national sport and education literature review 2012

NATIONAL SPORT AND EDUCATION LITERATURE REVIEW 2012

PREPARED BY: Professor Remco Polman, Dr Janet Young & Andy Farrow Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL) Victoria University

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction 2.1. The Value of Physical Education and Sport in Schools and Education 2.2. Method the Value of Physical Education and Sport in Schools and Education 2.3. Results/ Discussion the Value of Physical Education and Sport in Schools and Education 2.3.1. PHYSICAL BENEFITS

2.3.2. EDUCATION OUTCOMES 2.3.3. MOTIVATION 2.3.4. TEACHER CONFIDENCE AND ATTITUDES

2.4. Summary the Value of Physical Education and Sport in Schools and Education Review 3.1. Barriers to participation in physical education and sport by school-aged children and youth 3.2. Method Barriers to participation in physical education and sport by school-aged children and youth 3.3. Sport and Children 3.4. Injury and Safety 3.5. Socio-economic status 3.6. Gender 3.6.1. GIRLS

3.6.2. RURAL LIVING GIRLS 3.6.3. GIRLS FROM LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE AND LOW INCOME BACKGROUNDS 3.6.4. CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE COMMUNITIES

3.7. Sport and Schools

3.7.1. PHYSICAL EDUCATION 3.7.2. SCHOOL SPORT 3.7.3. ACTIVE AFTER-SCHOOL COMMUNITIES PROGRAM

3.8 Indigenous Communities 3.9. Children with Disabilities 3.10. Sport and Government Report and Statistics 3.11. Conclusions 4.1. Successful models of delivery of physical education, sport and organized physical activity programs through and around the school environment 4.2. Method successful models of delivery of physical education, sport and organized physical activity programs through and around the school environment 4.3. Results/Discussion Successful models of PE delivery and organised physical activity 4.3.1. TGFU AND GAME SENSE 4.3.2. SPORT EDUCATION 4.3.3. HYBRID SPORT EDUCATION AND TGFU 4.3.4. PLAