior to offering their thoughts or opinions. They are cautious, thoughtful and tend to be more distant;


49

MPhil Thesis Theorist: Forms logically sound theories and adapts and integrates their observations into them. They maximise the facts at their disposal and tend to reject that which does not fit into their models.

Pragmatist: Operationalises concepts. Once they have a new idea they are keen to put it into practice. They tend to be unable to relate to prevarication and simply want to ‘get on with it’.

These learning styles are linked to the experiential learning cycle shown in Figure 2.4. The Learning Styles Inventory questionnaire itself allows students to categorise themselves in relation to these styles and to respond accordingly.

Active Experimentation

Activist

Critical Reflector

Pragmatist Abstract Theorist

Figure 2.4 Experiential Learning Styles and Cycle.

As previously mentioned Kolb is not the only exponent of experiential learning although one of the most quoted and influential. Rogers takes a somewhat more structured view in relation to experiential learning. Rogers assigns importance to such issues as the learners’ goals, purposes and intentions. This then places individual value judgements on the experience and perhaps even tinges the experience making it Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

50

MPhil Thesis different for every learner. It is not clear where these learner approach issues fit into the experiential learning cycle. Importance is however assigned to issues such as learner motivation, security and initiation of the learning event prior to the actual experience in the classroom (Rogers and Freiburg, 1994). From the perspective of Rogers and Freiburg, there is activity taking place outwith the experiential learning cycle that impacts upon the process.

Race developed his ‘ripple’ model (Ellington, Percival and Race, 1993). The analogy for the title ‘ripple’ is the model spreading out like ripples on water. It is reproduced in Figure 2.5. This model is based upon experiential learning and much of the same basic principles as Kolb. Race agreed with the assertion of the importance of feedback and the importance on reflection on an experience as previously covered in Kolb’s learning cycle. Where Race departed from the learning cycle developed by Kolb is the importance he places in the internal motivation of the individual undertaking the learning process as the initial element in the experience. In addition to this Race saw experiential learning as an overall experience with all of the aspects coming together rather than cyclic and self-perpetuating since it begins with the motivation to learn.


51

MPhil Thesis

Feedback Digesting Doing Needing/ Wanting

Figure 2.5 Race’s Ripple Model (Ellington, Percival & Race, 1993)

2.2.1.4 Andragogy

Theories of learning tend to be non-specific in relation to age or approach. Knowles (1984) explored an individual theory pertaining to adult learning (Andragogy). This was based on the belief that adult learning was self-directed and that programmes designed purely for adults involve much more individual responsibility for decision making. Andragogy concentrates on the process involved in the learning rather than the content. Design features therefore rely heavily on experiential learning. Adults, Knowles states, must understand why they are learning and perceive there to be a value to that learning event. This means that adult learning requires to be facilitated rather than delivered.


52

MPhil Thesis Cross (Cross, 1981) developed her Characteristics of Adults as Learners Model in an attempt to integrate theories such as andragogy and experiential learning. Whilst there is little research to support this theory, the principles are linked into two classes of variables: personal characteristics and situational characteristics in relation to lifelong learning. Personal characteristics would include issues such as ageing and life phases, whereas situational characteristics would include issues such as full or part time learning and voluntary or compulsory. The model advises the use of the experience of the individuals, the availability of choice and the adaptation of systems to the ageing limitations of individuals.

2.2.2 Individual Learning Strategies

As previously mentioned, learning styles are seen as a fixed element of the individual. However, individuals demonstrate a broad range of preferences in the strategies they adopt or develop through their learning. As discussed earlier some learners adopt, or rather are adept, at different cognitive styles. Learners are also known to adopt a deep or surface approach to learning as part of their own strategy.

A deep approach can be categorised as an approach intended to understand ideas and seek meanings. An individual who has adopted such a strategy will seek the underlying principles of a learning event and seek patterns (Prosser and Trigwell, 1999).

In opposition to this the learner who adopts a surface approach will not demonstrate the self-motivation of the deep approach learner but rather see the learning as something forced upon them, an imposition. Learners adopting a surface approach


53

MPhil Thesis tend to see the learning as a series of unrelated events. This approach is characterised by rote learning orientated towards success in assessment rather than a drive to understand the subject.

None of this means that the approach adopted by the learner is habitual or consistently undertaken. Laurillard (1993) identified deep and surface approaches adopted by the same learners dependent upon the task at hand.

It is widely accepted that a deep approach to learning is preferable to a surface approach and that this leads to higher attainment in relation to various forms of assessment (Ramsden, 1991) as well as a longer retention of the information. This stated, more recent research has identified a group of strategic students who adopt elements of both deep and surface approaches in dealing with a task (Entwistle et al., 1991).

Entwistle (1988), comments upon the experiments carried out by Pask in relation to matching and mismatching learning styles and associated performance. Entwistle concludes that learners should be provided with opportunities to learn according to their own strategies. This might mean that if lecturers or trainers adopted extreme methods in delivering training this may have a severe and negative impact upon the learner.

It has been suggested (Romiszowski, 1988, Laurillard, 1993, Entwistle, 1988) that lecturers can influence the approach adopted by an individual learner through their design or assessment strategy of a course or learning event. This is clearly a major issue on the teaching process. Prosser and Trigwell (1999) argue that it is undoubtedly


54

MPhil Thesis desirable to encourage a deep learning approach in individual students. They go on to discuss the view that this is not sufficient as the context of the learning as well as the individuals’ experience and perceptions of learning must also be taken into account.

2.2.3 Student Approaches with Higher Education

2.2.3.1 Overview

During the literature review, a book that struck a particular chord was John Biggs, 1999 work ‘Teaching for Quality Learning at University’ (Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press). I have written extended comments on this work in particular in order that a comparison can be made between individual and institutional approaches. While others have completed work in this same area, it holds as an example of the inextricable links between learner and teacher. This stated, I have included this section in order to make the comparison between what Biggs states ‘The Student Does’ and NLP as detailed in Chapter 6. The reason for this is that while there is a lack of research academically in NLP, this recent work shows the thinking in this area.

The subtitle for this book is ‘What the Student Does’ and as early as Paul Ramsden’s foreword there are indications that Biggs will concentrate on a pragmatic approach with an underlying emphasis on clarity and support for both students and their lecturers being based upon improved outcomes linked to assessment criteria. This has been mentioned within the literature review in detail, as the implication of the foreword is that the approach will parallel that intended in this research.


55

MPhil Thesis Biggs sets the scene by exploring the impact of change in University teaching over the preceding ten years, dealing with not only the teacher but also the student. He uses reflective practice throughout the book to draw the reader in, involve them and consider their own experiences and practices. Biggs goes on to review student learning styles and motivation, but places particular emphasis on Constructive alignment. A practice he describes as a combination of Constructivism and Aligned Instruction and that which he feels is best suited to develop a deep approach to learning by students.

It follows from these that Biggs is clear in the supporting requirement for unambiguous curriculum objectives upon which assessment criteria are based. He asserts that the correct use of his SOLO Taxonomy (Biggs and Collis, 1982) in structuring such objectives will ensure that assessment criteria lead students into deep learning practices.

Biggs develops the following chapters into a broad overview of teaching practices and options, all orientated towards the encouragement of deep learning as well as a divergent chapter on Teaching International Students that compares cultural nuances in

student

learning

and

perhaps

exposes

some

of

the

difficulties

and

misunderstandings experienced by teachers working with such students.

As could be anticipated, Biggs also undertakes to provide a broad overview of the divergence of assessment tools and again links those into the SOLO Taxonomy as a practical demonstration of how objective and assessment of achievement can be made simple and clear.


56

MPhil Thesis The book finishes with some examples of Aligned Teaching and very practical advice for the teacher for development purposes. This seems somewhat out of sorts for the publication in general as the arguments for closer links between curriculum objectives and the development assessment tools to support those objectives have been clearly voiced, there was also a broad emphasis on teaching practice and style throughout. It is the latter that concludes the book and leaves the former without a more formal conclusion.

2.2.3.2 Approaches to Learning

Biggs begins his overview of learning approaches recognising that motivation is a key issue and states;

“Students experience the felt need to get there. The art of good teaching is to communicate that need where it is initially lacking…” Biggs, (1999).

The same is true of vocational learning; the factors that surround student choices in course selection can vary in the same ways. These would include earning potential, interest in the subject matter, personal need to succeed and so on. However these reasons are so broad as to cause discussion on the purpose of University Education and what motivational factors are suited towards what end or purpose. I will discuss this later.

Biggs thereafter goes on to provide an overview of Surface and Deep Learning approaches and discusses these from both student and teacher perspectives. It is made


57

MPhil Thesis very clear that Surface Learning is viewed as something to be moved away from and Deep Learning is to be embraced. In vocational terms the learning is matched to the specific outcomes in order to achieved pre-set tasks that identify successful performance in a job-related task. It can be seen then that a learner need only go as Deep as is required to undertake each task successfully. Deep – Surface Learning can then be seen more as a scale where a level can be found by the educator in setting an outcome and the student in achieving that outcome.

Deep learning could then be termed a nebulous concept as a learner need only go as deep as is required to achieve the set outcome. Outcome setting could therefore be argued to be limiting in a free learning context as it pre-sets student learning.

When he goes on to review teaching approaches Biggs refers to his own work in providing the examples; “ 1. Learning is a function of individual differences between students. 2. Learning is a function of teaching. 3. Learning is the result of students’ learning focused activities, which are engaged by students as a result of both their own perceptions and inputs and of the total teaching context.” Biggs, (1996)

Statement three is viewed as a progression with some educators staying at levels one or two (Biggs, 1996) and this is clearly viewed as a disadvantage. He describes this as a “route map towards reflective teaching”


58

MPhil Thesis My own exploration of Neuro-Linguistic Programming would raise some issues with this assertion. If a learner uses their modalities for gathering information about the world then the teaching context should recognise the individuality of the learner and the way in which they make sense of the world. The teaching context in this case is then necessarily multi-faceted as the provision and style requires to support individuals making sense of the content and the expectation.

2.2.3.3 Learning Outcomes

Biggs states that one of the main themes of his 1999 book relates to Constructive Alignment. He quotes Shuell;

“If students are to learn desired outcomes in a reasonably effective manner, then the teachers fundamental task is to get the students to engage in learning activities that are likely to result in their achieving those outcomes” (Shuell, 1986)

Biggs goes on to state the view that in order to achieve this then the assessment method must align with the outcome in order to successfully estimate learner achievement. However, can a learner truly engage in deep learning if they are not free to do so? They are limited by achievement in assessment criteria the depth of which is decided by the learning outcome. The learner then may not truly engage in deep learning as he or she is then matching approach and performance to the pre-designated success criteria. The learner then approaches the learning in the manner most likely to gain success.


59

MPhil Thesis Biggs uses his own SOLO taxonomy to provide an overview of the relationship between outcome and assessment. The implication then is that in a structured course learners approach each event with a depth associated to the requirement for success as stated by the outcome. The corollary is that the more stringent the assessment criteria, the more limiting the learning event is in terms of freedom of approach for the learner.

The next question is, is this situation positive or negative? In vocational terms, learning and associated assessment is directly linked to job related criteria. That is to say the purpose of the learning is to be able to undertake the job appropriately. Therefore Surface or Deep approaches are not good or bad but can be selected in accordance with requirement. Accordingly the limiting factors in setting a ‘depth’ of study through the outcome/assessment relationship can be appropriate. In University Education the purpose is less clear.

2.2.3.4 Quality Learning at University

In assessing the effectiveness of Biggs assertions in relation to outcomes and assessment, the purpose of University Education can be considered. If a course is undertaken for learning purposes, experience or breadth of understanding then outcomes and assessment could be seen as limiting factors in relation to the learner fully engaging with the subject and employing true deep learning approaches. If however there is no assessment how do you measure success or perhaps more to the point why measure success? If a course is vocational in nature then perhaps the whole concept becomes easier as the purpose is to undertake a job or post or task where success has been predefined and the course matches the requirements and expectations of an employer. This would fit with the requirements of the Scottish Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

60

MPhil Thesis Police College as detailed in Chapter 4. In following this argument, it would then seem that there are question marks over assessment criteria as vocational qualifications inevitably lead to close discussions in relation to competence and therefore structured grading or marking loses mean the question becomes ‘can they do it or not?’

2.2.4 Summary

From the basis of several schools of psychology, a large number of theories in relation to learning have emerged. In the first instance research was undertaken into the way in which individuals processed information. These methods were understood to be a part of the make-up of the individual and unalterable.

There were several polarised categories classified as cognitive styles. Much work has been undertaken in integrating and categorising these styles to produce frameworks and these have consolidated into a variety of theories. One of the core strands coming from this has been theory placing activity and experience in a key role in the learning process. Work has been done thereafter into the categorisation of learning approaches within an experiential framework.

In addition to the cognitive style adopted by the individual, arguments have been forwarded for a number of strategies adopted by the individual in relation to their own approach and preferences towards learning. Argument has been forwarded in relation to both the level of influence that can be exerted by the teacher or trainer in order to ensure the adoption of a beneficial strategy by an individual and the requirement for


61

MPhil Thesis the individual to discover their own learning strengths. These issues remain unresolved.

The focus then is very much two-tier, on the way in which individuals approach learning. For example deep-surface approaches, this is very much the strategy they adopt and what they seek to gain from the educational experience. The second tier is the way by which they process information, for example cognitive learning styles, and the way in which they use that information for learning. NLP learning preferences by contrast focus on the senses and the way we take in information about events more generally and go on to look at the way we access that information through memory. So, this research focuses on the way individuals take in information in a learning context and how they recall that information.

2.3 Neuro Linguistic Programming – An Introduction This section of the literature review provides an initial overview of NLP and its origins through introduction to its initial developers and their backgrounds as well as the principles upon which NLP training sessions are built. This achieved, the chapter goes on to focus on the modalities (senses) and their application in learning and identification techniques. It is the modalities and their identification and application upon which the original hypothesis for this research is built.

The term NLP was derived from the following;

“Neuro; The Nervous System through which our experience is processed through the five senses. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

62

MPhil Thesis

Linguistic; Language and other non-verbal communication systems through which our neural representations are coded and ordered and given meaning.

Programming; The ability to discover and utilise the programmes that we run (our communication to ourselves and others) in our neurological systems to achieve our specific and desired outcomes.” (James, 1987)

NLP was originally developed during the early1970’s, principally by Richard Bandler and John Grinder. John Grinder was at that time an Assistant Professor of Linguistics at the University of California and Richard Bandler was a student of psychology with a particular interest in psychotherapy at the same university.

Bandler and Grinder initially based their work (1975, 1976) on that of Fritz Perl’s gestalt therapy (Perls, 1973) and on linguistics work undertaken by Watzlawick and others (Watzlawick, Weakland and Fish, 1974). They described themselves as ‘modellers’ (Bandler and Grinder, 1979) stating that they paid very little attention to what people said they did when reaching either a successful or unsuccessful outcome but rather by observing what they actually did. The technique has been described as;

“ The ability to identify the sequence and patterns of thought and behaviour that enable an individual to be able to successfully perform a task” (Sinclair, 1998)


63

MPhil Thesis Bandler and Grinder therefore concluded that they were not seeking truth but rather that which was useful. This stemmed from their belief that the ‘map is not the territory’ (Bandler and Grinder, 1975). In other words an individuals behaviour or conduct is not necessarily a representation of their inner thought process, however if that behaviour is what they do when they are successful and that behaviour can be replicated, then it has value. This concept is fully discussed later in this chapter. Bandler and Grinder started work by studying three top therapists, Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir, the family therapist and Milton Erickson, the hypnotherapist. Their purpose was to identify patterns of behaviour used by people who were outstanding in their field (O’Connor and Seymour, 1990).

The applied epistemology of NLP must therefore be capable of answering the following questions;

“How do we know that we know something or have operational competence?” “How do we know that others know something or have operational competence?” and “Through what means do we develop knowledge and operational competence?” Dilts, (1998)

In Chapter 1, the close relationship between the learning support unit at the Metropolitan Police Training School at Hendon and the corresponding unit at the Scottish Police College was discussed. The initial interest was in the structures and procedures of the Hendon Training School, however a by-product was that staff utilised NLP Techniques in addressing students underlying issues in terms of performance.


64

MPhil Thesis 2.3.1 Identified Research in NLP

Due to the lack of formal research identified as having been undertaken in NLP, one of the key questions in this research is the reliability and effectiveness of using Neurolinguistic programming (NLP) techniques in general, and in particular. The representational systems detailed within that framework and the various tools for recognition of individual approaches to learning. This chapter will seek to demonstrate the range of writing in this field and summarise some of the work that has already been undertaken. The chapter will also seek to some extent to explore the lack of formal research through the philosophy of NLP practitioners.

The reason behind the selection for the use of NLP is fully discussed in chapter 1, the Introduction and Chapter 3, the Methodologies, however standing out from this discussion is the practical use of NLP within the organisation and the corresponding decision by the Scottish Police College to explore further use of NLP in training.

NLP is very focussed on therapy, however at this time several books have now been published in the training field such as ‘Training with NLP’ (O’Connor and Seymour, 1994) and ‘The Effective Delivery of Training Using NLP’ (Garratt, 1997). These focus on the application of the theory of NLP in the learning environment and personal experiences, rather than any evaluation of the application or specific research undertaken.

Despite comments earlier in this Chapter on the lack of exploration of the use of NLP in training, its use is becoming more prevalent, particularly within organisational training. In April 1999, a survey of 402 companies in the United Kingdom made up of


65

MPhil Thesis representatives of both public and private sector revealed that 12% were using NLP in their learning related activities (The Industrial Society, 1999).

2.3.2 Principles of NLP

In order to introduce some of the breadth of techniques used in NLP, some of the principles laid out in every NLP training session are reproduced below with some measure of explanation.

The terminology reproduced in bold below comes from Ted Garratt’s 1997 book ‘The Effective Delivery of Training Using NLP’ (Garratt, 1997) with additional comment;

The map is not the territory - The concept simply means that our beliefs, values and experiences shape our view of the world and events affecting us. Accordingly, an individual’s external behaviour does not necessarily mirror their individual thought process nor those of the person interpreting them.

An example of this is a student at the Scottish Police College who advised that he was very good at learning and knew everything he needed to but could not translate this into his examinations because of his technique. This was his perception of his own ability shaped by their experiences and previous performance. It may have been possible to accept this at face value, however probing of what he meant identified that while he could repeat definitions he could not apply powers and procedures in practical situations. The individual was a predominantly a kinaesthetic learner or practically based learner in the context of his police training and found difficulty in


66

MPhil Thesis dealing with situations outwith his experience. Kinaesthetic learners are further discussed later in this section of this Chapter.

By applying the requirement to know his powers through constructing situations with people and places he knew, the learner found it much easier to deal with theoretical scenarios and apply the learning. This related to the level of information outwith his personal experience which he was required to construct in order to understand a situation, for example if he considered his two brothers shouting and swearing in the street where they lived with their neighbours looking on then the concept of a breach of the peace became easier to understand. This related to the way he took in information and consequently sought to understand it rather than his initial assertion that exam technique was his downfall.

The words people use and their understanding of a situation may not mirror that of others, this requires probing and confirmation of meaning. In NLP this is done using the 4-mat model that is discussed later in this chapter.

You cannot not communicate - As NLP has at least some of its roots in the study of linguistics, there is an emphasis on language. However, the early modelling of communicators emphasised the use of non-verbal communicators. This principle emphasises the importance of observation in order to assess the full message being conveyed. An example of this is an interview with a learner who was advising that his recollection of a subject was down to the lesson notes he had read within his personal studies. When asked to describe his lesson notes and the content on the page, he could not. He was, however, observed to be counting off with his fingers. Probing identified that he was recollecting a bulleted list that broke down the subject. His instructor had


67

MPhil Thesis showed this list to him during a classroom-based lecture. The importance in this example was his non-verbal communication.

The meaning of your communication is the response you get - This works against assumptions of what people mean and say. Because an individual knows what response they expect does not mean they have constructed their communication in a way that another will take the same meaning. In interviews with learners, the same question has had to be asked four or five times to ensure that the understanding is the same. An example of this is the question ‘How do you know when you know something?’

There is no failure only feedback - While some people may cringe at the terminology, the purpose of the principle is to recognise that NLP is a number of techniques rather than an all-encompassing answer. It also perhaps tackles the ‘quick fix’ concept sometimes associated with NLP by identifying the evolutionary nature of processes and the testing concept. This follows on to the next principle.

If what you are doing isn’t working, do something different – There are of course similarities between this principle and the previous, however this recognises the contextual nature of the use of modalities and strategies. What works for an individual in one circumstance may not work for them in other circumstances. This is further discussed in the section on modalities and is reflected in the case studies integrated into the results contained in Chapter 4.

In summary, the above principles firstly demonstrate the amalgamation of issues and techniques that are listed under the umbrella of NLP, but also show the basis in


68

MPhil Thesis practice that is underlying in NLP. That is to say the listening to the individual to ascertain what they mean by what they say and do and the assessment of what they are doing as the same thing as what they say they are doing. NLP is not a set of rules which seeks to categorise individuals and bracket their learning preferences rather identify what works for that individual in specific circumstances relating to the particular goal and seek to model it and through that improve performance.

2.3.3 Deep and Surface Structures

Deep and Surface Structures are a linguistic aspect on NLP and are founded on the theories of Transformational Grammar (Chomsky, 1957). This should not be confused with deep and surface approaches to learning, which are discussed within Section 1 of this Chapter.

The basis of transformational grammar is that thought, theories and ideas crossboundaries of languages and the structure of languages. In this way the same word may have different meanings depending on the emphasis or even the body language that may accompany it (particularly when it comes to sarcasm, for example). The thoughts theories and ideas are the deep structure, once expressed they have often gone through a process of filters, generalisation or distortion or deletion and this becomes the surface structure.

2.3.4 Filters

The concept of filters within NLP was introduced in its beginning by Bandler and Grinder in their book ‘The Structure of Magic I’ (Bandler and Grinder, 1975) in 1975. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

69

MPhil Thesis The concepts link to the map is not the territory principle and is founded upon the modelling undertaken by Bandler and Grinder. Reference is made to three filters we use as individuals to receive, log and make sense of (or dismiss) the information we receive (or send). The description of the filters as listed below is included as part of the overview of NLP. Further work in order to classify and research the implications of filters in line with other theories relating to memory are identified in Chapter 5, in the section on further work.

An external event or experience is not summed up by our representation of that event as we have interpreted it as we assimilated it and it became an internal event. That is to say that all information and experiences gathered in the course of our normal existence are not stored in a pure and unadulterated form. We use processes of Generalisation, Distortion and Deletion when absorbing and interpreting information to cope with the influx of information.


70

MPhil Thesis Filters; Interpretation of Meaning Delete State

Distort

Information

Generalise Physiology

Beh

avio ur

Figure 2.6 Communication Model

2.3.4.1. Generalisation

We generalise information linked to what we already know as a means of easily absorbing and interpreting that information. One of the main methods of generalisation is through the use of assumptions where we make decisions based upon previous experiences. Lewis and Pucelik (1990) provide the example of an experiment whereby a doorknob was placed on the opposite side from a standard bathroom door that opened in an ordinary way. The experiment demonstrated that children generally discovered the ‘trick’, as they were willing to experiment. Adults however tried to open the door and when they found that it would not open, assumed that it was either locked or stuck as they compared this event with their previous experiences and made a generalisation.


71

MPhil Thesis

2.3.4.2. Distortion

Distortion is described as a process of interpretation. It also links to our fantasies or the way in which we imagine an experience or event may be without having experienced it. Such distortion may prejudice the experience itself. We receive information from the senses and thereafter interpret it. This is obviously a very personal process but is our way of giving meaning to data. Examples of this would include the emotional content of music and the interpretation of art.

2.3.4.3 Deletion

The amount of information taken in by the brain every second has been estimated at over 2,000,000 pieces (Lewis and Pucelik, 1990). In order to cope, we filter out a lot of information we deem unnecessary or irrelevant. Since we hold only a finite amount of information in our consciousness at any given moment, we are often not aware of the ‘wider picture’. Consider the movement of your eyes as you read this page. This is a normal movement which occurs quite ‘naturally’ accordingly it was perhaps outwith your consciousness until I made you aware of it by raising the subject. The concept of items being held within our consciousness is not new and as well as considering the amount of information we absorb the deletion process is linked to the consideration of ‘The magic number Seven Plus or Minus Two’ (Miller, 1956) which deals with the amount of information we can effectively process at any one time. As we become aware of new information we lose conscious awareness of others.


72

MPhil Thesis 2.3.5 Meta Model

The meta-model recognises the process of Deep Structure to Surface Structure and was developed by the originators of NLP (Bandler and Grinder, 1975) in order to assist practitioners or modellers move from the surface structure to the Deep Structure. It is in fact a very simple concept that Sinclair (1998) summarised with a quote from Kipling;

‘I had six honest serving men They taught me all I knew; Their names were Where and What and When and Why and How and Who’

The Meta Model is based upon a series of recognised constructs (Bandler and Grinder, 1975) that lead to Surface Structure Communications. An example is simple deletion: ‘I can’t do it’, may be a clear communication on an individuals part, the follow on would logically be: ‘you can’t do what exactly?’ This question may need to be asked several times until the cause of concern or block is actually identified. Similarly with Lost Performatives, factors that many research students become acutely aware of: NLP is Good! Who states that NLP is Good? Why is NLP Good?

2.3.6 Representational Systems (Modalities)

The representational systems are the main factors by which individuals receive information (Grinder and Bandler, 1976), they are categorised as sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. Grinder and Bandler further categorised the senses into major input channels and minor input channels. They placed sight (visual), touch (kinaesthetic) Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

73

MPhil Thesis and sound (audio) into the major channel category as the bulk of information received by individuals (who had suffered no neural damage) was received in this way. The minor input channels are smell (olfactory) and taste (gustatory) and these were more linked to survival instincts rather than ways in which individuals gather information about the world. Commonly, olfactory and gustatory are now categorised within Kinaesthetic as they generate feelings. Grinder and Bandler (1976) also demonstrated that there was a fourth primary method (digital) for input, which was through language and the process of language.

The representational systems used by us can therefore be categorised using; •

Visual,

•

Kinaesthetic,

•

Olfactory,

•

Gustatory.

•

Audio,

•

Digital,

Given that the basis of NLP is in part cognitive psychology (Bandler and Grinder, 1975); there are some similarities that can be seen between the representational systems and cognitive learning styles as described in Section 2.2 of this Chapter. A particular example would be a comparison between Verbaliser-Imager and audio digital to visual.

An often-repeated point made by Grinder and Bandler is that in all situations, we use all the representational systems. This includes the application of representational systems to learning styles. We should not exclude any representational system but Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

74

MPhil Thesis merely recognise that in different people some are more commonly used or are stronger than others.

The link to learning and understanding is the strength of recall associated with each individuals representational system. The question to ask is ‘How do you know when you know that?’ (James, 1987). Using the modelling principles of NLP, doing something well or badly is not a coincidence but a process the individual is working through. If we can identify the element that has made the individual understand or recall the things that they can do well, we can support them in doing more of the same.

2.3.7 Sub-Modalities

Having explored the top-level modalities, we next need to explore the sub-modalities or components that make up each of the representational Systems. When an individual is primarily utilising their stronger modality as part of a learning experience we can also explore the sub-modalities to establish what it is about the experience that makes it stand out for them or makes it so easily recalled.

The components for each group of sub-modalities obviously reflect the modality itself, thus a visual sub-modality would logically be whether the experience or learning point was visualised in colour or black and white.


75

MPhil Thesis 2.3.7.1 Visual Sub-Modalities

Visual sub-modalities would include; brightness of an image, focus, size, distance from the individual, movement, association and many more. Exploration of these factors may make the recall or trigger to the recall more or less vivid or striking.

2.3.7.2 Audio Sub-Modalities

Audio Sub-modalities would relate to the internal sounds heard by the individual and would include; pitch, tonality, inflection, rhythm and of course volume.

2.3.7.3 Kinaesthetic Sub-Modalities

Kinaesthetic would relate to the feeling experienced by the individual and would include; the quality of the sensation, the intensity, the location and the movement.

2.3.7.4 Digital Sub-Modalities

As the digital modality is based upon language, structure and order or process, no submodalities are listed as such (of course, digital is not truly one of the senses either). Rather digital options relate to processes such as flowcharts, lists, mind maps etc.


76

MPhil Thesis 2.3.8 Identification of Representational Systems

The first point to make regarding identifying systems is to use the word calibration. In the midst of a system or methodology that is about individuality and about context of events or experiences, the point must be made that individuals with audio lead representational systems do not exclusively use audio predicates. Rather consistently using similar predicates may be a clue to someone’s preference. In the same way, eye patterns cannot be classified as if everyone looks up and to the right they are visually constructing. People must in the course of any observation or interview be calibrated (Sinclair, 1998), perhaps the simplest example is to consider how you could assess where someone looked on Visual (Recall), ‘What colour is your front door?’ ‘What was the last book you read?’ If you wanted to assess the individuals eye patterns for kinaesthetic, you might ask ‘How does champagne taste?’ ‘What does suede feel like?’ There are a variety of techniques identified by Grinder and Bandler in the books Structure of Magic I & II for the identification of individuals preferred representational systems (Bandler and Grinder, 1975 & 1976).

2.3.8.1 Predicates

The use of language by an individual was identified in initial research (Grinder & Bandler, 1976) as providing an insight into their preferred representational systems. Individuals would commonly express themselves in unusual ways; “I can see what you mean”, I hear where you’re coming from”,” I can’t get to grips with that”. Individuals made these statements in a consistent fashion giving clues to their main input channels as previously described. As can be seen the three examples given


77

MPhil Thesis above relate to visual, audio and kinaesthetic systems respectively. Further examples of predicates and associated words are given at table 2.1;

Representational System

Predicates

Visual

See, look, appear, clear, show.

Kinaesthetic

Feel, touch, grasp, hard, concrete.

Audio

Hear, listen, rings a bell, be all ears.

Digital

Understand, think, consider, know.

Table 2.1 Examples of Representational System Predicates

A person will use combinations of these phrases and many more but during speech Grinder and Bandler found that they will more commonly refer to predicates which can be grouped in their own preferred, or lead, representational system.

2.3.8.2 Physiology

An individual’s physiology can also be used to identify their preferred representational system. Differences have been catalogued not only in physical appearance (Lewis and Pucelik, 1990) but also in posture and breathing. Examples of this are given in table 2.2;


78

MPhil Thesis

Representational System

Physiology

Visual

Breath deeply in the upper portion of the chest, speak quickly, sharp movements. Breath more deeply from lower in the

Kinaesthetic

chest,

speak

more

slowly,

rounded

shoulders. Head tilted, shallow breath from high up

Audio

in

the

chest,

and

speaks

quickly,

commonly use closed body language. Breathes from upper chest, commonly

Digital

speaks in deliberate clipped tones, less body movement when speaking.

Table 2.2 Examples of Representational System Posture and Body Cues

I would of course point out that these are merely examples and are generalisations of observed traits. They can be considered as clues rather than facts and like other methods of identification should be cross-compared and calibrated with an individual.

2.3.8.3 Visual Accessing Cues

The eye accessing cues used as clues to representational systems are illustrated in figure 2.7. Again these are not rules but generalisations and all attempts to use these should be calibrated to the individual concerned.


79

MPhil Thesis Visual (Construct)

Visual (Recall)

Audio (Construct)

Audio (Recall)

Kinaesthetic

Digital

Figure 2.7 Eye Accessing Cues

The illustrated cues again link to the representational systems. The sub-divisions of audio and visual within the figure relate to differences between recall and construct (Grinder and Bandler, 1976). That is to say when someone is remembering and when someone is imagining.

2.3.8.4. Representational Systems Bias Test

All of the foregoing clues to representational systems require contact or observations. One further broadly accepted method used by NLP Practitioners is the Representational Systems Bias Test (Appendix ‘D’) (James, 1987) this is used particularly within NLP training to support individuals’ own insight into their preferences. The bias test is also provided as a tool by Lewis and Pucelik (1990). It is a short test based on common issues, which recognises that preferences are not exclusionary and thus operates on a weighting system. Accordingly a person undertaking the test can gain an insight into their preferences. It is also used as a basis for a one to one interview and further exploration of preferences. The use and origins of the questionnaire is further discussed in Chapters 3 and 4.


80

MPhil Thesis 2.3.9 Strategies

When lead and secondary preferences are explored more deeply, it can be identified that the lead system is actually the access to the memory or information, in other words the visual input may have only been the trigger and the individual actually goes through a whole strategy that encompasses a range of preferences to obtain the resultant information (James, 1987). An example of this might be visual recall of a graphic example of someone climbing through a window representing a housebreaking, this may lead to an audio internal recollection of the definition and a gut feeling that this is the correct response (kinaesthetic).

While this may appear more complicated the principle in identifying the stages of any individual strategy is the same as identifying lead preference and is through patient application of the Meta-model as well as observation and testing of the perceived lead system and/or strategy.

2.3.9.1 T.O.T.E Model

Finally, NLP has borrowed a computer term and process for testing the identification of a strategy or representational lead and applying it to another piece of information and learning. T.O.T.E is an acronym for Test, Operate, Test, and Exit and was developed by George Miller, Eugene Galanter and Karl Pribham in 1960 (Miller, Galanter and Pribham, 1960).

The first ‘test’ relates to the identification of the lead system or strategy invoked by an individual when they perform well (or if trying to break a cycle, when they are


81

MPhil Thesis performing badly). The ‘operate’ identifies the data they are able to access through the lead or trigger. The second ‘test’ is the comparison or change affected when modalities or sub-modalities are altered and finally the ‘exit’ is the decision point in terms of effectiveness of the strategy. If the strategy is not effective applied to other aspects or is less effective following a modality change, the cycle would simply repeat (James, 1987).

2.3.10 Summary

In summary, NLP is about modelling (Bandler and Grinder, 1975, 1976, Dilts, 1998). It is about seeking excellence in others or in oneself through a broad range of communications, both verbal and non-verbal. If an individual can do something well consistently it is not an accident it is a process. NLP would contend that this process could then be identified, learned and applied.

The modalities are used in NLP to identify the triggers or access cues to memories and learning. While recognising that triggers may be context dependant and may vary depending upon the educational or life challenge, the process is identified and modelled. There is a further recognition that further adaptation or attempts to identify a process may need to be made. NLP has a breadth of applications in communication, business, education and therapy (O’Connor & Seymour, 1990). It recognises the individual within any organisational training or learning process (O’Connor & Seymour, 1994) through the flexibility of the applied models and the recognition that they are models and not reality or fact.


82

MPhil Thesis The models are based upon the way in which we assimilate information and therefore the triggers that aid us in recalling that information. Thus;

“ The preferences that learners will have in using their representation systems will be a significant factor in helping them find the best ways to learn.” (Garratt, 1997)

The implication of the practical application of facets of NLP in education are then the raising of awareness by both teachers and learners of opportunities to support re-call and understanding by modelling performance and identifying particular strengths in regard to modality preferences. This opportunity is fully discussed in Chapter 6.


83

MPhil Thesis

Chapter 3 – Research Approach

3.1 Introduction The preceding chapter detailed the literature review undertaken across two main strands. Initially theories in individual learning styles and strategies were explored followed by an introduction to facets of NLP, in particular areas of NLP linked to the hypothesis contained in Chapter 1. It must be remembered that NLP is not a single methodology rather an amalgam of models and techniques. Having identified the identification and individual performance of representational systems as a key strand of the research, this chapter goes on to detail considerations undertaken in planning the research approach, re-affirming the research questions to be answered and outlining the strands of both qualitative and quantative research undertaken and the reasons behind their selection.

The specific contention of this thesis is that there is a link between the performance of recruits as measured in the objective examinations within the Scottish Police Service and their individual preferred representational systems as defined within Neurolinguistic Programming.

The structure of the chapter and the individual considerations are reproduced below in figure 3.1 for ease of reference. As can be seen, the two main influences on the design were a further literature review exploring research methodologies as well as lessons learned from the initial project (Appendix ‘A’) referred to in Chapter 1 which not only served as an early exploration of the research questions but also was the first formal academic research by the author. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

84

MPhil Thesis

Research Methodologies

Lessons Learned

Research Design

Examination Results

Representational Systems Bias Test

Snapshot Learning Diaries

Administration Population Ethical Issues Familiarisation

Semi-Structured Interviews

Figure 3.1: Overview of Approach to Research Design

In addition to research methodologies and actual approach adopted, this chapter considers the selection of population as well as exploration of the ethical considerations to the gathering and dissemination of the data and the informed consent of the participants (Denscombe, 1998) and with a view to providing feedback to the individual for self-awareness and improvement. This approach ensures fairness to the participant and recognises the value of the time the individual puts into participation (Edwards and Talbot, 1999).

In summary, the Chapter is structured to consider the hypothesis and aims of the research in the broader context of appropriate methodologies prior to a consideration of the ethics concerned in the approach and finally moving on to look in detail at the Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

85

MPhil Thesis individual facets that have finally made up the research and resulted in the content contained in Chapter 4.

3.2 Research Methodologies

In considering the hypothesis and environment of the Scottish Police College, a number of options were considered in respect of undertaking the initial project. This stated a number of options were considered.

3.2.1 Ethnographic Methodologies

An Ethnographic approach (Edwards and Talbot, 1999) was discussed in the initial project (Rodgers, 1999). While the undertaking of observations initially appeared attractive, study undertaken by probationer constables at is commonly in private. This aside one of the issues considered was whether the external representation of students’ work matches the internal reality of what they are doing. That is to say, when students stare into space, what exactly are they doing? The concern therefore is one of interpretation and it appeared that the student would require to be more actively involved in the research to allow for their own interpretation of personal approach.

Another consideration with regard to undertaking observations is the rank based structure of the police service. An impact of the authors rank against the student being newly appointed was also considered to be a potential impact factor. That is to say that a supervisors presence may alter the approach naturally undertaken by the


86

MPhil Thesis student, either for the purposes of impressing the supervisor or potentially acquiescing to a style they believed the supervisor expected of a police officer.

3.2.2 Experimental Methodologies

The design of an experiment was considered difficult due to a lack of knowledge of the specific problem if any (Bell, 1993). That is to say that although there is a contention that representational systems as detailed in Chapter 2 have an impact on performance and results, the exact nature of that impact has not been anticipated beyond the possibility of advantage or disadvantage.

This was not however, fully articulated within the initial project. The assertion that time constraints would be problematical in the design of such an experiment was valid but perhaps more pertinent may have been a closer examination of what such an experiment could consist of, if it were to prove or disprove the contention.

While it is proper that all approaches were considered, a major factor was the ethical issues in relation to the use of a control group and the potential effect of a different approach to learning within such a vocational course. Such ethical issues are further explored further on in this Chapter.


87

MPhil Thesis 3.2.3 Alternative Methodologies

A number of approaches were neither discussed nor considered as a part of the initial project. As part of the literature review considering research approaches and options, a number of further possibilities were considered prior to research design.

3.2.3.1 Surveys

Surveys were considered in relation to the population and while this could have had the benefit of widening the population by including previous students. The specific queries in relation to an individuals learning approach are not factual but based on that individuals perceptions. Potentially, this makes the completion of a survey difficult for the participant as it asks them to consider historic actions that they may not have been fully aware of. This consideration began to formulate the concept of ‘snapshot’ learning diairies that are referred to later in this chapter.

In relation to surveys, no previous statistical analysis of performance was undertaken as part of the project (Edwards and Talbot, 1999). This historical gap can be supported by the fact that while historical examination records are available since the inception of the new system in the Scottish Police College (discussed within Chapter 2) these are rendered meaningless by the lack of information in relation to the preferences of those students at that time. Any attempt to ascertain those preferences may prove flawed in that data gathering may result in the students’ current approach to learning rather than at that time. That is not to say that an individual’s approach may change with time but must be contrasted with the inability to say that it does not.


88

MPhil Thesis In addition to this any form of longitudinal study (Ibid) was discounted, however this related to the timescales for the research.

3.2.3.2 Focus Groups

No focus groups were undertaken in relation to this research. The idea was not considered at the time of writing of the project. On reflection the idea of focus groups is attractive in the sense of obtaining structured feedback from a wider range of the sample group in relation to their respective approaches to study. This is made more attractive by the reality that anecdotal evidence suggests that many learners work together at the college during the course particularly in relation to knowledge checks and examination preparation.

However, the contention is founded upon the idea that there are individual approaches to study and any data gathered would, need to explore the issues of peer pressure and the appearance of activity to disguise a lack of motivation. There are so many areas to this issue; the data gathering at an individual level was in retrospect a sound decision.

3.2.3.3 Case Studies

Case Studies did form a part of the initial research design. All reference to such studies was removed from the final project primarily because of word limitations and the belief that such studies could not be given thorough consideration as well as other data gathering methods used. The case studies used were a form of continuation of existing practice. The author had been undertaking hour-long sessions with learners in


89

MPhil Thesis relation to the identification of their learning preferences prior to undertaking the research.

Such sessions were unstructured and undertaken only on a voluntary basis and usually from a referral by an instructor whose student was experiencing difficulties on the theoretical aspects of the course. One of the major reasons for including such work as a part of the research was the notion that identification of preference and result was not sufficient information to identify a problem. The issue of “ was the learner studying according to their preference?” should perhaps also have been consideration?

Such sessions were also intended to support the accuracy (or inaccuracy) of the learning preferences questionnaires as they also included a detailed exploration of lead and supporting preferences. The studies would have allowed the individuality of approaches to be explored as well as the students’ understanding of their own approach. This can however be contrasted by the fact that there was no scope to triangulate the data as there was only one researcher qualified to undertake such sessions (Edwards and Talbot, 1999).

On reflection these case studies should have been retained in the project and greater use of appendices for supporting information might have allowed full discussion.


90

MPhil Thesis

3.3 Lessons Learned from Initial Project The approach finally selected was the identification of preferences using an established questionnaire designed for that purpose and then to break down the results of that questionnaire for comparison with examination performance. The ‘established nature’ of the questionnaire or the presumption as such is discussed later in this Chapter. Examination performance was already provided in detail for the students’ benefit and performance could be broken down all the way to individual questions. The design concept was that this would provide the quantitative data with the addition of case studies to provide the qualitative data.

In considering options for approaching the research task, initial review was undertaken of the project (Appendix ‘A’) discussed in Chapter 1, which previously undertook elements of the research and this was critically reviewed in order to find gaps for a further literature review in this area as well as lessons learned. For the purpose of this section, the lessons learned have been combined with the review in order to provide an underpinning justification for the approach selected in the latter part of the chapter. For the purpose of clarity all reference to the initial project that has now been critically reviewed in order to inform the research design for the thesis is referred to as ‘project’.

As introduced in Chapter 1, the use of Representational Systems (Bandler and Grinder, 1975) was identified due to the author’s personal involvement in the training of Police Officers and the existing use of NLP techniques within the College and its perceived success (Rodgers, 1999).


91

MPhil Thesis The initial project formed distinct stages and involved the students of the first stagetraining course (in other words brand new recruits to the service). The population of the research was limited by the timescales of the project and allowed for two courses to undertake their training during the period. As discussed in Chapter 2, recruits completed four objective style examinations during their twelve week training programme, as well as being assessed in practical training situations and in other skills, such as first aid, interviewing techniques and officer safety.

As part of the initial project, which is fully reported within ‘Appendix A’, students were individually provided with a well established five question questionnaire during their initial week at the college as part of an input on study technique. These questionnaires were used to identify their lead preferences and were then used to group results in an identified examination to explore the contention in NLP terms. A number of case studies were also undertaken as part of the project, however these were not used in the final analysis. The case studies involved both students who did very well or very poorly in examinations, as well as those who performed within the norm. This was intended to provide both the typical and extreme instances (Denscombe, 1998) that are a part of individuals’ performances. The case studies were not used due to project guidelines and textual limitations.

The data were then analysed and presented according to overall performance by lead preference as well as by lead and supporting preference and broken down into the number of correct questions answered in an examination under the question types: Knowledge and Understanding, Comprehension and Application and Synthesis (Rodgers, 1999).


92

MPhil Thesis 3.3.1 Classification of Initial Project Research

The simple nature of the research was not considered as part of the initial project. The research previously undertaken is best described as inductive as the students’ learning styles were categorised and their results observed in order to build a better picture of any relationship that may exist between their preference and performance (Edwards and Talbot, 1999). In effect the contention testing was an approach of ‘grounded theory’ where the theory was developed by the analysis of the data in the expectation that it would provide more information about the subject being researched.

The alternative was to tackle the research from a deductive perspective (Cohen et al, 2000). This would have involved the testing of the theory using control groups alongside the development of materials that would support different learning preferences and comparing performance to that of the control group. Aside from ethical questions in relation to the provision of different training to individuals over a relatively short period of time and the effect this may have on careers (not to mention their jobs), there would require to be a programme developed which would support such approaches to learning.

The project sought to explore a link prior to dealing with the issue of what action should be taken if such a link exists (Rodgers, 1999). Accordingly, on reflection this approach appears to be premature in relation to the subject under investigation and an inductive approach (Greenfield, 1996) appeared more appropriate to the subject matter.

In reality, since observations move to hypothesis and from there to

implications it would be more descriptive to describe the approach as inductivedeductive (Cohen et al, 2000).


93

MPhil Thesis The project states that an action approach was taken in relation to the research, given its problem solving nature. This was not the case. The research could not be considered to be practitioner research. Despite the authors involvement in the field there are no reflective elements in relation to practice or approach. The same can be said of any action element, since no review of personal practices or organisational approach to the learning is being undertaken (Edwards and Talbot, 1999). The classification identified within the initial project was wrong.

The study itself displays elements of quantitative research in the respect that it explores the relationship between two sets of data (the learning preference and the examination result).

The best description of the research would be an empirical test of a hypothesis (Bell, 1993). Unlike the initial project it should be considered an aspect of the research and not the research itself. It has been considered in isolation rather than an aspect of the overall research approach. In fairness this project was an exercise in isolation and is only now being considered a part of a more structured research programme.

3.3.2 Summary of Lessons Learned from Project

The research design consisted of three main factors. The use of existing examination information. The use of the learning preferences questionnaire and finally, the use of case studies. In the event, the case studies were not used or referred to in the final report. There was not a great deal of questionnaire design considered due to the existing nature of the materials although the questionnaire should perhaps have been critically reviewed itself. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

94

MPhil Thesis

The observation of learners was considered but discounted due to the difficulties in observing students in isolated environments as well as the direct supervision issues that existed between student and researcher. Experimentation was not considered at the initial stage of the research and this was upon reflection appropriate.

The examination performance as will be covered in Chapter 4, was an external factor in terms of measurement and required to be dealt with under the college processes. Any separate measurement would have been problematic, as it would not fit with college aims. The NLP measurement was a bespoke solution that on closer examination had not been measured and accuracy and reliability could not be commented upon.

Accordingly two more possibilities would have been a new

questionnaire design with an associated pilot or an attempt to ascertain these factors within the existing questionnaire. These options are further commented upon in Chapter 6 in regard to future research.

The population was agreed upon necessity rather than the required number in relation to credibility of results and sufficiency for analysis. While there will always be time limits placed upon a research project, the explanation of the decision as regards the population could have been better covered and included, for example, the proportion of the overall number of students who undertake the examination per year.

Ethical issues were not an acknowledged consideration in the project, however the data were held privately and were gathered with little negative impact upon the time of the student. Where an impact did occur the student was provided with something positive in return. This was upon reflection good practice however consideration


95

MPhil Thesis could be given in future to drawing up guidelines for research ethics (Edwards and Talbot, 1999).

The data gathering stage was effective in that a 100% return was achieved. This was supported by the ease of application of a unique reference number as well as the disciplined nature of the police service. The data were stored in an order structure with folders for each class containing the completed questionnaires and results in numerical order.

In final conclusion, the project planning in relation to the research question was not broad enough and the reliability of one of the data gathering methods was not ascertained. The data gathering methods were appropriate against the background of organisational requirements, however, the approach to the analysis of the data should have been planned in conjunction with the design stage and with the contention in mind. An outline of all work previously conducted is reproduced as Appendix ‘A’.


96

MPhil Thesis

3.5 Research Design

In considering the final research design, the literature considered informed a critical review of the initial project and allowed for more questioning of that approach. This in turn has led to a greater explanation of some areas such as ethical considerations or the introduction of others such as ‘snapshot’ learning diaries. The approach finally selected was the identification of preferences using an established questionnaire designed for that purpose and then to break down the results of that questionnaire for comparison with examination performance. The ‘established nature’ of the questionnaire or the presumption as such is discussed later in this Chapter. Examination performance was already provided in detail for the students’ benefit and performance could be broken down all the way to individual questions. The design concept was that this would provide the quantitative data with the addition of case studies and diaries to provide the supporting qualitative data.

3.5.1 Selection of NLP

The selection of NLP as the basis for the identification of individual preferences was an institutionally endorsed personal choice based on the author’s experience and success using these techniques in a police training environment. In this case therefore, the undertaking of this research also supports to objectives of the sponsoring organisation (Greenfield, 1996). This issue was discussed in the initial project, however no exploration of comparisons to other learning styles or discussion of other options was undertaken. This consideration is discussed within Chapter 2- literature Review.


97

MPhil Thesis

3.5.2 Ethical Issues

The initial project made no overt reference to ethical considerations. While there is an expectation that a researcher should have the freedom to undertake research and to ask questions, consideration should also be given to the rights of the individual to dignity and privacy (Edwards et al, 2000). No individuals were identified in relation to the final research report, however details were obtained during the data-gathering phase. Such details were required to allow comparison between preference and performance.

This section of the Chapter details consideration given to the gathering and storage of personal data as an administrative and privacy concern as well as the broader implications of individually informed participation in the research as well as the potential impact on the individual of participation.

3.5.2.1 Personal Data Storage

The nature of the research involved the gathering of personal information through the population participating and more specifically the completion of questionnaires and examination results. The storage of such data is covered under Napier Universities registration for Data Protection purposes as well as the Scottish Police Colleges separate registration. Both areas are covered under employee, training and research areas.

The data were held securely and research results were maintained in

confidence.


98

MPhil Thesis Consideration has also been given to the allocation of a lettering system to preserve anonymity of participants in the final thesis. This has been done in the instances of use of the case studies including the snapshot learning diaries (both discussed later in this Chapter). The method adopted has been a simple sequential use of letters in order of case study appearance within Chapter 4.

3.5.2.2 Impact on Student Time

In the vocational or educational field another consideration may be the impact of the research upon the subject’s time. How much are learners being asked to do? Could this affect their studies? Do learners gain anything from the research approach in the short term? These issues may well have been considered in the event of a broader range of data gathering.

The reality was that students were completing documentation as part of a structured input on approach to studies and such completion was orientated towards them thinking about their own learning. Each student completed the questionnaire with minimal time implications and each received something in return. While this was not considered at the time, on reflection it is personally considered equitable.

In order to directly address the concept however, a code of ethical behaviour was developed and provided to all participants during the awareness session as contained within the presentation materials (Appendix ‘F’).

The code conformed to the

requirements of Napier University and the standards set by the British Educational Research Association (Edwards et al, 2000). The code covers the handling of personal


99

MPhil Thesis information, the anonymity of participants and the time implications of participation in ensuring no additional pressure upon existing workloads for students.

3.5.2.3 Participant Awareness

The initial dilemma in the design of the research structure was whether to provide any form of introduction or overview to participants. There were several considerations in this and can be categorised as ethical, administrative and influential.

Ethical considerations supported the inclusion of a standardised input that detailed the research being undertaken and sought the learners informed consent regarding participation (Cohen. et al, 2000). The input was also intended to detail the organisational and personal reasons (as detailed in Chapter 1) for the research being undertaken with a view to demonstrating practical potential benefits as well as motivation.

As further detailed later in this chapter, it was also argued that learners should complete the questionnaire under controlled circumstances and this also ethically required some form of explanation. Finally, it was envisaged that this approach would support a higher return of questionnaires from the population.

Finally Influence, a personally held concern was that any input would skew results through the alteration of perceptions or awareness. Consideration of this factor led to an acceptance of recognition of the potential but a decision that the benefits and in particular the ethics were substantial enough to include the input in the research approach.


100

MPhil Thesis

One constraint placed upon the input was an organisational time that was that only 60 minutes could be afforded for the purpose. A lesson plan was developed (Appendix ‘E’) and incorporated an explanation of the research and reasons behind it, the ethical issues, a brief introduction to NLP and administrative guidance on completing the learning preferences questionnaire. The input was both didactic and facilitative in nature and visually supported by a presentation (copy attached as Appendix ‘E’). All members of the population received the same input and completed their learning preferences questionnaire under the same circumstances. In addition they all received copies of the presentation in handout form.

3.5.3 Population

As with this thesis, the initial project sought to explore any relationship between recruit performance and learning preferences. The research focussed upon the first stage training course. The reason for this was that learners had not adapted to cultural changes that may occur nor adapted their approach to learning at that stage (Rodgers, 1999). No reference was made in the initial project to any evidence that there should be a change in learner approach after a period of time and while the reasoning may be sound, the area could perhaps have been expanded.

The population identified for this research is limited by the nature of that research (Arber, 1993). Since the focus is on recruits to the Police Service in Scotland and specifically their initial training period, the population are the members of the first stage training courses at the Scottish Police College (as described in Chapter 4),


101

MPhil Thesis which run during the period of the research. The research period is of course constrained by the timescales for completion of the qualification.

The reason the initial period of recruit training has been selected is recognition that learning preferences could adapt or change over a period of time in a vocational environment where an individual is exposed to particular approaches and structures in their work. This is an unknown factor and is one that may be worthy of exploration at a later stage. The selection of recruits and the police service is a starting point.

This approach to the population could be described as convenience sampling (Cohen et al, 2000) as the population is that which is easily accessed and which is convenient. However when viewed in the context of recruits to the police service, this population will include every recruit to the service in Scotland during the research period. The approach would remain non-probability sampling in that the group would not be representative of recruit profiles outwith the period of research.

The issue here is whether students completing a learning preferences questionnaire would have the same approach and choices as at the time they joined the police service or whether they had adapted to their vocational environment. This would be an unknown factor.

In addition, it would be difficult for any student to provide detailed information on what they were actually doing when studying in retrospect. In essence the question “How do you know when you know that?” (James, 1987) becomes a difficult question to ask, as the learning approach has to be recalled. Therefore the gathering of information becomes a test of the individuals’ recall of what they were doing at that


102

MPhil Thesis time. The foregoing have also been factors in the inclusion of the Snapshot Learning Diaries and in compilation of the semi-structured interviews these are further discussed below.

It is noted however that the number of elements outwith the control of the researcher in this project tend towards a design based approach rather than a model based approach (Greenfield, 1996). This is supported by the limited scope for developing a population model given that the sample is in many ways predetermined, police officers attending training at the Scottish Police College during the lifespan of the research.

Accordingly, the research population was identified as all of the students who commenced their first stage training during the course of the research. This provided an overall population of 153 students.

3.5.4 Examination Results

All examinations at the Scottish Police College are objective and based on three types of question designed to test knowledge, application and a combination thereof. The statistics already gathered provided a break down of all questions answered. The existing arrangements were considered and given the detail already provided and the imposition of any further gathering of information upon a very small unit at the College; use of the normal data was affected in the research. This also had the advantage of having a guaranteed 100% return.


103

MPhil Thesis The initial project utilised the formal examination process of recruit training at the Scottish Police College as the measure of performance. The training also utilises practical exercises and continuous monitoring through the classroom environment in general performance review and more specific testing elements in the practical areas such as Officer Safety Training.

Consideration of the blending of existing evaluation of practical exercises, which at the time was subjective due to lack of instructor training and formal evaluation was considered, however the foregoing meant that there were issues over comparability. The selection of the formal examinations therefore is evident, however consideration is also given to future research opportunities within Chapter 6.

All students within the Scottish Police College receive a detailed breakdown of their results in examinations. The format is generic and reflects performance in all areas of the syllabus including an individual breakdown of how questions are answered by individuals. As previously described in Chapter 2, all formal examinations at the Scottish Police College are of an objective question type. Copies of the examination results per module per participant were gathered and retained for presentation within Chapter 4 and analysis as detailed within Chapter 5.

3.5.5 Identification of Learning Preferences

The five question representational systems questionnaire (Appendix ‘D’) was used in the research having been identified by NLP trainers as the primary mass identification tool that had been in use for over 13 years among such trainers (James, 1987). The


104

MPhil Thesis author had also used the questionnaire for two years to good success with individuals. Once this area was formally researched, no source could be found for the questionnaire and the author could not be identified. In addition, and perhaps more problematic is that the reliability and success rate of the questionnaire in identifying the lead and supporting preferences could not be ascertained. The literature review only revealed one estimate from unpublished studies by the Metropolitan Police Advice and Development Unit at Hendon. It stated that 80% of students correctly identified their preference using the questionnaire.

Consideration was given to the design of a new questionnaire, however use of the existing questionnaire also provides the opportunity to use it in educational research for what is believed to be the first time. This issue is also further discussed with regard to the identification of further work in Chapter 6.

The apparent lack of research in the use of NLP in education was identified through the structured Internet searches detailed within the literature review in Chapter 2; the approaches made were also fully discussed. Personal concerns were also considered with regards to reliability of the identified questionnaire that was only supported in anecdotal terms. Accordingly, a questionnaire was also designed to seek the origins of the questionnaire, identify any research that would support the reliability of its use as well as any more general information on the use of NLP in education which may have been overlooked by the literature review. A copy of the questionnaire is attached as Appendix ‘G’.

The population for the questionnaire was identified from the directory of members of the Association of Neuro-linguistic Programming who were involved in training.


105

MPhil Thesis Attempts were made to direct the sample towards those formally involved in education, i.e. Universities, schools and vocational or organisational training as opposed to simply those who ran their own training companies. The sample identified was 35 with 10 of those (29%) responding. The results of the questionnaire are included as Appendix ‘H’ however, none of the respondents were aware of the origins of the questionnaire nor of any research undertaken to investigate the reliability of the questionnaire.

The foregoing aside, reference is made in Chapter 4 to any identified learning preferences supported (or otherwise) through the semi-structured interviews.

3.5.5.1 Completion of Representational Systems Questionnaire

As previously stated, the only similar research traced was work undertaken within the Metropolitan Police. As part of the initial investigation for the project, meetings were held with the author of the Metropolitan Police work. A fundamental difference in the use of the questionnaire was identified at this stage but not pursued due to the timescales allowed by the initial project. The Metropolitan Police approach was to allow students to take the questionnaire away and return it completed. The authors approach was to have students undertake the questionnaire in a classroom environment with tight timescales. The purpose of this was to seek first responses without over-analysis of information.

Controlled completion also offered the benefits of being able to ensure questionnaire were completed without misunderstanding (Greenfield, 1996) and saved the running of a pilot questionnaire period to ensure the questionnaire was unlikely to cause such


106

MPhil Thesis misunderstandings. A further benefit is of course the likelihood of achieving a higher completion rate than perhaps a postal survey would achieve.

The preferences defined in NLP relate to the modalities and the general population use all of them (unless some other impairment exists e.g. sight impairment). They simply use these to different degrees. Therefore, once an individual starts to analyse the content of a questionnaire and seeks a correct or appropriate answer their approach automatically moves to digital. The author’s contention is that the method of completion then has a major impact on the result of this questionnaire and lead to returns of over 80% of the population being primarily digital in the Metropolitan Police study but only 32% of the population in the project study. The results of the Metropolitan Police study were not documented but stated in conversation with the author. This contention was not tested and the impact of methods of completion was not established.

Each student at the Scottish Police College is issued with a personal number, like a matriculation number, and this unique number was used to cross refer the questionnaires, learning diaries and examination results as discussed in this Chapter.

The results from the questionnaire provided the basic comparison with the examination results to identify the status quo in terms of approach and attainment within the population.


107

MPhil Thesis 3.5.6 Snapshot Learning Diaries

3.5.6.1 Introduction

One of the issues identified through experience with learner interviews and previous research (Rodgers, 1999) was that learners are not always aware of the process they are undertaking when they study. Often the way they articulate that they learn does not correspond with the way the actually do. In order to further explore this issue, use of learning diaries was reviewed. A further consideration was in the addition of comparative and supporting detail where it could be identified if users were studying in ways which were supportive of their identified preferences and whether this was reflected in their performance measured in the examinations.

Diaries can provide valuable information on what the learner is actually doing when they study and how they spend their time (Bell, 1993). This said, concerns have been raised that students may alter their behaviour in order to make a good impression (Oppenheim, 1966). The transposition to this research is that a learner may state they are learning in one way as they feel their preferred style does not reflect well upon them. In order to deal with this matter the completion of a diary can be combined with an interview in order to provide the basis for that interview (Zimmerman and Weider, 1977)

3.5.6.2 Design

In considering the design for a study or learning diary, an issue was the amount of time required to complete such a diaries within the programme of the training, Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

108

MPhil Thesis accordingly as an ethical consideration, the concept of a snapshot learning diary was developed. This not only in effect dip sampled the individual approach but also sought to remove the more reflective elements of the process by introducing an immediate personal assessment of what they had been doing. This approach also had the potential to be used as a comparative indicator for learner activity in the case studies.

A snapshot learning diary was drafted and reviewed and thereafter piloted with 100 students outwith the research population. The diary was thereafter amended to reflect clarity of instructions. A copy of the diary is attached at Appendix ‘I’. The diary asks about one subject the learner is studying at the time of completion and focuses on what the individual is doing and how they establish when they know the information. This reflects on some of the basic questions considered in NLP (Chapter 2) and reflects aspects of the semi-structured interview (see below). This deals then with concerns over additional demand putting pressure on students but will still provide a detailed basis for the case studies as well as more general patterns in approaches demonstrated by the population. The ‘snapshot’ diary focuses on what subject the student is learning and what they are doing to learn it at any one time.

Consideration was then given to how many of the Snapshot Learning Diaries each student should complete during the research period. Given the search for complementary research methods, the preferred approach was to complete one diary per student per academic module as this would indicate any changes in approach during the course as well as allow for comparison regarding any changes in performance per module. A further consideration was the ability to analyse the number of snapshot learning diaries to be completed and a single page entry on four occasions during the course meant the analysis of almost 600 diaries.


109

MPhil Thesis

3.5.7 Semi-Structured Interviews

Initial NLP interventions conducted as part of support work undertaken at the Scottish Police College (discussed in Chapter 1) formed unstructured interviews of approximately 45 minutes to an hour. The research project was complemented by a series of interviews to provide in-depth case studies for qualitative data (Bell, 1993). Although not referred to in the initial project, the series of interviews carried out revolved around the personal experiences and approaches of the individual it was apparent in the project research (discussed earlier in this Chapter and detailed in Appendix ‘A’). It was noted anecdotally that there was a commonality in certain questions or areas. These are detailed below;

•

Introduction,

•

Schooling,

•

Previous Occupations o Areas of Good Performance o Areas of Bad Performance

•

Performance at Scottish Police College o

Areas of Good Performance

o Areas of Bad Performance •

Methods of Study

•

Source of Positive Performance

•

Summary of Interview


110

MPhil Thesis Consideration was then made on the basis of the foregoing regarding the use of a semi-structured approach (Gillham, 2000) in that an introduction was to be provided as well as some general data gathering. The interview was be designed to elicit information on something the subject does well and explore the reasons that they do well. Thereafter it was structured to explore how that information could be extrapolated to something the subject does less well. The interviews focused around the question, “How do you know that?” in the NLP context as previously detailed (Chapter 2).

3.6 Conclusion The research design has been informed by critical review of previous research combined by a literature review in the specific area of Educational Research. The selected performance elements are measured by the Scottish Police College and are linked to pre-determined criteria and therefore cannot be reviewed in the context of this research.

The initial identification of Learning Preferences is a well used tool anecdotally, although recognition is made of the lack of formal research quantify the reliability. As a supporting mechanism, the semi-structured interviews are included to initially assess the correlation to the indication provided by the questionnaire but also to provide qualitative data to the research results.

Finally, the purpose of the Snapshot Learning Diaries is to explore the study methods from a lesser reflective approach in order to better assess what the individual is doing at that time and also to assess whether the individual is studying in ways which would Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

111

MPhil Thesis be generally supportive of their preferences as well as how that links to their performance through the formal examinations.

The next chapter details the results from the use of the various research tools and combines the exploration of the populations examinations results with the results of the representational systems bias test supported by semi-structured interviews and learning diaries.


112

MPhil Thesis

Chapter 4 – Results 4.1 Introduction Chapter 3 approached the research design from the perspective of a review of literature and combined with practical lessons learned from an initial foray into the research questions. This chapter moves on to lay out the results realised by the research approach and is broken down into performance by lead representational system.

For clarity, this Chapter has been written in segments. Initially an overview is provided of the population with regard to age, gender and occupation and this is later considered in terms of lead learning preferences. Thereafter, consideration is given to examination performance within each lead preference, looking at study approach linked to results as well as the mean and the standard deviation across the four examinations undertaken by the population. The Chapter goes on to explore comparative performances across the same examinations and presents the results ‘normalised’ as percentages to take account of the different sized groups of lead preferences and allow for direct comparison.

A full interpretation of the results contained within this chapter is contained within the next chapter, Chapter 5. An aspect of the analysis of results is an identification of further potential research and this is considered in the final Chapter (Chapter 6).

Mention is also made in this introduction of the format of presentation of the results. Graphical and textual reporting of the results are intermingled in recognition of the individual preferences of the reader. Given the nature of the research and the Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

113

MPhil Thesis hypothesis, the reader may recognise their own preferences in the way they respond to the presentation.

4.2 Overview The population for the research consists of 153 recruits to the Scottish Police Service. Each student (with the exception of serving police officers who have transferred from England and Wales) was experiencing their first introduction to the Police having spent only a week at their home forces for the purpose of being sworn in and kitted out with their uniform etc. The population consists of 106 male and 47 female officers, their average age is 27 and the youngest is 19, the oldest 41. The spread of ages within the population is shown in figure 4.1.

Number of Students

Breakdown of Population by Age 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Age Breakdown:

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

Age Breakdown:

Figure 4.1 Breakdown of Population by Age

Lead learning preference was initially identified using the Learning Preferences Questionnaire (as detailed in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3). The questionnaires were examined and the results detailed below. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

114

MPhil Thesis

Lead Preference

Number of Population

Percentage of Population

Digital

44

28.8%

Visual

25

16.3%

Auditory

38

24.8%

Kinaesthetic

23

15%

Joint Lead Preference

20

13.1%

Multiple Lead Preference

3

2%

Total:

153

100%

Table 4.1 Population by Lead Preference

The population held a broad variety of jobs prior to joining the police service, these ranged from tree surgeon to financial advisor and oilrig worker to lingerie regional trainer. The largest groups of previous occupation were 11 transferring police officers, 11 students who had joined on completion of their studies and 8 civil servants.

4.3 Performance by Lead Preference The next four sections detail the performance of individuals with clearly identified lead preferences through their examination results as well as their learning diaries and interviews.


115

MPhil Thesis 4.3.1 Digital

Learners with a lead Audio Digital preferences consisted of 44 of the 153 students (28.8% of the population). This group performed as follows in each examination;

Examination

Mean Percentage Result

Standard Deviation

Module 1

72.1%

0.11

Module 2

73.7%

0.11

Module 3

68%

0.11

Module 4

67.7%

0.12

Overall Performance

70.4%

0.09

Table 4.2 Mean Results of Learners with a Digital Lead Preference

Some of the identified traits of a Digital Lead preference are discussed within Chapter 2.

4.3.1.1 Student ‘A’

Student ‘A’ is an example of a learner who was identified through the learning preference questionnaire as having a lead preference of digital. His questionnaire results are listed below;


116

MPhil Thesis

Preference

Score

Audio

12

Digital

15

Visual

11

Kinaesthetic

12

Lead Preference

Digital

Table 4.3 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘A’

A 24 year old male from West and Central Scotland, student ‘A’ was educated in Scottish primary and secondary schools and attained 7 standard grade passes and one higher pass. Selections of subject matter at school was predominantly due to required subjects rather than personal choices. Preferred subjects related to history and the people related aspects of geography, however school held little fascination for Student ‘A’ and homework was not a priority, much personal learning was undertaken with parental support.

Initially Student ‘A’ was employed by a firm of Sheriff officers on leaving School and thereafter joined the Navy as a Sonar Operator for a short period. The jobs he has undertaken have been predominantly manual and immediately prior to joining the police Student ‘A’ was a machine operator. Student ‘A’ has accordingly been required to do little studying as part of his working life to date.


117

MPhil Thesis A review of previous occupations may lead to an expectation that Student ‘A’ might have a kinaesthetic lead preference preferring to work with his hands and learn through doing as with an apprenticeship.

He achieved the following results in the four examinations.

Examination

Score

Percentage Result

Module 1

23/30

77%

Module 2

21/29

72%

Module 3

21/30

70%

Module 4

16/30

53%

Overall Performance

70.4%

Table 4.4 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘A’

The interview with Student ‘A’ was conducted while he was awaiting his results for Module 4. When asked to describe his approach to studying within the Police College he described,

‘It’s not been that bad, I take it in first time in the class. Ok I’m not a big studier I’m quite an erratic studier - I don’t have any studying technique, I kind of walk around the room thinking about it… I picked it up first time in class - I think its how well I know a subject I pick it up first time. A lot of people write things down, if I write things down I find it quite distracting - I don’t like writing things down.’


118

MPhil Thesis When asked about scenarios, it became clear that these were not primarily visually constructed rather logically structured through the process of dealing with the subject at hand. This is demonstrated when Student ‘A’ was asked to give an example of what kind of scenarios he gave himself,

‘Just say like somebody’s got a section 4 offence - you think he’s been drinking or taking drugs - go for the process check - check his condition - write down this condition write down that condition - do you want to go back to the station – go for the proper tests - go for a section 5? - do they need a blood test?’

As can be seen from the above example, Student ‘A’ is working through the scenario rather like a tick list, he has given an order and structure to what he needs or wants to do. This is compatible with an identified digital learning preference.

This is supported when Student ‘A’ is asked to describe a subject he feels he is good at from the syllabus. On reflecting his answers, he describes structuring the penalties that can be applied by various courts. While initially referring to coloured notes with highlighter pen, he goes on to detail a letter based structure, (a,b,c) to pick out the penalties, thus giving it a structure.

This summary would then support the initial questionnaire that Student ‘A’ does have a strong digital preference that is likely also to be supported by a visual preference given the use of colours and visual construction of scenarios for learning purposes. The visual preference is less well demonstrated through the initial questionnaire.


119

MPhil Thesis 4.3.1.2 Module 1 Examination

The 44 learners in the population who identified a Digital Lead Preference achieved mean score of 73.7% in the module one examination (explained in detail in Chapter 3, under the Scottish Police College). The individual examination marks have been grouped into blocks of 5% and are reproduced below in Figure 4.2.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Digitals

36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners

Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preference in Module 1

Percentage Scores

Figure 4.2 Performances of Learners with Digital Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination.

In figure 4.2, it can be seen that no learner with a digital lead preference scored below 55% nor above 95% in the exam. The largest single proportion of students scored in the 81-85% bracket being closely followed by the 71-75% distribution. The actual distribution of scores can be seen in figure 4.3 where the performance grading have been normalised by each 5% group of scores using the mean score for the module and the standard deviation.


120

MPhil Thesis In looking at the learning diaries of Digital learners, an initial common reference to digital learners reading notes and thereafter copying them out in their own words was made;

‘Read each subject thoroughly and wrote notes accordingly…’ ‘Read notes discussed subjects’ ‘I read a paragraph then try to write down what I have read…’ ‘I read over both chapters. I then went back and read it over again and made notes…’ ‘Read notes, wrote down important points…’ ‘Read over the course manual notes on each topic and made my own notes…’

This would be supportive of a digital learner in trying to apply a meaningful structure to their understanding of the information. An initial review of performance in module one linked to learning approach was then made, three learners were identified as achieving the lowest, highest and mean gradings in module one and a comparison made to their studies.

The student who scored the lowest mark in this module (15/30 questions, 50%) stated in each of their learning diaries that they read their notes and discussed the points with other learners. This included discussing potential scenarios. In one instance do they go on to mention their own learning aids, but do not intimate that they are seeking to structure or construct the learning into their own format, rather the discussion and scenario elements are more indicative of a kinaesthetic preference.

The highest mark scored in this examination was 90% (27/30 questions) and was infact scored by four of the learners with a digital lead preference. One of those


121

MPhil Thesis learners selected at random advised that they learnt the subjects by rote and continued to repeat them, they did however go on to mention that they used the paragraph headers as a jog to memory thus providing a structure to the learning. A second learner who also scored 90% stated that they read the notes and thereafter structured their own notes by answering the student specific objectives.

The mean mark for learners with a digital lead preference in module 1 was 72.1%. Three of the digital learners scored 73% that was the closest to the mean. One of these learners stated (in a structured list) in their learning diary that they read the course notes then made their own notes. They also made reference to question and answer as part of the learning process. Another of the learners stated that they re-wrote the notes checked them against the student specific objectives and finally read and re-read their notes.

25 20 15

Digitals

10 5 0 35 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00

Percentage of Learners

Normalised Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preference in Module 1

Percentage Score

Figure 4.3 Normalised Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preferences in Module 1 Examination


122

MPhil Thesis In figure 4.3, the normalised distribution of scoring for those with a lead preference can be seen. The distribution peaks in the 71-75% scoring range.

4.3.1.3 Module 2 Examination

Moving onto module 2 and figure 4.4, it can initially be seen that the greatest single number of students (11) scored in the 76-80% bracket. This figure represents 25% of the actual digital learners group. As before, the marks are grouped in 5% blocks;

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Digitals

41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners


Percentage Score

Figure 4.4 Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preference in Module 2 Examination

It can be seen from the above figure that no learner scored below 45% in this examination or above 95%. Next to the 76%-80% group, the next highest is the 86%90% group with 7 of the 44 learners. In all, 37 out of 44 students in this group scored between 65% and 90%.


123

MPhil Thesis In considering the individual learning diaries for the students undertaking the Module 2 Examination, the student who scored the lowest mark in this module (15/29 questions, 52%) (this is a different learner from the one referred to in Module 1) stated in each of his learning diaries that he read the notes and then made his own notes. These notes are not described and it is consequentially difficult to assess if the notes were helpful or otherwise. In each of the learning diaries the reason for concluding studying the subject changes, reasons given are; ‘had other areas of weakness to study’, ‘mind wandered’, ‘doing as long studying as was spent in class’ and ‘answered most of the questions correctly’. This would seem to indicate that no measure of ‘success’ was consistently applied to the studying and potentially there was no clear structure although the vague nature of the diaries means that this is conjecture, however from the information supplied, this student would not appear to have been studying in a manner supportive to his preferences.

The highest mark scored in this examination was 93% (27/29 questions).

This

learner, who is different from the student who scored the highest mark in Module 1, reflected a very structured study pattern in having set periods for study and thereafter set periods for knowledge checks across all four of their learning diaries. Reference is made throughout of the learner making their own notes and specific examples are given of creating a flow chart to “lay it out more logically” highlighting “key words”. Interestingly the measure of understanding given in three of the four learning diaries is “when I felt I understood the subject” which could be considered to be more kinaesthetic in nature although the fourth reference is to a question and answer session to evaluate understanding.


124

MPhil Thesis The mean mark for learners with a digital lead preference in module 2 was 73.7%. Five of the digital learners scored 72% that was the closest to the mean. One of these students (selected at random) referred to a single technique consistently, that is to say question and answer sessions in strict time formats with breaks in between with an assessment of undertaking a round of questions where every participant got the answers correct. The structure in the study format would appear to be supportive of a digital format as would reference to the questioning approach as covering the key objectives for the subject.

The normalised distribution of scores can be seen in figure 4.5 below. This has been again presented in 5% blocks. The mean for digital learners in the module 2 examination was 73.7%.


Normalised Performance of Learners with Digital Lead Preference in Module 2 20 15 10

Digitals

5 0 41- 46- 51- 56- 61- 66- 71- 76- 81- 86- 90- 9645 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Percentage Score



125


In the module 3 examinations the group of digital lead preference learners achieved a mean score of 68%. The performance figures are presented below in figure 4.6. As can be seen, the largest group of learners, 11 (25% of the group) scored in the 66%70% group. No student scored below 35% or above 90% in this examination.

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Digitals

36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners


Percentage Score


The student who scored the lowest mark in this module (11/30 questions, 37%) stated in each of her four learning diaries that she read the notes, related them to the objectives for the lesson and tried to understand them. An expectation of a digital learner studying to time might include a deconstruction and reconstruction of the notes, breaking them down into bullet points and so on. Reading alone would not be overly indicative of the general preference. The student concluded that she stopped when she finished the subject, indicating that there was no test or assessment of the learning that again is not indicative of digital lead preferences. The student’s second Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

126

MPhil Thesis preference was for kinaesthetic and again no elements that may be expected are present. This makes it difficult to assess in terms of performance as either the initial indications in both lead and secondary preferences were incorrect or the student was studying against those preferences.

The highest mark scored in this examination was 87% (26/30 questions) and was infact scored by three of the learners with a digital lead preference. One of those learners selected at random advised that they read notes highlighting important and relevant points. This assessment of what is important supports a digital lead preference. A second learner who also scored 87% stated that they assessed from examinations that certain areas of the notes were important and read those elements and thereafter used the highlighted elements to answer the student specific objectives.

The mean mark for learners with a digital lead preference in module 3 was 68%. Five of the digital learners scored 67% (closest to the mean). One of these learners stated that they undertook question and answer sessions with colleagues and in one of their diaries (made during the study of this module) stated that they identified the main points (generally a indication of digital preference and then copied them out to music using the rhythm and beat to aid recall. This learner’s secondary preference was audio and would be supportive of a combined approach using both preferences.

Another of the digital group who scored the mean mark for this examination provided bulleted lists of their process to studying for this module. Again this would be supportive of their studying according to their identified preference.


127

MPhil Thesis As previously, the normalised distribution of the scores is presented below in Figure 4.7;

20 15 10

Digitals

5 0 36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00



Percentage Score



In Module 4, the student who scored the lowest mark achieved 11/30 questions correct (37%). This refers to the same learner and same score as achieved in the Module 3 examination. As previously mentioned, she stated in each of her four learning diaries that she read the notes, related them to the objectives for the lesson and tried to understand them. An expectation of a digital learner studying to time might include a deconstruction and reconstruction of the notes, breaking them down into bullet points and so on. Reading alone would not be overly indicative of the general preference.


128

MPhil Thesis

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Digitals

36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners


Percentage Scores


The student concluded that she stopped when she finished the subject, indicating that there was no test or assessment of the learning that again is not indicative of digital lead preferences. The student’s second preference was for kinaesthetic and again no elements that may be expected are present. This makes it difficult to assess in terms of performance as either the initial indications in both lead and secondary preferences were incorrect or the student was studying against those preferences. Given the commonality of results, this individuals Module 1 results (23/30, 70%) and Module 2 results (16/29, 55%) have also been included. It can be seen that there was a decline in the results across the modules and as the course developed, however no further conclusion can be drawn from this.

The highest mark scored in this examination was 93% (28/30 questions). The student was consistent across their four learning diaries in that he and four others set questions based on the study notes and discussed the key points of each question until each of the group confirmed that they were confident in answering same. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

129

MPhil Thesis

The mean mark for learners with a digital lead preference in module 4 was 67.7%. Five of the digital learners scored 67% (closest to the mean). One of these learners stated that they identified the “main points”, “re-wrote the notes to understand the notes more clearly” and they concluded each session when they could repeat the main points. Again, in this example reference is made repeatedly to re-interpretation of the notes and the desire to identify important points. This drive to interpret and pick out points that are key in the mind of the learner could be considered supportive of a lead digital preference.

As previously, the normalised distribution of the scores is presented below in Figure 4.9;

25 20 15

Digitals

10 5 0

41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00



Percentage Scores



130

MPhil Thesis 4.3.1.6 Student ‘B’

A second, and again more detailed personal example, of a student who identified their lead preference as digital, is Student ‘B’. His questionnaire results are listed below,

Preference

Score

Audio

14

Digital

15

Visual

10

Kinaesthetic

11

Lead Preference

Digital

Table 4.5 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘B’

Student ‘B’ is a 28year old male from the East Coast of Scotland who was educated at Scottish primary and secondary schools. He made early reference to experiencing difficult with formal education and being the subject of “remedial classes” during his time at primary school. He stated that these developed him but did not bring him to the same level as his peers.

At secondary school, Student ‘B’ undertook studies in Biology, Modern Studies, Craft and Design, PE, English and Maths. He described himself as “tragic” in maths and stated that while he understood the formulae, by the time he would have worked through it he would make simple mistakes in the arithmetic and get the question wrong. In English, he was positive regarding the oral language but stated that he had more difficulty with reading and writing. He was more positive about Modern Studies Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

131

MPhil Thesis and referred to the subject as being easier to debate however his focus for enjoyment was on the project work, which he saw as very practical. He also stated he was successful at PE and Craft and Design, involving woodwork and metalwork.

He summed up this period of formal learning as very frustrating and described those feelings as they affected him. This background and expression of frustrations including career choices would be more indicative of kinaesthetic approaches to learning.

Student ‘B’ went on to complete a National Certificate in PE and Outdoor Education at a College and was employed initially as an Instructor at a Centre. He described the course as modular and was very critical of the format and non-testing nature of the overall course. He left this employment in the hope of joining the Police Service, but took a temporary job at the Post Office and ended up working with them for eight years, initially as a postman and latterly in a management role.

During this period, Student ‘B’ became a Special Constable and eventually joined the regular service. He states that he did take several attempts at the entrance exam experienced difficulty with the English and arithmetic elements. At this point he described himself as never having considered study techniques and by default simply reading over materials.

During Module 1, Student ‘B’ describes initially attempting to re-write notes and making annotations but finding difficulty in focussing as he felt he was no longer listening fully to instructors and he then re-enforced his believe that he is more adept at oral communication than written. He also stated that he felt he understood the


132

MPhil Thesis spoken word better than the written. Throughout the interview Student ‘B’ used the word ‘felt’ when discussing approaches to learning, this stated, he made a number of references to responding more readily to the spoken word.

He also felt that he had been more successful in module 1 than any of the others (this is borne out in examination results as can be seen from Table 4.6 below) and that this could be ascribed to his experience as a Special Constable as this area of policing held elements he had been involved in. When asked for an example, he selected means enquiry warrants. He stated;

“…been fined by the court, not paid the court, they are then brought in on a means enquiry warrant, they have the option to pay at that time or they are brought to the court. There is enquiry into their means to pay, is it too much for them? Then there will be a review…”

Student ‘B’s answer was given almost as a list indicating their was process involved as he worked through the order of what he felt was an appropriate answer, while this is digital in nature, on probing he identified a detailed operational example upon which his answer was based and advised that he was working through that particular incident. He spoke out loud in order to structure his thoughts and used this to work his way through the example. This would be kinaesthetic in nature and possibly demonstrates the importance to this individual of personal experience in learning and understanding.


133

MPhil Thesis He achieved the following results in the four examinations.

Examination

Score

Percentage Result

Module 1

22/30

73%

Module 2

17/29

59%

Module 3

21/30

70%

Module 4

17/30

57%

Overall Performance

64.8%

Table 4.6 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘B’

With regards to this individual, he went on to express difficulties with the remaining modules as they were outwith his experience. In this case, although there are demonstrated digital traits, there are also a number of kinaesthetic traits. This stated, there are no examples of any visual elements to approaches to studying or to recall and this is the least supported modality.

He does however consider the spoken word to be more important than the written word and referred to this throughout the interview in relation to formal schooling as well as vocational studies. Although not considered by him, the reading of notes he referred to could relate to an internal or external audio approach to replay the learning event. It can be seen from the initial questionnaire that this is not overly surprising as this is a strong supporting preference to digital.


134

MPhil Thesis 4.3.2 Visual

Learners with a lead visual preference consisted of 25 of the 153 students (16.3% of the population). This group performed as follows in each examination.

Examination


Standard Deviation

Module 1

68.7%

0.13

Module 2

71.8%

0.09

Module 3

65.8%

0.12

Module 4

68.8%

0.08

Overall Performance

68.8%

0.09

Table 4.7 Mean Results of Learners with a Visual Lead Preference

4.3.2.1 Student ‘C’

Student ‘C’ is an example of a learner who was identified through the learning preference questionnaire as having a lead preference of visual. His questionnaire results are listed below;


135

MPhil Thesis

Preference

Score

Audio

10

Digital

10

Visual

16

Kinaesthetic

14

Lead Preference

Visual

Table 4.8 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘C’

Student ‘C’ is a thirty two year old male from Ayrshire in Scotland. He attended both primary and secondary school in Ayrshire where he stayed on to his 6th year and achieved a total of five ‘O’ Levels. The subjects he was successful in were English, Arithmetic, Physics, Technical Drawing and Home Economics.

Student ‘C’ does however state that while both his brother and sister went to university he was more interested in making money and began a Saturday job in a butchers while still at school and would seek extra hours there in preference to studying. He immediately identified himself with kinaesthetic traits in the subjects he stated he preferred; he enjoyed technical drawing and stated that he “felt that he was good at hands on things”. He was asked to identify a subject he felt he was good at and identified technical drawing. He went on to provide an explanation of how he would approach doing a drawing and used visual predicates (‘picture’, ‘see’) in describing it. He also drew the image of a house with his fingers while describing it. In this he demonstrated both visual and kinaesthetic traits. It can be seen from table


136

MPhil Thesis 10.6 that Student ‘C’s supporting or secondary preference is kinaesthetic. He was also asked when he identified with learning the approach to drawing a house. He replied; “I had to see it getting done” The difference between seeing it done and doing it is relevant to the traits of visual and kinaesthetic learners respectively.

When discussing a school subject that he did not like he discussed mathematics. He glossed over equations and discussed in more details the type of maths questions he said he remembered. These all involved the interpretation of diagrams. Student ‘C’ remained working at a local butchers shop when he left school and undertook an apprenticeship all learning matters were shown and thereafter demonstrated in order to successfully progress. He thereafter left to work as a general labourer for a printing firm where he remained for eight years. The reason for the change was financial.

He thereafter joined the police. During his initial training at the Scottish Police College, Student ‘C’ achieved the following results;

Examination

Score

Percentage Result

Module 1

18/30

60%

Module 2

17/29

59%

Module 3

21/30

70%

Module 4

19/30

60%

Overall Performance

63%

Table 4.9 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘C’


137

MPhil Thesis Student ‘C’ found it hard to identify an approach to his studying verbally but recorded reading notes and undertaking question and answer sessions. He was asked to identify a subject that he was comfortable with and thereafter detail the subject. The subject related to legal documentation and he was unable to recall accurately details of it. On probing it transpired that he had not seen an actual copy of the documentation.

Due to the vague nature of the recall and the intimation of Student ‘C’ that he worked better and understood more through practical applications, he was asked to construct a scenario with him serving the documentation at a location he knew to a person he knew. He was led through this and thereafter asked to replicate same for another piece of documentation. He worked accurately through the second scenario with minimal prompting. This is supportive of Student ‘C’s’ contention as he appeared to find information easier to recall when linked to information he already knew and to a practical situation. It was however noted that his belief in the practical approach led him to undertake question and answer sessions throughout the course and while this is a supporting preference, none of his study approach gave him the opportunity to assess the visual element which was identified in the questionnaire and to which he alluded in recalling approaches to school work.


Overall, the whole group of ‘visual’ learners recorded a mean of 68.7% in this examination (Module 1). In this group, no student scored below 35% or above 90%. The largest number of students within the bands of 5% scores was 6 (25%) of the group who scored in the 76%-80% bracket.


138

MPhil Thesis

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Visuals

36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners

Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination

Percentage Scores

Figure 4.10 Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination

The student who scored the lowest mark among the group of learners with a lead preference of visual achieved 12 out of 30 questions correct (40%). This learner identified a lead preference of visual with a closely supporting preference of kinaesthetic. A review of their learning diaries reveals that they consistently read the notes and thereafter copied them out. The terminology here is interesting in that unlike the example below where the learner who scored the highest mark appeared to be undertaking a visualisation process by recalling the notes in making their own, this learner appears to be simply copying from open books. This learner is referred to in each of the learning diaries reviewed in the visual group as they scored the lowest marks in each of the four modular examinations. This in itself may be supportive of the final comments below.

While the level of detail does not allow detailed analysis, this technique would appear to be more orientated towards activity than directed learning. Previous experience, although not documented, of interviews with learners has revealed that this approach Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

139

MPhil Thesis is more undertaken by those who are either unsure of how best to study or use activity or work rate as an alternative to study. This cannot be conclusively identified as happening in this instance.

The highest mark scored in this examination was 87% (26/30 questions). This was achieved by two of the group. One of the learners who achieved this identified a lead preference of visual in the learning preferences questionnaire and like the previous learner who scored the lowest mark of the group also had a secondary preference of digital. This learner consistently refers to reading her notes; closing the notes and writing down everything she can remember from them. While not specifically mentioned, this would imply an element of visualisation of the notes as they have been read and used then to re-write as a recall process. No mention is made of any marks or highlighting of the notes, although it would not be surprising to find that the notes were marked up in some way. This approach outlined in the learning diaries would appear to be supportive of the lead preference. No reference is made to a specific test of understanding and studying was concluded when the learner was “too tired” to continue.

The mean mark for learners with a visual lead preference in module 1 was 68.7%. Three of the group who identified their lead preference as visual achieved a mark of 70% (closest to the mean). In the group of 25 visual learners, 11 had a secondary preference of digital. In the foregoing two examples of the learners who achieved the highest and lowest scores the preference was clear but supported by the digital preference and from analysis of the learning dairies, it appears that the student who achieved highest studied with their preference and the student who scored lowest did not.


140

MPhil Thesis

The example of the learner who scored near to the mean mark for this group has a lead preference of visual by one mark from digital. This learner refers to making notes of the pertinent points and testing knowledge against the learning outcomes. One of their main approaches is the creation of mnemonics that they have then utilised. This approach would appear to be more digital than visual in approach from the information supplied.

The examination results for this group of learner’s results were also normalised and are presented in Figure 4.11 below.

20 15 10

Visuals

5 0 35 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00


Normalised Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination

Percentage Scores

Figure 4.11 Normalised Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preferences in Module 1 Examination


141


In module 2, no learner in the visual group scored below 40% or above 90% in this examination. The largest single number of students (7) scored in the 66%-70% bracket. The results are presented in Figure 4.12.

Number of Learners

Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 2 Examination 8 6 Visuals

4 2 0 41- 46- 51- 56- 61- 66- 71- 76- 81- 86- 91- 9645 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Percentage Scores


The lowest score realised in the module two examinations in this group was 48% (14/29). As previously mentioned this result was realised by the same student who scored the lowest result in the module 1 examinations.

A review of the learning diaries of the student who scored highest from the group in the module 2 examination was then undertaken. This student was the second learner who scored the joint highest mark in the module 1 examinations. The student scored 90% in the exam with 26/29 questions correct. This student was a police officer who had transferred from a Force in England and Wales. Their completion of the learning Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

142

MPhil Thesis preferences questionnaire indicated a strong visual preference with a secondary digital preference.

This student’s initial learning diary is presented as a numbered list showing an order of activity and also revealed an approach of undertaking research beyond the lesson notes to review case law. This approach is unusual in that case law does not form a major element of initial police training but a greater emphasis is placed on the importance for officers later in their training, accordingly it would appear that this learner is utilising their experience in police training in order to enhance their understanding.

The inclusion of a bulleted list followed by the other learning diaries referring to identification of possible examination questions and completion of past papers (an interesting reference as at this time there were no past papers for the examination and so the reference is not clear) would be more digital in preference. It does appear that this learner is using their experience to good advantage and this may have an influence on their approach.

In the group who identified themselves with a visual lead preference in the learning preferences questionnaire the mean mark for the module 2 examinations was 71.8%. Six of the group who identified their lead preference as visual achieved 72% (closest to the mean). One of those six learners (identified randomly) identified a process of reading notes, thereafter writing them out, reading again and then reciting them. It cannot be completely ascertained but this approach could be audio related (reciting the notes) but the combination of re-writing as triggers to recite could also be visual in that the notes were being recalled and reproduced. This hypothesis would be


143

MPhil Thesis supported by reference in the diaries to “highlighting significant points”, “underlining points” and “drew small pictures at the side of my notes”. The learners decision to stop studying a particular subject was also stated in 2 of the four diaries as when they “read the headings they could remember the content” this would also indicate a visual preference. The other two diaries were vague in terms of assessment referring to “when I understood”.

Learners with an identified lead representational system of visual scored a mean of 71.8% in the module 2 examinations. The normalised distribution is presented in figure 4.13.


Normalised Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 2 Examination 25 20 15

Visuals

10 5 0 41- 46- 51- 56- 61- 66- 71- 76- 81- 86- 90- 9645 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Percentage Score



The module 3 examinations provided a mean score of 65.8% by visual learners. In module 3, no learner in the visual group scored below 45% or above 95%. The largest


144

MPhil Thesis single number of students (7) scored in the 66%-70% bracket. The figures are presented in Figure 4.14.

8 6 Visuals

4 2 0

36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners

Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination

Percentage Scores


The lowest score realised in the module three examinations in this group was 47% (14/30). As previously mentioned this result was realised by the same student who scored the lowest result in the module 1 and 2 examinations.

The highest score achieved in this examination was 90% in the exam with 27/30 questions correct. This was achieved by the same police officer that scored the highest marks within the module 1 and 2 examinations.

In the group who identified themselves with a visual lead preference in the learning preferences questionnaire the mean mark for the module 3 examinations was 65.8%. Four of the group who identified their lead preference as visual achieved 67% (closest


145

MPhil Thesis to the mean). One of the four learners was identified at random. In each of their four learning diaries they wrote,

“Read over Notes. Wrote Down Salient Points. Read over my Notes”

These brief notes appear to suggest a digital approach in both the process and the implication of interpretation in identifying “salient points”. This students learning preferences questionnaire shows digital to be their least likely preference by some margin. Their supporting preference was identified as audio. A potential explanation for this apparent disparity is encountered in the ‘other comments’ area (this is one of the few respondents to use this section of the learning diairies). In one diary the learner states, “There must be an easier way!!”. This is possibly an indication that the learner has identified issues with their own techniques despite achieving the mean score.

Learners with an identified lead representational system of visual scored a mean of 71.8% in the module 2 examinations. The normalised distribution for learners with an identified lead preference of visual is presented in figure 4.15.


146

MPhil Thesis

20 15 10

Visuals

5 0 36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00


Normalised Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination

Percentage Score



The lowest score realised in the module four examinations in this group was 53% (16/30). As previously mentioned this result was realised by the same student who scored the lowest result in the module 1 and 2 and 3 examinations.


147

MPhil Thesis

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Visuals

36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners

Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 4

Percentage Scores


The highest score achieved in this examination was 83% in the exam with 25/30 questions correct.

In their learning diaries, the student makes reference to an

approach of reading and memorising, again this could be indicative of a visual preference although no further detail is given. One unusual piece of information given is reference to attempting mock questions and undertaking a practice paper using e learning. The student describes both of these approaches as counter-productive and caused confusion. This could be another indication of visual learning in that the question approach, which would be more suggestive in this context of a kinaesthetic preference (second last preference) or if approached in a diagnostic way digital (last preference) was a distraction from the visualisation techniques. The learner also states that the question approach started to cause her to question herself indicating discomfort with a more analytical approach.


148

MPhil Thesis The module 4 examinations produced a mean mark of 68.8% for the visual group. Two of the group who identified their lead preference as visual achieved 70% (closest to the mean. One of the two learners stated that they abbreviated their notes and copied the shorter phrases onto cards and then read through those. They checked their knowledge by checking against the learning outcomes and undertaking question and answer sessions with colleagues. This approach may well have elements of both visual and digital preferences, however further analysis on the small amount of details provided are not possible. It was also noted that this learners supporting or secondary preference was kinaesthetic which does not appear supported in the approach.

The normalised distribution for learners with an identified lead preference of visual is presented in figure 4.17.


Normalised Performance of Learners with Visual Lead Preference in Module 4 25 20 15

Visuals




149

MPhil Thesis 4.3.2.6 Student ‘D’

As before a second, more detailed example, of a student who identified their lead preference as visual is presented below. Student ‘D’s questionnaire results are listed below; Preference

Score

Audio

9

Digital

10

Visual

16

Kinaesthetic

15

Lead Preference

Visual

Table 4.10 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘D’

Student ‘D’ is 29 year old female officer from the West of Scotland who was educated in local primary and secondary schools. She achieved 5 standard grades and noted particular difficulty in maths. When asked what had been the particular difficulty she stated that it was within the subject itself and she could not study it as it simply didn’t interest her. As detailed in Chapter 2, this would be indicative of a digital approach to learning.

On leaving school, Student ‘D’ went straight into employment with the benefits agency for an eleven year period. When asked regarding her approach to learning her job she stated that there was lots of classroom based courses with supporting textual materials. When asked to provide an explanation of benefit entitlement as she


150

MPhil Thesis recalled, she counted off the points on her fingers and stated that she ran through the process. Again, this would be indicative of a digital preference.

Student ‘D’ achieved the following results in the four modular examinations at the Scottish Police College.

Examination

Score

Percentage Result

Module 1

12/30

40%

Module 2

14/29

48%

Module 3

14/30

47%

Module 4

16/30

53%

Overall Performance

47%

Table 4.11 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘D’

Student ‘D’ describes her approaches to learning while at the police college and advises that trying what others were doing predominantly influenced her. Initially she simply wrote out the text repeatedly and found difficulty with this and thereafter highlighted elements she thought important. This stated, she did not make the decisions on importance and relied on others and attributed no benefit or meaning to the use of highlighted text.

Student ‘D’ felt that her main issue with the examination process was not her studying rather her over analyse of the question and this could be considered to be linked to her digital preference as identified. Her studies do not necessarily reflect this preference but by her own admission, she did not chose her approach rather simply tried things Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

151

MPhil Thesis she saw others doing. This student has a strong secondary preference of kinaesthetic and none of her approaches could be considered supportive of either presence. This stated her comments and thoughts during interview would tend to support the questionnaire that in this context the questionnaire correctly identified her representational bias.

4.3.3 Audio

Learners with a lead audio preference consisted of 38 of the 153 students (24.8% of the population). This group performed as follows in each examination.

Examination


Standard Deviation

Module 1

68.4%

0.11

Module 2

70%

0.11

Module 3

65.9%

0.12

Module 4

65.9%

0.09

Overall Performance

67.5%

0.09

Table 4.12 Mean Results of Learners with an Audio Lead Preference

4.3.3.1 Student ‘E’

A further, more detailed example, of a student who identified their lead preference as audio, is Student ‘E’. His questionnaire results are listed below,


152

MPhil Thesis Preference

Score

Audio

17

Digital

14

Visual

7

Kinaesthetic

12

Lead Preference

Audio

Table 4.13 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘E’

Student ‘E’ is 31 years old is from the north east of Scotland. He was educated at local primary and secondary schools where he undertook a broad range of subjects including all of the sciences, maths and English, PE, computing and Modern Studies. He stated his best subject was German. Although this could be an early indicator of an audio preference, he ascribed this to the help and support of his teacher but on probing he identified that he used frequent opportunities to converse in German on the phone. This would again appear supportive.

Whilst at school, Student ‘E’ started working in various part time jobs and on leaving continued to work in short term jobs such as in sales, catering, vending etc. He states he worked longer in door to door canvassing as he found he was more successful listening and interacting with people. Interestingly, when he was asked to convey his approach to canvassing of door to door sales he did so as part of a conversation between himself and a client. This again would appear to be supportive of the lead preference identified in the questionnaire.

Student ‘E’ went on to a job in the Merchant Navy and was required to commit to memory naval rules and regulations. The approach adopted by Student ‘D’ in Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

153

MPhil Thesis achieving this was to read the rules and repeat them to himself. This could be an example of internalisation of the audio in support of the learning. When asked to give an example he was able to do so with very little hesitation.

He achieved the following results in the four modular examinations at the Scottish Police College.

Examination

Score

Percentage Result

Module 1

19/30

63%

Module 2

18/29

62%

Module 3

18/30

60%

Module 4

19/30

63%

Overall Performance

62%

Table 4.14 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘E’

In his studies at the police college, Student ‘E’ advised that he enjoyed the use of mnemonics and highlighted text but without colour. When asked to give an example of something he had learned he used a mnemonic and on probing implied that he kept repeating them until he was clear on them as well as using specific words to anchor the meaning. In other words when he found difficulty with one part of an mnemonic he would try to remember a single word that would trigger the explanation. This again has audio traits in the internal repetition, but the use of the mnemonic and the structure given to the sub-process of key words shows the secondary preference of digital.


154


As shown in table 4.7, the module 1 examination provided a mean score of 68.4% from audio learners. In this module, no learner in the group scored below 45%. One student scored above 96%. The largest single number of students (8) scored in the 76%-80% bracket. The figures are presented in Figure 4.18 below.

10 8 6

Audios

4 2 0

36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners

Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination

Percentage Scores

Figure 4.18 Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination

The learner within the audio group who scored the lowest mark in the module 1 examination realised 47% (14/30). A review of this learners snapshot diaries does not demonstrate a great amount of detail but refers to “read over in brief most subject” other references include reading over notes. As far as the detail goes, this approach would not appear to be supportive of the primary nor secondary (kinaesthetic) learning preferences of the student.


155

MPhil Thesis The highest score achieved in this examination was 97% with 29/30 questions correct. The learner from the audio group who achieved this is very clear in her approach across her four learning diaries and refers to an initial read through followed by a summation in bulleted lists which are then tested by knowledge check questions (exam style questions). This approach would appear more supportive of a digital preference but in this example has clearly been effective for the individual. This learner’s secondary preference was identified as visual and there could be elements of this in the applied techniques but without further information this is conjecture.

The module 1 examinations produced a mean mark of 68.4% for the audio group. The closest examination mark to the mean score was 67% (20/30) which was achieved by two of the group. One of those learners stated that they read over the notes and took their own notes. With no further information than this, a review of the second students snapshot diaries showed that they also read through the notes repeatedly and made a reference on one occasion to taking personal notes and to self testing (although it is not known if this was internally or externally verbal or written). It is not clear from either of these examples whether the individuals were studying in ways which could be considered supportive of their identified preference or not.

The normalised distribution for learners with an identified lead preference of audio is presented in figure 4.19.


156

MPhil Thesis

20 15 10

Audios

5 0 35 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00


Normalised Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination

Percentage of Scores

Figure 4.19 Normalised Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preferences in Module 1 Examination


In the module 2 examination, no learner in the ‘audio’ group scored below 40% or above 95%. The largest single number of students (8) scored in the 66%-70% bracket. The figures are presented in Figure 4.20.


157

MPhil Thesis

10 8 6

Audios

4 2 0

41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners


Percentage of Scores


The lowest score realised in the module two examinations in this group was 45% (13/29). Two students realised this mark. The first referred to reading over the notes in all four of the snapshot diaries and thereafter question and answer sessions with colleagues in order to assess understanding of the learning outcomes. The second learner who scored 45% in the examination also referred to reading over all the notes although they did not undertake any checks of understanding.

It may be worthy of referring to the commonality of approach with this group at this stage as regards both the generality of comments compared with other groups as well as the approach of simply reading over the notes. The only other element that the second learner mentioned in the above paragraph was that they recited the learning points back to themselves after reading the notes. This element in itself would be supportive of the lead preference here, as may the repetitive reading if focussed on internal audio (further discussed within Chapter 2). Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

158

MPhil Thesis

The highest score achieved in this examination was 93% in the exam with 27/29 questions correct.

This learner again in all four learning diaries makes reference to

reading the notes repeatedly but makes specific reference to identifying places where she could be alone to study and being distracted by noise. This again, may indicate the audio preference in either internally or externally repeating the notes for learning purposes and provide a reason for the noise issues (this is the only learner from the research population to refer to this). No knowledge checks as such are done and conclusion to study is marked throughout by a decision to stop due to tiredness.

The mean mark in the module 2 examinations for the group who identified their lead preference as audio was 70%. Three of the group achieved 69% (20/29) (closest to the mean). One of these learners was identified at random. The learning diaries also referred to “reading over my notes” throughout with boredom and tiredness being quoted as the measure for concluding studying. Again, from the limited information this approach could be supportive of an audio preference and with particular consideration to the emerging pattern within the group of the learning diaries making succinct reference to ‘reading notes’.

The normalised distributions for learners with an identified lead preference of audio are presented in figure 4.21.


159

MPhil Thesis


Normalised of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 2 Examination 20 15 10

Audios

5 0 41- 46- 51- 56- 61- 66- 71- 76- 81- 86- 90- 9645 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Percentage of Scores



In the module 3 examination, no learner in the ‘audio’ group scored below 40% or above 95%. The largest single number of students (8) scored in the 56%-60% bracket. The figures are presented in Figure 4.22 below.


160

MPhil Thesis

10 8 6

Audios

4 2 0

36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners


Percentage Scores


In the module 3 examinations, the lowest score in this group was 43% (13/30). While this learner refers to reading the notes, he also takes across the diaries of interpreting them and putting them into his own words. The distinction made here is from the digital approach of abbreviating, breaking down or turning into lists to actually interpreting legislation and procedures into someone’s own words. This may be supportive of an audio preference as it would personalise the subject for audio replay but could be problematic as the meaning of the notes could be changed. While this cannot be stated for certain without further investigation the difference between other members of the group mentioned in this section (reading the notes) and this example of interpreting the notes may be explained.

The highest score achieved in this examination was 87% in the exam with 24/30 questions correct. Two students, one of whom also achieved the highest result in the module 1 examination, achieved this result. As discussed earlier, the student who achieved the highest mark in the module 1 examination had used an approach more Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

161

MPhil Thesis akin to a digital lead preference. The second learner who achieved this result again made reference to reading over the notes but then abbreviating to key points and placing on cards to read again thereafter. This approach may be partially audio in terms of the reading (this is dependant on the importance of the internal or external audio (if occurring)) and may be digital in approach through the preparation of abbreviated structured notes. This learner’s secondary preference was kinaesthetic and so the digital element (if present) would not necessarily be expected.

In the group who identified themselves with an audio lead preference in the learning preferences questionnaire the mean mark for the module 3 examinations was 65.9%. The closest examination result to the mean was 67% (20/30). Three learners achieved this and again one was identified at random in order to review their learning diaries. This learning again referred to reading over the notes repeatedly in each of their diaries. Further, they stated they identified particular areas they felt weak on and reread those. Mention was made in two of the diaries of asking questions of themselves in order to check knowledge.

The normalised distributions for learners with an identified lead preference of audio are presented in figure 4.23.


162

MPhil Thesis

20 15 10

Audios

5 0 36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00


Normalised Performance of LEarners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination

Percentage Scores



The lowest score realised in the module four examinations in this group was 43% (13/30). This result was realised by one of the two students who also realised the lowest score in the module 2 examinations. This student was the one who referred to reading over their notes and did make checks of understanding through self-testing covering the learning outcomes for individual subjects.


163

MPhil Thesis

12 10 8 Audios

6 4 2 0

36 -4 0 41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners

Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 4

Percentage Scores


The highest score achieved in the module 4 examinations was 87% (26/30 questions correct). The learning diaries completed by this student are brief but all focus on undertaking question and answer sessions with colleagues although two of the four also refer to making personal notes and reading over those. Again, in this group this would not appear supportive of study relative to the identified lead preference. Once again the diaries in this group are notable by their brevity.

In the group who identified themselves with an audio lead preference in the learning preferences questionnaire the mean mark for the module 4 examinations was 65.9%. In this examination, three of the group who identified their lead preference as audio achieved 67% (closest to the mean). One of those learners (randomly selected) provided detailed reporting on the application of the theory to self-created hypothetical situations as a study method. This would be more likely associated with a kinaesthetic preference rather than an audio one. They do however make reference in three of the four diaries to repeatedly reading over the notes which in keeping with the Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

164

MPhil Thesis other learning diaries explored across the four modules with regard to this group could be indicative of an audio preference.


Normalised Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preference in Module 4 25 20 15

Audios


Figure 4.25 Normalised Performance of Learners with Audio Lead Preferences in Module 4 Examination 4.3.3.6 Student ‘F’

A further, more detailed example, of a student who identified their lead preference as audio, is Student ‘F’. His questionnaire results are listed below,

Preference

Score

Audio

17

Digital

8

Visual

12

Kinaesthetic

13

Lead Preference

Audio

Table 4.15 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘F’


165

MPhil Thesis

Student ‘F’ is a 30-year-old male from the borders of Scotland and was educated in local primary and secondary schools. He did not go onto further education. As can be seen from the ‘O’ Grade (Biology, Technical Drawing, Art, Craft and Design, Accounting, Arithmetic and Mathematics) and Higher examination results he achieved (Art and Craft and Design), where he had choices in subjects he chose creative art related subjects. He also believed at this time that this was strength and anticipated attending Art College but did not ultimately do so.

One particular example of his personal approach to learning is indicated early on in the interview when he advises that there was little need for studying but he did seek to memorise text particularly related to Art History. Although he found this effective, stating:

“…listen to the teacher. I seem to…if he (teacher) said it was an interesting point it would mean more to me… and I would go back and study a wee bit about it.”

On leaving school, Student ‘F’ went to work in a butchers shop where he remained for five years and thereafter was invited to manage a shop where he remained for a further nine years. During this period there was no formal training or studying.

He thereafter joined the police. During the initial training course, he achieved the following results in each of the four modular examinations.


166

MPhil Thesis Examination

Score

Percentage Result

Module 1

19/30

63%

Module 2

18/29

62%

Module 3

22/30

73%

Module 4

19/30

63%

Overall Performance

65.3%

Table 4.16 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘F’

Student ‘F’ commented that he had not considered his approach to studying prior to the initial input that preceded this research but has tried several methods. Initially he refers to highlighting notes and seeking key points but on probing revealed that this was a simple checklist as rather than aspects of learning standing out. He marked everything, knowing that anything not highlighted had yet to be studied.

He moved on to simply reading through the notes without marking same. Although he was not consciously aware of why he was doing this he felt it did help his understanding. It is possible that this was in support of his audio lead preference as he was using his own internal voice as an aid to learning. A key point comes when he is asked how he checks his knowledge or ensures his understanding. He ascribes this to his colleagues and states;

“I like asking them scenarios, I’ll say like, give me a scenario where that was used, and, they’ll say like, say it was in a bank…and that’ll help me put it into real life”


167

MPhil Thesis This is interesting as the creation of scenarios for the purpose of linking to practical examples or personal experience is often linked with a kinaesthetic preference and indeed, Student ‘F’s secondary preference is kinaesthetic, however in this case the student is not seeking to develop from his own experience rather is listening to examples of others which give particular meaning. This would appear to be supportive of his audio lead preference.

He also expresses himself to be more comfortable in class listening to the legislation. In addition, he perceives himself to be more successful in testing if someone else tests his knowledge rather than trying to assess his own knowledge. He felt these discussions were easier for him to express his understanding and he found the written test of his knowledge more difficult in exam situations.

4.3.4 Kinaesthetic

Learners with a lead kinaesthetic preference consisted of 23 of the 153 students (15% of the population). This group performed as follows in each examination;

Examination


Standard Deviation

Module 1

65.6%

0.15

Module 2

66.3%

0.13

Module 3

64.8%

0.13

Module 4

60.7%

0.13

Overall Performance

64.3%

0.12

Table 4.17 Mean Results of Learners with a Kinaesthetic Lead Preference Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

168

MPhil Thesis

4.3.4.1 Student ‘G’

Student ‘G’ completed the initial learning preferences questionnaire and identified herself as having a lead preference of kinaesthetic. Her scores are reproduced below;

Preference

Score

Audio

11

Digital

11

Visual

12

Kinaesthetic

16

Lead Preference

Kinaesthetic

Table 4.18 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘G’

Some of the identified traits of an Kinaesthetic Lead preference with regard to learning are discussed within Chapter 6 and a review of the interview undertaken with Student ‘G’ sought to identify her approaches and preferences.

Student ‘G’ is 29 years old and is from the south side of Glasgow. She is from Asian origins. She attended Scottish Primary and Secondary schools and took subjects such as Accounting, Arithmetic, Fabric and Fashion, Art, Geography, Modern Studies and English. Her first summary of her performance at school was;

“…The first time round was always a failure. It was the second time I always passed and I got good passes.”


169

MPhil Thesis

This was further explored as seemed to indicate that learning took place between the experience of the first attempt and making the second attempt. On probing, Student ‘G’ stated that this was true for all subjects except for Fabric and Fashion and Art. The practical nature and hands on experimentation/development of both these subjects makes it unsurprising that a learner with kinaesthetic traits performed well in these areas.

Student ‘G’ indicated that she enjoyed many of her school subjects and initially stated that her approach was to read notes and ask questions. On further probing it became apparent that heavy emphasis was placed on doing past papers. Student ‘G’ expanded on this by stating that she undertook papers to ‘get the style right’ and thereafter was able to assess what was expected for examinations.

On leaving school, Student ‘G’ became an administration worker for an arts and entertainment company. This job was short lived and she then went on to Further Education.

Student ‘G’ went on to study Radiography, as she regretted not pursuing scientific subjects at school as they interested her. She further stated that she was not very good at the subject but was interested and enjoyed it. On probing she identified that she passed each of the examinations first time. The work was described as practically based and theoretical work was based on experiments. These experiential elements where Student ‘G’ performs well are in contrast to the non-practical subjects at school where examinations were passed well only at the second attempt and so the drive towards experience through undertaking past papers.


170

MPhil Thesis

On successful completion of the qualification, Student ‘G’ took up appointment as a post office clerk. When asked about training she advised that this was on the job and she would regularly seek clarification;

“…why have they got these here, surely that should be in such and such a bit” While these are practically orientated questions, they could be considered to be digital in nature as they seek to understand the underlying reasons behind the processes, however, Student ‘G’s response when asked why these questions were important was that it didn’t really matter, she was just being nosey. This would seem to indicate that the underlying reasons were not as important as the practical experience and its development through questioning.

Student ‘G’ thereafter joined the police and began her course at the Scottish Police College. She stated that she found the studying challenging and found that the work was difficult to master for examinations and to put into practice. Again, it can be seen that Student ‘G’ puts particular emphasis on the practical.

Student ‘G’s’ examination performance is summarised in table 4.19 below;


171

MPhil Thesis

Examination

Score

Percentage Result

Module 1

16/30

53%

Module 2

13/29

45%

Module 3

15/30

50%

Module 4

20/30

53%

Overall Performance

53.8%

Table 4.19 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘G’

The results above identify that Student ‘G’ scored below the mean percentage performance for learners identified with a kinaesthetic lead preference. The recorded percentage results are between 7% and 20% below the mean performance in individual modules.

Accordingly, Student ‘G’ was asked to detail her approach to studying for the Police Course. She listed; •

Highlighting notes,

•

Memorise to identify ‘mays’ and ‘musts’

•

Make cards

•

Draw diagrams

•

Associate Scenarios

It was noted from the above verbal descriptions that no approach was made consistently and indeed although used varyingly, Student ‘G’ expressed particular difficulty over making cards and summarising content in bullet points.


172

MPhil Thesis Comparison is made between these ‘techniques’ and school and further education reliance on past papers and experimentation. Firstly, past papers or practice examination questions are not available on this course, secondly, the only formal experimentation available are the skills development exercises. Student ‘G’ makes reference to these when recalling, learning points later in this text.

Student ‘G’ was thereafter asked to detail a subject she was comfortable with in terms of understanding. She provided the subject ‘missing persons’ and relayed criteria for vulnerable missing persons accurately. When asked how she remembered those she stated that it was from her notes. She was then questioned about the sub-modalities and it became apparent that she could not visualise or remember the content directly from her notes but stated that she did not know how she knew.

A different subject was attempted and on this occasion she was able to link her accurate recall of the subject to her experience at a skills development exercise. She confirmed that throughout the course she had used a variety of techniques to recall necessary information and had switched between them. When probed as to how she decided which technique to use at which time, she stated that when something didn’t work she kept trying things. She was however unable to identify what she felt did work for her.


In moving on to a summary of the performance of the entire group of kinaesthetic learners in the module one examination, it can be seen that the spread of learners was


173

MPhil Thesis even across 61% - 85% range of the group that would also include the mean percentage result of 86.8% as shown in figure 4.26 below.

5 4 3

Kinaesthetics

2 1

96 -1 00

86 -9 0

76 -8 0

66 -7 0

56 -6 0

46 -5 0

0

36 -4 0

Number of Learners

Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination

Percentage Scores

Figure 4.26 Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination

In the preceding figure, the high and low scores can also be seen as in the 35%-40% group and the 96%-100% group. The normalised performance is shown in figure 4.21 and shows the distribution of scores by this group in module 1.

An initial review of performance in module one linked to learning approach was then made, three groups of learners were identified as achieving the lowest, highest and mean gradings in module one and a comparison made to their studies.

The student who scored the lowest mark in this module (13/30 questions, 43%) stated in each of their learning diaries that they read through the student specific objectives seeking to answer them without reference to their notes and would re-read notes based on the objectives that they could not answer. They made slight differences thereafter Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

174

MPhil Thesis by picking out key points on post its, by highlighting elements of the notes and by making what they described as ‘flash cards’.

The highest mark scored in this examination was 97% (29/30 questions) this learner however did not describe their approach to learning in the diaries. The next highest mark was 90% (27/30 questions). This learner progressed in their study technique from re-writing notes repeatedly, through read then working through the objectives to answering the objectives then re-writing the notes then re-reading.

The mean mark for learners with a kinaesthetic lead preference in module 1 was 65.6%. Two of the kinaesthetic learners scored 67% that was the closest to the mean. One of these learners stated that they read over the notes and attempted to put them into practical situations throughout their diaries. The second of the learners stated that they read their notes until they ‘felt comfortable’ and also participated in group question and answer sessions.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

00

-9 5

-1

96

-9 0

90

-8 5

86

-8 0

81

-7 5

76

-7 0

71

-6 5

66

-6 0

61

-5 5

56

-5 0

51

46

41

35

-4 5

Kinaesthetics

-4 0


Normalised Performance with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 1 Examination

Percentage Scores

Figure 4.27 Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preferences in Module 1 Examination


175

MPhil Thesis

An initial Exploration of the learning diaries for the group with an identified lead preference of kinaesthetic shows that the most common method of study was to simply read the notes, followed closely by reading the notes and making personal ones. Highlighting was also a relatively frequently mentioned approach. Few of the learners in this group reported using any check or test or examination to clarify their learning.

In looking at the learning diaries of kinaesthetic learners, an initial common reference was to those learners reading notes and thereafter working through objectives;

‘Read through the subject and then worked through the objectives…’ ‘First of all read through the notes…then made an attempt to answer the questions under student objectives…’ ‘I read over my class notes and then I looked at the student specific objectives…’ ‘I studied the course notes…I then tested what I learned by completing the objectives…’ ‘Answered questions in student objectives and read over notes…’ ‘look over notes with relevance to subject objectives…’

Although commonly referred to, it is difficult to confirm that the learners in this group are studying in accordance with identified traits of kinaesthetic learners although the reference to student objectives could be seen to be indicative of developing personal experience of the subject through developing answers to practical questions or potentially in some cases building scenarios (although only 3 members of this group specifically make reference to doing this). It could also be indicative of a visual


176

MPhil Thesis approach in seeking to answer the questions from the notes. The references referred to above are insufficient to confirm this. The detailed case study at the beginning of the section is however more indicative of the kinaesthetic approach or more accurately the lack of approach.


In the module two examinations, the kinaesthetic group achieved a mean of 66.3%. The largest single group within the 5% blocks was the 6 students (25%) in the 76%80% bracket.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Kinaesthetics

41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Learners


Percentage Scores


Within the group who identified kinaesthetic as their lead preference, two students realised the lowest marks for the module 2 examination (13/29 questions, 45%) one of these students is referred to as Student ‘G’ in the case study contained at the start of


177

MPhil Thesis this section. A review of the learning diaries completed by the other student shows that, she did consider her study techniques, evidenced by comments such as;

“I am hoping that my different approach to study will help me greatly in the exams” Her approach was consistent through the four learning diairies completed in that she;

“…read the student specific objectives and went through each one…whenever I couldn’t answer a point I would read through my manual”

The learner did however go on to add refinements in different diaries, particularly using different colours to highlight text and different post it notes to take out salient points. These approaches could be considered to be more supportive of a visual lead preference than kinaesthetic.

The highest mark scored in this examination was 93% (27/30 questions) this was achieved by the same learner who achieved the highest mark in the module 1 examination and again no explanation of learning approach was detailed in the diaries.

The mean mark for learners with a kinaesthetic lead preference in module 2 was 66.3%. The closest examination score to the mean was 69% (20/29 questions correct), three of this group achieved the mark. One of these learners stated that while they consistently read over their notes, the also discussed the content with colleagues (as distinct from undertook a question and answer session with colleagues) as well as considered practical scenarios in relation to the notes. This approach is indicative of being supportive of a kinaesthetic preference in that the learner has sought to transfer


178

MPhil Thesis understanding into scenarios and this could be further supported by the nature of discussions, although the contents of these are not known.

The normalised scores for the Module 2 examination are presented below in figure 4.29.

Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 2 Examination Percentage of Learners

20 15 10

Kinaesthetics

5

-7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00

71

5 -7 0 66

0

-6

61

5

-6

-5

56

0

51

-5

46

41

-4

5

0

Percentage Scores

Figure 4.29 Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preferences in Module 2 Examination


In the module three examinations, the kinaesthetic group achieved a mean of 64.8%. The largest single group within the 5% blocks was the 6 students (25%) in the 61%65% bracket.


179

MPhil Thesis

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 96 -1 00

86 -9 0

76 -8 0

66 -7 0

56 -6 0

Kinaesthetics

46 -5 0

36 -4 0

Number of Learners


Percentage Scores


The student who scored the lowest mark in this module (12/30 questions, 40%) showed a developing approach to their studies, in their first two learning diaries they referred to reading over notes and thereafter checking knowledge by a question and answer session with a colleague based on the learning outcomes of the relevant subject. The second two diaries then refers to an additional middle step by adding what they describe as ‘flash cards’ (this is a different learner from the student who scored the lowest mark in the module 1 examinations, although the same reference to a technique). While the exact structure and nature of a ‘flash card’ is not referred to by the learner and cannot be further ascertained, this approach would not appear to be supportive of a kinaesthetic lead preference and more supportive of a digital or possibly visual preference. This learners close secondary preference was audio.

The highest mark scored in this examination was 90% (27/30 questions). This mark was achieved by two of the learners one of whom was the learner who scored the Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

180

MPhil Thesis highest mark in the preceding two examinations as well. The other learner who achieved this mark, makes reference to studying the subjects (with no further detail) but states in all of the diaries that the most important aspect to ‘study’ is quiet and comfort. In one of the dairies he underlines the words “quietist” and “most comfortable” when referring to the importance of the place he picks to study. Accordingly, although not much is known about the learners actual activities when studying the importance of the environment itself appears to be supportive of a kinaesthetic learner.

One of the learners in the kinaesthetic group achieved a score of 67% (20/30 questions correct). This is the score closest to the mean mark for learners, which was 64.78%. This learner made quite detailed notes on each of her four diairies, and was consistent across all four in terms of her approach. She states that she would identify each element of the notes from the learning outcomes, supplement these with her own notes made in the classroom and thereafter make a ”shortlist of headings” as a series of prompts when trying to recall the information from the notes. In one of the learning diaries specific reference was additionally made to focussing on the practical elements. This approach would at face value appear more supportive of a digital preference although her measure of when to stop studying was consistently kinaesthetic in nature when she stated in each of the diaries,

“I felt that I had grasped the elements…”

The normalised scores for the Module 3 examination are presented below in figure 4.31.


181

MPhil Thesis

20 15 10

Kinaesthetics

5 0

36

-4 41 0 -4 46 5 -5 51 0 -5 56 5 -6 61 0 -6 66 5 -7 71 0 -7 76 5 -8 81 0 -8 86 5 -9 90 0 96 95 -1 00


Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination

Percentage Scores

Figure 4.31 Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 3 Examination


6 5 4 3

Kinaesthetics

2 1

96-100

91-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

0

36-40

Number of Learners

Performance of Learners with Kineasthetic Lead Preference in Module 4

Percentage Scores


The student who scored the lowest mark in this module (12/30 questions, 40%) was the same student who scored the lowest marks in the module 1 examination and also Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

182

MPhil Thesis scored consistently lowly in the other modular examinations (although not the lowest mark). Her learning diaries are described within the section on module 1 examinations.

The highest mark scored in the module 4 examinations by a learner from this group was 83% (25/30 questions). The learner who has scored the highest consistently throughout the four modules achieved this and is the same as referred to in all of the preceding sections.

The mean mark for learners with a kinaesthetic lead preference in module 4 was 60.7%. One of the group scored 60% in the examination and this was the closest to the mean examination mark for the group. This learner consistently refers to reading over the notes and makes reference to personal notes, however the format of those notes is not described. He goes on to state that he checks his knowledge by attempting to answer the learning outcomes for the relevant section and in two of the diaries makes reference to cross referring his answers to the learning outcomes to the sections in the notes where the answer to the outcome is covered. From the limited information provided this approach would not appear overly supportive of a lead preference of kinaesthetic.


183

MPhil Thesis

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Kinaesthetics

41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00


Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetics Lead Preference in Module 4

Percentage Scores

Figure 4.33 Normalised Performance of Learners with Kinaesthetic Lead Preference in Module 4 Examination

4.3.4.6 Student ‘H’

Given the brevity of some of the learning diaries referred to in this section, student ‘H’ provides a further detailed example of individual performance within the kinaesthetic group. This student is example of a learner who was identified through the learning preference questionnaire as having a lead preference of kinaesthetic. His questionnaire results are listed below.


184

MPhil Thesis

Preference

Score

Audio

12

Digital

8

Visual

13

Kinaesthetic

17

Lead Preference

Digital

Table 4.20 Learning Preference Questionnaire Results for Student ‘H’

A 20-year-old male from the West of Scotland, student ‘H’ was educated in Scottish primary and secondary schools both within the same area. He three higher passes in the subjects of English, Biology and Music. These subjects were all of personal interest to Student ‘H’. Following School he elected to go to College and studied an HNC. He advises he was supported in all of his studying by his father who would sit with him and demonstrate how he would achieve the result and thereafter Student ‘H’ would attempt a similar problem or question in the same way. Student ‘H’ makes reference that both parents would take the same approach,

“somebody showed you how to do something and you just done it. Do you know what I mean so they were both brought up the same there was no purpose in reading it”

Initially Student ‘H’ gave examples of subjects studied for his HNC he described his difficulties as;

“I couldn’t grasp it I got the book and that and tried to study it but I just couldn’t grasp it.” Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

185

MPhil Thesis

In contrast to this, he makes reference to the subject he did best with describing the fact that it was the subject with “the most practicals in it”. Students ‘H’s actual examination results are reproduced below.

Examination

Score

Percentage Result

Module 1

11/30

37%

Module 2

15/29

52%

Module 3

13/30

43%

Module 4

11/30

37%

Overall Performance

42.3%

Table 4.21 Summary of Examination Performance by Student ‘H’

Student ‘H’ then is asked to discuss his approaches to study at the Scottish Police College. He is initially asked to identify a subject he is comfortable with and initially names several subjects, on probing however he was unable to provide any detail of those subjects and talked through them superficially in conversational terms.

In order to further explore the kinaesthetic preference, Student ‘H’ was thereafter asked to build example scenarios around imagined practical situations and while no increase in existing knowledge was detected a shift in demeanour was noted to a more positive regard for the approach.


186

MPhil Thesis

4.4 Conclusion This Chapter laid out the research results by preference across the four examinations undertaken by the recruits in the population. Wrapped around the quantative results were the data gleaned from the snapshot study diaries and the semi-structured interviews. The results were presented in this fashion in order to allow an easy review of performance by preference combined with the colour of the detailed reviews of individual preferences as well as providing support for the identification of the lead preferences through the representational systems bias test (as detailed in Chapter 3).

In addition the results were presented in both graphical and textual forms in order to cater for the preferences of the reader. The structure of the chapter makes the same considerations with regard to reader preferences.

So far, no direct comparison has been made of performance and preferences by examination and this is done below as a precursor to the next chapter that will apply statistical analysis to the quantative results by module.

The charts used in the table 4.23 below are presented in large formats in Chapter 5 for the statistical analysis of the results.


187

MPhil Thesis Comparison of Preferences Module 1

Sum m ary of Perform ance by Lead Preference Using the Module 1 Exam ination Results

Audios 96-

81-

66-

51-

Visuals 36-

Number of Learners

15 10 5 0 Percentage Exam ination Results

Kinaesthetics

Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Module 2 Examination Results Number of Learners 41 -4 5 51 -5 5 61 -6 5 71 -7 5 81 -8 5 91 -9 5

Module 2

Digitals

15 10

5

Audios

0

Visuals Digitals Kinaesthetics

Percentage Examination Results

Module 3

15 10 5 0

Audios

-4 0

Digitals

0 -1 0

96

-8 5 81

-7 0 66

-5 5

Visuals

51

36

Number of Learners


Kinaesthetics

Scores

Module 4

15 10 5 0

Audios

96-

81-

66-

51-

Visuals

36-

Number of Learners


Scores

Digitals Kinaesthetics

Table 4.22 Comparison of Examination Performance by Lead Preference


188

MPhil Thesis

Chapter 5 – Statistical Analysis of Quantative Results

5.1 Introduction and Approach The preceding chapter lays out the combined and interwoven results from the main strands of the research, that is to say, the student questionnaires, snapshot case studies and interviews. The chapter was presented by lead preference and linked to examination performance.

Chapter 5 seeks to provide a basis for comparative analysis through the application of a statistical tool to the quantative data and in order to combine with the comments and results from the Qualitative Data laid out in Chapter 4 and blend the research results into findings, recommendations and identification of further research in Chapter 6.

5.2. Selection of Statistical Tools The primary purpose in reviewing potential statistical tools was to move on from the simple presentation of figures to evaluate any statistical significance beyond simple chance. An early consideration therefore was the Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test (Snedecor and Cochrane, 1989) as it can be viewed as easy to calculate and interpret. A consideration however must be its’ potential inaccuracy with smaller sample groups or groups with two or less groupings (NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, 2004).


189

MPhil Thesis Alternatives considered to the Chi Square Test included the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Goodness-of-Fit Test (Chakravarti, Laha, and Roy, 1967) due to the exact nature of the test in its independency from a specific sample size.

This stated, the data collated through the this specific research contained neither a sample of less than 50 persons (paragraph 4.2) nor less than two options for the dataset as there were four primary preferences explored and four examinations reviewed. This meant that the main concerns for statistical relevance were removed and the remaining attraction was the ease of interpretation in considering the statistical relevance of the research results. Accordingly, the Chi Square test was selected.

Recognition was made of the fact that a single assessable element was being used in the analysis and a secondary analysis tool was considered in order to provide comparison and support (or otherwise) the Chi Square Test.

As the presentation of the data in Chapter 4 uses the mean examination marks for the overview of results and Chapter 5 considers the standard deviations of the results, and the core question is how do individuals with one preference vary in performance from another (Greenfield, 1996) it was felt appropriate to consider an Analysis of Variance to further consider statistical relevance of the results.


190

MPhil Thesis

5.3 Statistical Analysis of Lead Learning Preferences by Modular Examination Results Using Chi Square Test

5.3.1 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Overall Mean Examination Results

The initial analysis undertaken was done by way of guidance and focused on the overall mean results between the four modular examinations (Chapter 2). The purpose of this was to examine the overall impact of learning preference on result in the context of the training prior to exploring any bias in regard to specific areas. Figure 5.1 was previously presented in Chapter 4 but is used here to provide a further focus on the performance by lead preference.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Audios Visuals Digitals Kinaesthetics

41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 91 -9 96 5 -1 00

Number of Students

Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Overall Mean Examination Results

Mean Examination Results

Figure 5.1 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Overall Mean Examination Results. The overall average examination mark achieved by the cohort was 68.7% with the standard deviation being 9.4%. This was then used to evaluate the higher and lower performers in the cohort with regard to the mean results. This meant that the lower


191

MPhil Thesis performers were rated as those who scored less than 59.3% and the higher performers those who scored 78.1% or higher. Firstly an analysis of the lower performers was made to categorise by single lead preference and make a comparison to overall numbers with that singular lead preference in the cohort. The students who scored in the lower range number in total 18 from the total cohort (all with singular lead preferences) of 128. The breakdown is shown in Table 5.1

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

5

7

V

3

2

K

6

6

D

3

3

Table 5.1 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in the overall Mean of the Examination Results

The Chi-Squared value is 0.795. Which is not statistically significant. The results suggest that in this area you cannot say that lead preference has an influence on examination performance.

The students who scored in the higher range also number 18 in total from the overall cohort (all with singular lead preferences) of 128. The breakdown is shown in Table 5.2


192

MPhil Thesis

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

5

4

V

5

3

K

4

3

D

14

8

Table 5.2 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in the overall Mean of the Examination Results


Consideration was then given of the group within the standard deviation for the mean examination scores. The students who scored within the standard deviation from the average range number 92 in total from the overall cohort (all with singular lead preferences) of 128. The breakdown is shown in Table 5.3


193

MPhil Thesis

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

27

27

V

17

19

K

17

14

D

31

32

Table 5.3 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in the overall Mean of the Examination Results

The Chi-Squared value is 0.895. Which is not statistically significant. The results suggest that in this area you cannot say that lead preference has an influence on examination performance. It was noted in this area of analysis however, that the predicted distribution of students in the group who achieved results within the range of the standard deviation very closely matched the actual group.

A comparison of the Chi-Squared Test Results along with the normalised distribution of the examination results presented in Chapter 4 would suggest that the presentation of the percentage results was accurate given the matches in distribution. This can be viewed below in Figure 5.2.


194

MPhil Thesis Normalised Scores in Overall Exam Performance 25

Percentage

20 Audios Visuals Digitals Kinaesthetics

15 10 5

41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00

0

Scores

Figure 5.2 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Overall Mean Examination Results.

5.3.2 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Module 1 Examination Results

The focus for statistical analysis was then broken down into performance within the different subject areas examined as part of the Basic Training Course. The structure of the course was explained in Chapter 2, however the subject matter was Crime. The purpose of this analysis was to examine the overall impact of learning preference on result in the context of the training and subject matter within Module 1. Figure 5.3 was previously presented in Chapter 4 but is used here to provide a further focus on the performance by lead preference.


195

MPhil Thesis

Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Module 1 Examination Results

Number of Learners

14 12 10

Audios

8

Visuals

6

Digitals

4

Kinaesthetics

2 96-100

91-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

36-40

0


Figure 5.3 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Module 1 Examination Results.

The overall average examination mark achieved by the cohort was 69.8% with the standard deviation being 12.1%. This was then used to evaluate the higher and lower performers in the cohort with regard to the mean results. This meant that the lower performers were rated as those who scored less than 57.7% or lower and the higher performers those who scored 73.1% or higher. Firstly an analysis of the lower performers was made to categorise by single lead preference and make a comparison to overall numbers with that singular lead preference in the cohort. The students who scored in the lower range number in total 22 from the total cohort (all with singular lead preferences) of 128. The breakdown is shown in Table 5.4


196

MPhil Thesis

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

6

7

V

4

4

K

3

7

D

9

4

Table 5.4 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module One Examination Results

The Chi-Squared value is 0.028. Which is statistically significant. The results suggest that in this area, it can be said that lead preference has an influence on examination performance.

The students who scored in the higher range numbered 56 in total from the overall cohort (all with singular lead preferences) of 128. The breakdown is shown in Table 5.5

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

16

17

V

10

11

K

8

10

D

22

19

Table 5.5 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module One Examination Results Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

197

MPhil Thesis The Chi-Squared value is 0.799. Which is not statistically significant. The results suggest that in this area you cannot say that lead preference has an influence on examination performance.

Consideration was then given of the group within the standard deviation for the mean examination scores. The students who scored within the standard deviation from the average range number 50 in total from the overall cohort (all with singular lead preferences) of 128. The breakdown is shown in Table 5.6

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

16

15

V

10

9

K

6

9

D

18

17

Table 5.6 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module One Examination Results


A comparison of the Chi-Squared Test Results along with the normalised distribution of the examination results presented in Chapter 4 would suggest that the presentation of the percentage results was accurate given the matches in distribution. This can be viewed below in Figure 5.4. Statistically you are more likely to score in the lower Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

198

MPhil Thesis performance bracket if you have a kinaesthetic lead preference and less likely to score in the lower bracket if you have a digital lead preference.

Normalised Score in Module 1 Examination by Lead Preference 25 Percentage

20

Audios

15

Visuals

10


5 96-100

90-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

35-40

0

Scores

Figure 5.4 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module 1 Examination Results.


The structure of the course was explained in Chapter 2, however the subject matter of Module 2 was Crime. The purpose of this analysis was to examine the overall impact of learning preference on result in the context of the training and subject matter within Module 2. Figure 5.5 was previously presented in Chapter 4 but is used here to provide a further focus on the performance by lead preference.


199

MPhil Thesis


10 Audios

8

Visuals

6

Digitals

4

Kinaesthetics

2

96-100

91-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

0

41-45

Number of Learners

12



The overall average examination mark achieved by the cohort was 71.5% with the standard deviation being 11.6%. This was then used to evaluate the higher and lower performers in the cohort with regard to the mean results. This meant that the lower performers were rated as those who scored less than 60% or lower and the higher performers those who scored 83.1% or higher. Firstly an analysis of the lower performers was made to categorise by single lead preference and make a comparison to overall numbers with that singular lead preference in the cohort. The students who scored in the lower range number in total 24 from the total cohort (all with singular lead preferences) of 128. The breakdown is shown in Table 5.7


200

MPhil Thesis

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

6

7

V

3

5

K

9

4

D

6

8

Table 5.7 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Two Examination Results

The Chi-Squared value is 0.098. Which is statistically fairly significant. The results suggest that in this area, it can be said that lead preference has an influence on examination performance.


Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

3

4

V

2

3

K

2

3

D

8

5

Table 5.8 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Two Examination Results Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

201

MPhil Thesis


Consideration was then given of the group within the standard deviation for the Module 2 examination scores. The students who scored within the standard deviation from the average range number 89 in total from the overall cohort (all with singular lead preferences) of 128. The breakdown is shown in Table 5.9

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

29

26

V

19

17

K

12

16

D

29

30

Table 5.9 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Two Examination Results


A comparison of the Chi-Squared Test Results along with the normalised distribution of the examination results presented in Chapter 4 would suggest that the presentation of the percentage results was accurate given the matches in distribution. This can be Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

202

MPhil Thesis viewed below in Figure 5.6. Statistically you are more likely to score in the lower performance bracket if you have a kinaesthetic lead preference and less likely to score in the lower bracket if you have a digital lead preference.

Normalised Scores in Module 2 Examination by Lead Preference 25 Percentage

20

Audios

15

Visuals

10


5

96-100

90-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

0

Scores

Figure 5.6 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module Two Examination Results.


Again, the full structure of the course was explained in Chapter 2, however the subject matter of Module 3 was General Police Duties. The purpose of this analysis was to examine the overall impact of learning preference on result in the context of the training and subject matter within Module 3. As previously, figure 5.7 was presented in Chapter 4 but is used here to provide a further focus on the performance by lead preference.


203

MPhil Thesis


10 Audios

8

Visuals

6

Digitals

4

Kinaesthetics

2

96-100

91-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

0

36-40

Number of Learners

12

Scores

Figure 5.7 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Module Three Examination Results.



204

MPhil Thesis

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

7

7

V

4

4

K

4

6

D

7

5

Table 5.10 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Three Examination Results

The Chi-Squared value is 0.6. Which is not statistically significant. The results suggest that in this area, it cannot be said that lead preference has an influence on examination performance.


Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

5

5

V

3

3

K

3

3

D

6

6

Table 5.11 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Three Examination Results Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

205

MPhil Thesis

The Chi-Squared value is 0.999. Which is not statistically significant. The results suggest that in this area you cannot say that lead preference has an influence on examination performance. It is notable however that the fit for actual and predicted is extremely close.


Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

26

26

V

17

17

K

16

14

D

30

32

Table 5.12 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Three Examination Results


A comparison of the Chi-Squared Test Results along with the normalised distribution of the examination results presented in Chapter 4 would suggest that the presentation Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

206

MPhil Thesis of the percentage results was accurate given the matches in distribution. This can be viewed below in Figure 5.8. Statistically the predicted spread of results matched the actual spread particularly closely in regard to those who performed within the standard deviation and below one standard deviation.

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Audios Visuals Digitals

96-100

90-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

Kinaesthetics

36-40

Percentage

Normalised Scores in Module 3 Examination

Scores

Figure 5.8 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module Three Examination Results.


Again, the full structure of the course was explained in Chapter 2, however the subject matter of Module 4 was Traffic. The purpose of this analysis was to examine the overall impact of learning preference on result in the context of the training and subject matter within Module 4. As previously, figure 5.9 was presented in Chapter 4 but is used here to provide a further focus on the performance by lead preference.


207

MPhil Thesis

12 10

Audios

8

Visuals

6 4


2 96-100

91-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

0 36-40

Number of Learners


Scores




208

MPhil Thesis

Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

7

7

V

4

1

K

4

7

D

8

8

Table 5.13 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Below One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Four Examination Results

The Chi-Squared value is 0.208. Which is not statistically significant. The results suggest that in this area, it cannot be said that lead preference has an influence on examination performance.


Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

5

3

V

3

4

K

3

2

D

6

9

Table 5.14 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Above One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Four Examination Results Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

209

MPhil Thesis



Lead Preference

Predicted Number

Actual Number

A

26

28

V

16

19

K

16

14

D

29

26

Table 5.15 Contingency Table for Students who Scored Within One Standard Deviation (SD) in Module Four Examination Results


A comparison of the Chi-Squared Test Results along with the normalised distribution of the examination results presented in Chapter 4 would suggest that the presentation of the percentage results was accurate given the matches in distribution. This can be Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

210

MPhil Thesis viewed below in Figure 5.10. Statistically the predicted spread of results matched the actual spread particularly closely in regard to those who performed within the standard deviation and below one standard deviation.

Normalised Scores in Module 4 Examination 35 Percentage

30 25

Audios

20 15

Visuals

10

Kinaesthetics

Digitals

5 96-100

90-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

0

Scores

Figure 5.10 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module Four Examination Results.

5.4 Statistical Analysis of Lead Learning Preferences by Modular Examination Results Using Analysis of Variance

5.4.1 Statistical Analysis of Lead Preference by Overall Mean Examination Results

The descriptive statistics for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) undertaken on the mean overall examination marks achieved by each student in the research cohort are presented below.


211

MPhil Thesis

Groups

Count

Average

Variance

Audio

38

67.54

74.71

Digital

44

70.39

75.23

Visual

25

68.76

74.11

Kinaesthetic

23

64.34

138.29

Table 5.16 Summary of Analysis of Variance for Overall Mean Examination Results The mean mark is clearly the highest for the digital group and lowest for the kinaesthetic group. The students with a kinaesthetic lead preference show considerably more variation in their results than those with the other lead preferences.

An ANOVA returns a p-value of 0.087, which indicates a fairly significant statistical difference between the groups.


The descriptive statistics for the ANOVA undertaken on the module 1 examination marks achieved by each student in the research cohort are presented below.


212

MPhil Thesis

Groups

Count

Average

Variance

Audio

38.00

68.37

120.35

Digital

44.00

72.11

107.22

Visual

25.00

68.72

169.29

Kinaesthetic

23.00

65.57

234.17

Table 5.17 Summary of Analysis of Variance for Module 1 Examination Results

The mean mark is clearly the highest for the digital group and lowest for the kinaesthetic group. The students with a kinaesthetic lead preference show considerably more variation in their results than those with the other lead preferences, however in this module there is also greater variance within each of the other lead preferences.

An analysis of variance test (ANOVA) returns a p-value of 0.186, which is not a significant statistical difference between the groups.




213

MPhil Thesis

Groups

Count

Average

Variance

Audio

38.00

70.00

120.97

Digital

44.00

73.73

125.13

Visual

25.00

71.80

84.50

Kinaesthetic

23.00

66.26

178.11


The mean mark is clearly the highest for the digital group and lowest for the kinaesthetic group. The students with a kinaesthetic lead preference show more variation in their results than those with the other lead preferences. In this module it can also be seen that the visual group perform strongly as although the average result is lower than the digital group, the variance of marks is smallest of all the lead preference groups.

An analysis of variance test (ANOVA) returns a p-value of 0.072, which indicates a fairly significant statistical difference between the groups.




214

MPhil Thesis

Groups

Count

Average

Variance

Audio

38.00

65.87

131.74

Digital

44.00

68.00

121.21

Visual

25.00

65.76

133.19

Kinaesthetic

23.00

64.78

180.81


The mean mark is again the highest for the digital group and lowest for the kinaesthetic group. The students with a kinaesthetic lead preference show more variation in their results than those with the other lead preferences. However, in this module it can be seen that the average marks are relatively close with only 3.22% between the groups and a relatively close amount of variance between the groups.

An analysis of variance test (ANOVA) returns a p-value of 0.703, which is not a significant statistical difference between the groups.




215

MPhil Thesis

Groups

Count

Average

Variance

Audio

35.00

65.94

101.17

Digital

44.00

67.70

150.40

Visual

25.00

68.76

68.86

Kinaesthetic

23.00

60.74

170.93


The mean mark is highest for the visual group and lowest for the kinaesthetic group. The students with a kinaesthetic lead preference show more variation in their results than those with the other lead preferences. In this module it can also be seen that the variance of marks for the visual group is smallest of all the lead preference groups.

An analysis of variance test (ANOVA) returns a p-value of 0.059, which indicates a fairly significant statistical difference between the groups.

5.5 Summary of Statistical Analysis As referenced in the introduction to this chapter, the purpose of the statistical analysis of the quantative data, namely the examination results of the individual students across the probationer syllabus categorised by the lead preference identified through the learning preferences questionnaire (as described in Chapter 3) was to explore statistically significant differences within the population.


216

MPhil Thesis This was undertaken in the context of each of the four examinations individually as well as the overall average results achieved by the students and considered in relation to sub-groups of students who scored within one standard deviation and above and below one standard deviation in each of the examinations.

In order to assist the comparison the chi-squared values are reproduced below in table 5.21.

Below one

Module 1

Module 2

Module 3

Module 4

Overall

0.028

0.098

0.6

0.208

0.795

0.751

0.660

0.938

0.765

0.895

0.799

0.453

0.999

0.383

0.259

standard deviation Within one standard deviation Above one standard deviation

Table 5.21 Comparison of Chi-Squared Values

It can be seen above that only one of the values is statistically significant, although one further result is fairly significant. There is a trend in the analysis results in so far as the lower values appear in the groups pertaining to those who scored below one standard deviation, with those scoring above one standard deviation fluctuating between modules.

Consideration is also given to the trend towards lesser probability of impact of learning preferences in Module 3 as well as the increasing improbability of impact of Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

217

MPhil Thesis learning results with regard to the group who scored below one standard deviation. In the final chapter, consideration is given of possible reasons for this including increasing familiarity with examination processes, increasing awareness of personal approach to learning and so on.

Further comparison is enabled by exploring the summary of results from the ANOVA and considering those along with the Chi Square Results.

P-Value

Module 1

Module 2

Module 3

Module 4

Overall

0.186

0.072

0.703

0.059

0.0867

Table 5.22 Comparison of P-Values from ANOVA

The fairly significant statistical results from this analysis can be seen to be in Modules 2 and 4 and in the overall examination marks.

5.4.1 Results of Statistical Significance

Across the examinations, only results within Module 3 did not show any elements of statistical significance and reasons for this are further explored within Chapter 6. The Chi Squared values demonstrated elements of statistical significance within the groups who achieved below one standard deviation in the Modules 1 and 2 examinations


218

MPhil Thesis In both cases, twice as many kinaesthetic learners appeared in this group than was predicted and fewer learners with a digital lead preference appeared in this group than was predicted.

From the results above it can be stated that lead preference was statistically likely to have played a part in the results and an individual with a lead preference of kinaesthetic was disproportionately likely to achieve results below one standard deviation while students with a digital lead preference was disproportionately likely to achieve results above this.

In addition the ANOVA showed fairly significant statistical results which demonstrated that students with a kinaesthetic lead preference were likely to perform least well in Modules 2 and 4 as well as in the overall examination results and those with a digital lead preference were likely to perform best in Module 2 and in the overall examination results and learners with a visual lead preference are likely to perform best in the Module 4 examination, although this is a very close result compared to the results also achieved by learners with a lead digital preference.

5.4.2 Other Results of Interest

It was noted within the statistical analysis of the module three examination scores that in the group of the population who scored above one standard deviation and those who scored within one standard deviation were very close fits in terms of actual and predicted numbers with the Chi-squared values being 0.999 and 0.938 respectively.


219

MPhil Thesis Consideration is also given to possible factors for the predicted numbers of the population being so close to the actual numbers in this module compared to the others. This is detailed in the following chapter where key points are presented and an identification of further work detailed.


220

MPhil Thesis

Chapter 6 – Conclusions

6.1 Introduction The preceding chapters of the thesis have explained the structure and purpose of Training at the Scottish Police College and focused on individual approaches to learning. In exploring styles and strategies, several explanations of ways in which individuals learn and options for exploring learning were commented upon, including the NLP concept of modalities and their impact on learning.

As laid out at the beginning of this thesis, the hypothesis was that there would be patterns in success that could be seen through the representational systems. In addition to this it was postulated that performance could be improved through simple awareness that will allow the learner to match approach to their strengths.

Over and above the hypothesis, possible beneficial outcomes from this research were commented upon and an intention was to develop awareness and guidance for both learners and trainers at the Scottish Police College as regards NLP and NLP Interventions. An additional intention was to identify guidelines that could assist the development of flexible learning materials that take into account representational systems and the support required for individual learners.


221

MPhil Thesis

6.2 Representational Systems The initial conclusions presented in this section comment upon identified patterns in performance shown in Chapters 4 and 5. The conclusions are laid out by examination result and are summarised in the conclusion to this section by preference in order to provide a complete overview.

6.2.1 Individual Performance in Module 1 Examination within the Initial Training Course

For ease of reference, the normalised summary of performance by individual lead preferences previously shown in Chapter 5 as Figure 5.4 is reproduced below. The use of percentages of the population is intended to allow a direct comparison between the preferences.

Normalised Score in Module 1 Examination by Lead Preference 25 Percentage

20

Audios

15

Visuals

10


5 96-100

90-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

35-40

0

Scores

Figure 5.4 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module 1 Examination Results.


222

MPhil Thesis

It can be seen from the percentage figures that learners with a lead digital preference performed strongly across the results bandings between 70% and 90% in comparison to the other preferences whereas kinaesthetic learners are the most strongly represented group between 51% and 60%. Digital learners are the least prominent group in the lower bandings.

From the percentage scores, it does appear that Digital learners are the strongest performing group in the Module 1 examination whereas kinaesthetic learners are most prominent in the lower bandings.

In Chapter 5, the chi-squared test was applied to the results with emphasis on students who scored within, above and below one standard deviation of the mean examination mark.

The result, which demonstrated most statistical significance in this

examination, related to the likelihood of kinaesthetic learners scoring below one standard deviation in the module 1 examination.

In addition an ANOVA was also undertaken and no results of statistical significance were identified.

It can therefore be stated that consideration should be given to the delivery mechanisms and supporting materials used in teaching this subject matter (Police Powers and Procedures (Appendix ‘B’)), as those who are kinaesthetic (as detailed in Chapter 2) are statistically more likely to perform below one standard deviation than any other individual.


223

MPhil Thesis The implications of the student performance of individual preferences in Module 1 cannot be categorically stated. In discussion terms, consideration was given to initial impact of the first examination and thereafter a familiarisation with the examination process or an adaption to study strategies that were more supportive to the course format may have significance and are considered in the exploration of the case studies. These considered together in the final conclusion to the chapter.


In Chapter 5, one result of fairly significant statistical result was identified in regard to the Module 2 (Crime) Examination; patterns in performance in lead preference could still be identified from the normalised percentage scores initially shown in Chapter 4. The combined examination results were initially shown as Figure 5.6 and are reproduced below.


224

MPhil Thesis

Normalised Scores in Module 2 Examination by Lead Preference 25 Percentage

20

Audios

15

Visuals

10


5 96-100

90-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

0

Scores

Figure 5.6 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module Two Examination Results.

It can be seen again, that in percentage terms the largest group by far in the bottom two bandings are again the kinaesthetic students followed by the Audio learners. The kinaesthetic students realised the largest standard deviation for this module at 13.4%. Students with a visual lead preference are the strongest performing group in the bandings between 66% to 80% whereas again in the top bandings, 81% to 100% it is the Digital learners who are most strongly represented.

This result is supported by the ANOVA, the result of which is fairly statistically significant and reflects that learners with a digital lead preference are most likely to perform best with kinaesthetic learners performing least well.


225

MPhil Thesis Again, as shown in Chapter 5, it can be seen from the overall results that at the extremes of the performances it is kinaesthetic in the lower bandings and digital in the upper.


Comment was passed in the summary of Chapter Five of the closeness of all four of the groups in relation to the actual and predicted results achieved. Anecdotally, individuals regard this to be the most disparate in terms of content and as such the most difficult module. The question then remains, are learning preferences even less impactive as it is more difficult for all learners? Again, prior to exploring the reproduced summary of normalised percentage results previously shown in Chapter 5, consideration is made of the mean performances.

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Audios Visuals Digitals

96-100

90-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

Kinaesthetics

36-40

Percentage

Normalised Scores in Module 3 Examination

Scores

Figure 5.8 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module Three Examination Results.


226

MPhil Thesis

Linked to the anecdotal assertion that module 3 (General Police Duties) is the most difficult of the modules, it can be seen that audio and visual groups scored their lowest means of all four groups however it was only the second lowest mean performance of the digital and kinaesthetic groups. The high p-value demonstrated by the ANOVA also reflects the lower performance across the lead preferences.

This mean performance shows up when considering overall performance in greater detail. Aside from the very lowest banding of performance, where again it is the kinaesthetic learners who are prominent although strong showings are made by the audio and visual groups who indeed very close in all of the performance bandings but despite the lower mean performance of the digital group between 66% and 90% they are again the largest single group. It should be commented upon that as with individual performances the largest group in the top banding is kinaesthetic and consideration is made later in this chapter of the impact of secondary or supporting preferences.


Finally, the module 4 examination (Traffic) appears to show very different performance levels from kinaesthetic students. They are noticeably prominent as the largest single group in the mid-bandings between 66% and 80% but realise the lowest mean percentage of any of the preferences in any of the examinations. It can also be seen that the kinaesthetic group are less represented at either end of the results.


227

MPhil Thesis The ANOVA identifies that the results within this module are fairly statistically significant and again show kinaesthetic learners to be the lowest performing group but in this case show learners whose lead preference is visual to be most likely to perform in the highest band of results. This stated the average percentage is close to the second performing group who are the learners with a digital lead preference.

Again, the overview of the normalised scores was first shown in Chapter 5 as figure 5.10 and is reproduced below for ease of reference.

Normalised Scores in Module 4 Examination 35 Percentage

30 25

Audios

20 15

Visuals

10

Kinaesthetics

Digitals

5 96-100

90-95

86-90

81-85

76-80

71-75

66-70

61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45

0

Scores

Figure 5.10 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Module Four Examination Results.

Considerations were given to reasons for this changing pattern and as mentioned in module 1, increasing awareness of examination processes could play an impact but also the practical nature of the module and the greater likelihood of personal experience in roads policing matters (most students are drivers and therefore this is the area where greatest personal experience comes into the course.).


228

MPhil Thesis 6.2.5 Summary of Individual Performance in Examinations within the Initial Training Course

Overall, Chapter 5 demonstrates statistically that a kinaesthetic learner is likely to perform below one standard deviation in the initial module 1 examination and fairly likely to perform similarly in the module 2 examination.

In addition to this the ANOVA demonstrates that kinaesthetic learners are statistically fairly likely to perform least well in Module 2, Module 4 and in the average overall examination results. Learners with a kinaesthetic lead preference also perform poorest in the Module 3 examination however the results in this case could vary with a different sample group, although are of course supported by the patterns in the other modules.

As such it can be stated that learners with a kinaesthetic lead preference are most likely to experience disadvantage through their learning preference during their initial period of training at the Scottish Police College.

Outwith results of statistical significance, patterns can still be seen from comparing percentage performances within examinations. In modules 1 to 3, it does appear that students with a led preference of kinaesthetic are more likely to score in the bottom percentages than any other group and students with a digital lead preference are more likely to perform in the higher percentages.

As with the preceding summaries, the overall summary references the normalised percentage scores from the overall results of the four examination, previously shown in Chapter 5 as figure 5.2 Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

229

MPhil Thesis Normalised Scores in Overall Exam Performance 25

Percentage

20 Audios Visuals Digitals Kinaesthetics

15 10 5

41 -4 5 46 -5 0 51 -5 5 56 -6 0 61 -6 5 66 -7 0 71 -7 5 76 -8 0 81 -8 5 86 -9 0 90 -9 96 5 -1 00

0

Scores

Figure 5.2 Summary of Performance by Lead Preference Using the Normalised Overall Mean Examination Results.

The summary demonstrates the assertion that there is bias of performance based on lead preference as defined within NLP modalities and which are prominent in the lower percentage scores through the kinaesthetic group and in the higher performing bandings through the digital group.

Further review of the results demonstrates the fluctuations of the audio and visual groups throughout the four examinations.

The patterns of performance will be fed

back to the Scottish Police College for review of initial interventions as well as consideration for supporting approaches and materials for kinaesthetic learners in particular.


230

MPhil Thesis 6.3 Summary of Qualitative Information

The next section of the summary deals with the qualitative research elements. Although patterns have been identified in performance through the examination results, the qualitative data also serves to explore the accuracy of the initial identification of the lead learning preference through the representational systems bias test as detailed in Chapter 3. In addition to this while patterns in preference have been identified a further question raised is whether those students are studying in supportive ways to their lead preference.

6.3.1 Summary of Qualitative Information from Snapshot Diaries

The snapshot diaries were used throughout Chapter 4 in order to provide a middle ground between the quantative and qualitative data. The concept was to provide small examples of approaches that typified or contradicted the lead preference of the individual. What the diaries did do, on consideration and review, was show how many of the individual students were focused on performance and outcome but unclear on how they achieved results or sought to improve performance. In other words, and as discussed in Chapter 4, the diaries did not reflect students examining their approaches, rather what they indented to do, i.e. study breach of the peace and whether they did it. Assessment of learning was also noticed to be lacking with common comments for stopping particular subject as ‘tired’ or ‘studied enough’

The snapshot diaries overall indicated that sections of the students, regardless of lead preference, did not consider how they approached learning beyond those who


231

MPhil Thesis conceptualised a basic surface approach. This information will be fed back to the Scottish Police College.

6.3.2 Summary of Qualitative Information from Case Studies

In order to provide a deeper review of an individuals approach to their learning, eight case studies were included within Chapter four. The case Studies included two students each who identified one of the four lead preferences in the representational bias test.

A further intention was to use the detail of the case studies to assess the accuracy of the representational systems bias test. This is also an area identified for further research later in this chapter.

Table 6.1 provides an overview of the preferences of these students for ease of reference. The highest score, indicating the lead preference is emboldened.


232

MPhil Thesis

Student

Audio

Digital

Visual

Kinaesthetic

Student ‘A’

12

15

11

12

Student ‘B’

14

15

10

11

Student ‘C’

10

10

16

14

Student ‘D’

9

10

16

15

Student ‘E’

17

14

7

12

Student ‘F’

17

8

12

13

Student ‘G’

11

11

12

16

Student ‘H’

12

8

13

17

Table 6.1 Summary of Representational Systems Bias Questionnaire for Case Studies

The initial interviews with each of the students who participated allowed an exploration of several areas in addition to the more general background in terms of education, family, previous occupations and so on. Particularly, the interviews were a measure of reliability of the questionnaire itself as well as an indicator of whether these individuals had approached their learning in a thoughtful and complementary manner to their own preferences.

Student ‘A’ showed a digital lead preference with supporting preferences jointly of audio and kinaesthetic. His previous employments were manual and practically orientated and this may have further indicated a kinaesthetic preference. However, on giving specific examples of understanding of legislation it became apparent that the scenarios he used were not recalled in a visual format rather were very logically Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

233

MPhil Thesis structured and recalled as a tick list, indicating process and structure. It would appear in this case study that the lead preference was identified correctly although elements of a visual supporting preference were also identified and this is less well indicated in the questionnaire.

Student ‘B’ described personal difficulty in formal education with many subjects including mathematics and English. His preferences were towards practical subjects such as PE and he went on to study PE and outdoor education. He summarised by saying that he found no difficulty with oral interpretation of language when studying but expressed concern with reading and writing. He made a number of references to more readily responding to the spoken word when studying but when asked for specific examples of approach he ran through a court procedure like a list or process and worked through the answer. Although his initial comments may be more indicative of a kinaesthetic approach, his demonstrated answers were more digital in structure. Reference to the questionnaire would again be related to his interview comments in showing a digital preference and an audio supporting preference.

Student ‘C’ showed a visual lead preference in the questionnaire but on discussing formally education, identified himself with kinaesthetic preferences commenting upon being good with his hands and his preference for subjects where he could work with his hands. He also distanced himself from subjects he viewed as requiring analysis or interpretation. This stated, in describing these preferences, the student visually recalled his approach to drawing and sketched out drawings with his finger as he described them. He went on to state that his belief was that he worked better through practical application of subjects, which again may be an indication of a kinaesthetic preference. This students lead preference was visual and although this comes out in


234

MPhil Thesis his discussion over schooling, he indicates a kinaesthetic approach to his studying at the police college. His questionnaire indicates a visual lead preference but also a strong kinaesthetic supporting preference.

Student ‘D’ initially commented on particular difficulty in studying maths, when asked what had been the particular difficulty she stated that it was within the subject itself and she could not study it as it simply didn’t interest her. As detailed in Chapter 2, this would be indicative of a digital approach to learning. When asked to provide an explanation of an element of learning from her previous work, she counted off the points on her fingers and stated that she ran through the process. Again, this would be indicative of a digital preference. At the college, she did not consciously choose her approach rather simply tried things she saw others doing. This student has a strong secondary preference of kinaesthetic and none of her approaches could be considered supportive of either preference. This stated, her comments and thoughts during interview would tend to support the questionnaire that in this context the questionnaire correctly identified her representational bias.

Student ‘E’ gave an early indication to his audio lead preference in regards to his best subject being a language and the fact that his successful study technique was that he used frequent opportunities to converse in German on the phone. When asked to give a further example of his approach in a previous occupation he did so as part of a conversation between himself and a client. This again would appear to be supportive of the lead preference identified in the questionnaire. In his studies at the police college, Student ‘D’ advised that he enjoyed the use of mnemonics and highlighted text but without colour. When asked to give an example of something he had learned he used a mnemonic and on probing implied that he kept repeating them until he was


235

MPhil Thesis clear on them as well as using specific words to anchor the meaning. In other words when he found difficulty with one part of a mnemonic he would try to remember a single word that would trigger the explanation. This again has audio traits in the internal repetition, but the use of the mnemonic and the structure given to the subprocess of key words shows the secondary preference of digital.

Student ‘F’ in his interview alluded to an audio preference in his schooling, in that it was verbal elements of a lesson that were impactive, but went on to say that he did not do much studying and undertook subjects that were project based. He had tried several approaches to his studies and had started marking notes up with various colours in order to highlight areas. He in fact found he used this simply as a checklist once highlighted he realised a subject had been covered. He settled on studying by reading and although he did not state clearly his purpose it would be supportive of his lead preference if he was using his internal audio as a study aid by reading alone. His preferences become more clear when he talks about the importance of others in his studying and indeed although scenario based this is more audio than kinaesthetic as he is not drawing from personal experience but drawing from the comments and ideas of others. This would be supportive of his lead preference and it is not surprising that his secondary preference is kinaesthetic.

Student ‘G’ identified her lead preference as kinaesthetic initially she summarised her formal learning by stating that she tended to fail the first time and pass the second. On probing she identified this as true for everything except subjects that she had to use her hands and were of a practical nature. In the interview, she initially indicated a possible digital preference by later becoming interested in science-based subjects and in particular experimentation. She also asked questions about the underlying reasons


236

MPhil Thesis for approaches. This stated, she went on to say that the answers were not actually important to her learning and she was more ‘nosey’ than requiring meaning. This student described her study approaches as inconsistent and she flitted between them without reason. She did state that she found list making or deconstruction of subjects into summary cards particularly unhelpful which would not be indicative of a digital approach. Student ‘G’ did make reference to practical experience through scenarios and past papers and personal experience from undertaking examination resits however when probed on how she recalled what she knew she consistently stated that she did not know where the information came from but simply swapped approaches regularly. While there are undoubted indications of a kinaesthetic preference, this student did not respond well to questioning and found probing frustrating.

Student ‘H’ was the only individual who commented on perceived approaches linking back to parental influences. He referred to an early opinion that watching someone do something and then trying for yourself was more beneficial. He made reference to the benefits of practical exercises throughout the discussion on his schooling as well as at the police college. He found a great deal of difficulty in reciting legislation based on his studies and had not tried to approach his studies in different ways. He was more positive however on attempting to recall legislation wrapped around practical scenarios when these were constructed for him. His interview would be supportive of his identified kinaesthetic preference.

Overall, it can be seen from the limited number of examples that the lead preference identified from the representational systems bias test was reflected in the traits and comments made during interviews. The occasions on which the secondary preferences


237

MPhil Thesis were also discussed were also noted and again is supportive of the identification of further work pertaining to these secondary or supporting preferences.

6.4 Improved Performance through Awareness of Individual Preferences One of the two main elements of the initial hypothesis considered that individual performance could also be improved through simple awareness of personal preferences allowing students to work to their strengths.

A number of factors

emerged from the research that offers further comment on this.

6.4.1 Self Reflection by Students

As initially referred to earlier in this chapter one of the consistent areas for comment in the snapshot learning diaries of each of the participating students is the difficulty they find in reflective practices in assessing their study and their knowledge. Consistently, the message recorded was that study ceased when the student was ‘bored’ or ‘too tired’ or had studied enough rarely do any of the diaries show an assessment of knowledge or an informed decision to move on to a new subject. This indicates either a lack of awareness by the individual of their own progress or an inability to reflect and record this in their diaries. Given the prevalent use of learning logs within the Scottish Police College, this information will also be fed back to the Scottish Police College.


238

MPhil Thesis 6.4.2 Matching Preferences to Individual Approach

One other element of the students’ individual approaches to their learning that was raised for consideration was their ability to match their own identified preferences to their current performance or learning needs. This also relates to the ability to self reflect and is best exampled within this study using the comments of Student ‘C’ who alluded to a visual approach when at school (which matched the indication of his lead preference identified through the questionnaire) but asserted during his Police Training that he best learned through practical application supported by his previous experiences.

While this student’s overall performance ultimately achieved success, he experienced several issues in examination performance and no consideration was given by him to exploring his previously successful approach and whether that could be supportive of his current challenge.

6.4.3 Teaching Strategies

One further element not fully explored in this project is the teacher or trainers approach to the students individual learning preference. Logically their interest would be three fold, their own preferences, a teaching approach that would be inclusive in terms of all of their students and the awareness to support their students in their own studies. Accordingly it is recommended that trainers at the Scottish Police College be given a rounded understanding of NLP in order to broaden training options and support mechanisms for each individual student.


239

MPhil Thesis

6.5 Future Development of Research Approach On review, one lesson learned during the analysis phase of the research was in listening to the semi-structured interviews. As these were audio recorded, some of the data was more difficult to analyse as reference was made to visual elements of what they were doing on being asked to reflect on approaches or recall prior learning. In addition to this, given that the interviewer was interpreting visual elements of the behaviour or conduct of the individual, this could have been more readily reviewed and a visual recording of future interviews would be considered beneficial.

6.6 Identified Future Work This section of the Chapter summarises opportunities for further research, identified during the research for this thesis and which, for the reasons discussed throughout the thesis but in particular Chapters 2 and 3 which identify how little research has been previously undertaken in the area, focus on the use of NLP in education.

6.6.1 Access of Understanding to Learning Approaches

One of the perceived beneficial outcomes commented upon in Chapter 1 was ease of access of understanding of representational systems as indicators of learning preferences to individuals. This was presented anecdotally when the reasons for the selection of NLP were discussed and was a consideration in terms of the research methodology in terms of ethics, that is to say that the research methodology was influenced by the ethical questions surrounding the considerations that individuals


240

MPhil Thesis should fully understand the purpose of the research and should receive some form of benefit from participation with regard to greater understanding of personal approach to learning.

The questions above led to all participants receiving an input on the project and learning preferences from a representational perspective. These are outlined in Chapter 3 and the lesson plan has been included in Appendix ‘E’ with a copy of the presentation material as Appendix ‘F’. While this was included for ethical reasons again anecdotal information was gleaned in feedback regarding the accessibility and ease of understanding. No attempt was made to measure quantity or further understand the access by individual students and indeed no comparison was made with other styles or strategies taken from the perspective of the learner rather than the trainer or teacher.

In consideration of the ethos of individuals taking responsibility for their learning, this was considered a potentially beneficial further piece of research and also the consideration as reflected by Chapter 2 of the literature review of whether NLP was used as a strategy in itself or whether it was a method of expressing accepted styles and strategies.

6.6.2 Reliable Indicator of NLP Lead Preference

In Chapter two, discussion of the use was of the NLP Representational Systems Bias Test was made and further explored in Chapter 3. While broadly recognised and included in training for NLP Practititioners (James, 1987) no aspect of research nor


241

MPhil Thesis approach to professionals working in the NLP or Education areas identified either a source or any indicators of reliability as outlined in Chapter 3.

In recognising this, this research sought to cross refer the results of the questionnaire completed by all participants with the results being cross referred to the individual interviews outlined in Chapter 4. When Representational Preferences are further explored it could be beneficial to undertake some measure of assessment of reliability with regard to this existing tool or develop a tool which would be supportive of giving individuals indicators of preference and support self-development and awareness in learning.

In stating this, the importance of focussing on an individual and exploring their needs is recognised through the approach of the semi-structured interviews but as summarised earlier in this chapter an indicator of the reliability of the representational systems bias test would be beneficial to individuals as well as general credibility purposes.

6.6.3 Distribution of Preferences within General Population

In considering the results of the statistical analysis in Chapter 5 it was apparent that the distribution was being considered in respect of the research population sample and no vagaries of the more general population was considered as no data or research could be found which looked at distribution of lead preferences.

This general lack of research, impacted on the specific, thesis related research in several ways as described in the literature review but in this context no consideration


242

MPhil Thesis could be given to the representational nature of the recruit to the police service in terms of approaches to learning and whether the nature of the work was reflected in the preferences of those attracted to undertake the role.

6.6.4 Impact of Supporting Preferences

In Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, the lead preferences identified through the Representational Systems Bias Questionnaire are used in the comparison of performance in examinations. No comparison is made at this time of those members of the research population who identified multiple lead preferences (that is to say joint scores in the bias) nor consideration of whether joint preferences is a manifestation of the smaller scale nature (five questions) of the test and whether this would be less likely to occur in a larger scale questionnaire.

This aside, some discussion is made of supporting or secondary preferences within the case studies utilised in Chapter 4. The role played by those preferences is discussed in the next section of the Chapter however were not considered in the statistical analysis for this initial research. As the data was gathered there is an intention to delve further down and explore impact of secondary or supporting preferences.

The concept behind this, as discussed in Chapter 2, is the context in which the learning is taking place as well as the presence of all modalities in most individuals and therefore while individuals may have preferences, the impact of the other modalities and his or her ability to utilise them according to need is unexplored as indeed is the potential benefit or otherwise on examination or performance results.


243

MPhil Thesis

6.7 Summary Very early in the literature review, it became apparent that there was little research available in terms of exploring many of the elements of NLP as well as there use in education. While a basis for the use of modalities and sub-modalities can be seen in many of the styles and strategies (fully detailed in Chapter 2) it proved difficult to find a basis for even one of the research tools (Representational Systems Bias Questionnaire).

The case studies have been used to show an element of consistency between identified preferences from interviews and in relation to the questionnaire results. In addition the snapshot learning diaries have shown patterns of individuals not fully considering their approaches to learning.

The lack of previous research means that it remains early days for the improvement of credibility of NLP within education and it is believed that this thesis can serve as a starting point for further investigation.

This stated, it is believed that the hypothesis has been demonstrated and patterns in performance through lead representational system can be seen in all areas of the examinable syllabus for initial recruit training at the Scottish Police College.

It is therefore recommended that staff at the Scottish Police College should receive an awareness of NLP in order to assist with inclusive teaching practices and assist in supporting students who may experience difficulty, particularly those who are identified with a kinaesthetic lead preference within the context of the police training.


244

MPhil Thesis

In addition, it is believed to have been demonstrated through the learning diaries that students do not widely adopt reflective practices in their learning. It is also believed that a greater knowledge by the student in their lead and supporting NLP preferences could assist the individual in taking control of their learning.


245

MPhil Thesis References Arber, S (1993), Designing Samples, Chapter 5 in Gilbert, N. Researching Social Life, SAGE Publications, London. Bandler R. & Grinder J. (1979), Frogs into Princes, Real People Press, Utah. Bandler R. & Grinder J. (1975), The structure of Magic Part I, Science and Behaviour Books, California. Bandler R. & Grinder J. (1976), The structure of Magic Part II, Science and Behaviour Books, California. Bell, J (1993) Doing Your Research Project, 2nd Edition, Open University Press, Buckingham. Biggs, J.B. & Collis, K.F. (1982), Evaluating the Quality of Learning: the SOLO Taxonomy, Academic Press, New York. Biggs, J.B. (1996), Stages of Expatriate involvement in Educational Development: colonialism, irrelevance, or what? Educational Research Journal, 12, 157-640. Biggs, J.B. (1999), Teaching for Quality Learning at University, Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press, Buckingham. Bloom, BS, Krathwohl, DR and Masia, JF, (1971), Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Book 2: Affective Domain, Longman, London. Bloom, B.S. (ed) (1972), Taxonomy of Educational Objectives – Book 1: Cognitive Domain, Longman, London Board of Governors (1991), Report of the Standing Committee Working Party on Probationer Training, Scottish Police College, Kincardine. Boyd. J, (1996), Her Majesties Chief Inspector of Constabulary for Scotland, Annual Report, 1995/1996, HMSO, Edinburgh Bruner, J, (1960), The Process of Education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Chakravarti, Laha, and Roy, (1967). Handbook of Methods of Applied Statistics, Volume I, John Wiley and Sons. Chomsky, N. (1957), Syntactic Structures, Mouton, The Hague. Cohen, L., Manion, L., Morrison, K. (2000), Research Methods in Education, 5th Edition, RoutledgeFalmer, London Cotton, J, (1995), The Theory of Learning: An Introduction, Kogan Page, London. Cross, K.P., (1981). Adults as Learners, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

246

MPhil Thesis Denscombe, M. (1998), The Good Research Guide, Open University Press, Buckingham Dewey, J, (1938), Experience and Education, Kappa Delta Pi. Denscombe, M. (1998), The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Social Research Projects, Open University Press, Buckingham. Dilts, R. (1998), Modelling with NLP, Meta Publications, California. Downs, S. (1993) Chapter 13 – Developing Learning Skills in Vocational Education, Culture and Processes of Adult Learning, Routledge, London Edwards, A., Evans, M., Pring, R., Scott, S., Westcott, E. and Bassey, M., (2000). Good Practice in Educational Research Writing, British Educational Research Association, Nottinghamshire. Edwards, A. and Talbot, R. (1999), The Hard Pressed Researcher, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education Limited, Essex. Ellington, H, Percival, F and Race, P (1993), The Handbook of Educational Technology, Third Edition, Kogan Page, London. Entwistle, N.J., (1988), Styles of Learning and Teaching, David Fulton Publishers, London. Entwistle, N.J, Meyer, J.H.F., and Tait, H., (1991), Student Failure: disintegrated patterns of study strategies and perceptions of the learning environment, Higher Education 21, 246-61. Fletcher, S. (1992), Competence-Based Assessment Techniques, Kogan Page, London. Foley, G. (2000), Understanding Adult Education and Training, Allen and Unwin, New South Wales. Garratt, T. (1997), The effective Delivery of Training Using NLP, Kogan Page, London. Gillham, B., (2000), The Research Interview, Continuum, London. Greenfield, T. (ed) (1996), Research Methods; Guidance for Postgraduates, Arnold, London Honey, P. and Mumford A. (1992), The Manual of Learning Styles, Third Edition, Honey, Maidenhead. Huang, C. (1997), The Analects of Confucius (Lun Yu). A Literal Translation with an Introduction and Notes, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Illingworth, N. and Rodgers, B. (1988), Scottish Police College Flexible Learning Management Policy, Unpublished. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

247

MPhil Thesis Janner, G. (1981), Janner’s Complete Speechmaker, Random House, London. James T. (1987), The Basic NLP Training Collection Manual, Advanced Neuro Dynamics, Honolulu. Kelly, C. (1997), The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. III, No.9, September 1997. Knowles, M.(1984), Andragogy in Action, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Kolb, D. (1984), Experiential Learning: Experiences as the source of Learning and Development, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey. Laurrilard, D. (1993) Rethinking University Teaching: A Framework for the Effective Use of Educational Technology, Routledge, London. Lewis, B. and Pucelik, F. (1990), Magic of NLP Demystified: A Pragmatic Guide to Communication and Change, Metamorphous Press, Portland. Megaughin, R. and Rodgers, B. (1995), The Implementation of Text Based Open and Distance Learning within Lothian and Borders Police, Unpublished. Miller, C.A. (1956), The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information, Psychological Review, 63, 81-97. Miller, G., Gallanter, E., and Pribham, L (1960), Plans and the Structure of Behaviour. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. Milne, B (1998), The Continuing Evolution of Multiple Choice Examinations at the Scottish Police College, Scottish Police College, Kincardine. NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/, 2004

Statistical

Methods,

O’Connor, J, and Seymour, J, (1990), Introducing NLP – Neuro-Linguistic Programming, Psychological Skills for Understanding and Influencing People, Thorsons, London. O’Connor, J, and Seymour, J, (1994), Training with Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Skills for Managers, Trainers and Communicators, Thorsons, London. Oppenheim, A.N. (1966), Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement, Heinemann, London. Oppenheim, A.N. (1992), Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement, New Edition, Cassell, London. Perls, F. (1973), The Gestalt Approach: Eyewitness to Therapy, Science and Behaviour Books, Palo Alto. Police Advisory Board for Scotland (1983), Report of Working Party on Police Training, Scottish Police College, Kincardine. Bryan Rodgers – Napier University

248

MPhil Thesis Prosser, M and Trigwell, K (1999), Understanding Learning and Teaching – The Experience in Higher Education, SRHE and Open University Press, Buckinghamshire. Ramsden, P. (1991), A Performance Indicator of Teaching Quality in Higher Education,: The Course Experience Questionnaire, Studies in Higher Education 16, 129-50. Rayner, S. and Riding, R. (1997), ‘Towards a categorisation of cognitive styles and learning styles’, Educational Psychology, 17, 5-28. Riding, R and Buckle, C. (1990) Learning Styles and Training Performance, Employment Department Report, Ref. OL94, Sheffield. Riding, R. and Cheema, I. (1991), Cognitive Styles: An Overview and Integration, Educational Psychology 11, 193-215 Riding, R. and Rayner, S. (1998), Cognitive Styles and Learning Strategies – Understanding Style Differences in Learning and Behaviour, David Fulton, London. Rodgers, B. (1999), An Investigation into the relationship between Representational Systems and Attainment in Examinations within Recruit Training for the Scottish Police Service, Unpublished. Rogers C.R. & Freiburg, H.J. (1994). Freedom to Learn, 3rd Edition, Merrill/Macmillan, Columbus, Ohio. Romiszowski, A.J., (1988) The Selection and Use of Instructional Media, 2nd Edition, Kogan Page, London. Saljo, R, (1979), Learning in the learners perspective: I. Some common sense conceptions. Reports from the Institute of Education, University of Gothenburg, 76. As summarised in Psychology: Theory and Application. Schuell,T.J. (1986), Cognitive conceptions of learning, Review of Educational Research, 56, 411-36. Scottish Police College (1993), Strategy for Police Training, Scottish Police College, Kincardine. Scottish Police College (1998), Annual Report 1997-1998, Scottish Police College, Kincardine. Sinclair, J. (1998), An ABC of NLP, 2nd Edition, Container Marketing Ltd, London. Snedecor, George W. and Cochran, William G. (1989), Statistical Methods, Eighth Edition, Iowa State University Press. Spiro, R.J., Coulson, R.L., Feltovich, P.J. and Anderson, D. (1988). Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In V.


249

MPhil Thesis th

Patel (ed.). Proceedings of the 10 Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Erlsbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey. Sutherland. W, (1998), Her Majesties Chief Inspector of Constabulary for Scotland, Annual Report, 1997/1998, The Stationery Office, Edinburgh. The Industrial Society (1999), Managing Best Practice; No:62 Managing Training and Learning. The Industrial Society, Birmingham. Watzlawick, P., Weakland, J., and Fisch, R. (1974) Change. W. Norton, New York. Wheeler, M and Marshall, J (1986), Trainer Type Inventory (1986) Annual Developing Human Resources, University Associates, San Diego. Witkin, H.A. and Asch, S.E. (1948), ‘Studies in space orientation, III. Perception of the upright in the absence of visual field’, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 762-82. Zimmerman, D.H. and Weider, D.L. (1977), ‘The diary-interview method’, Urban Life, 5 (4), January, 479-99


250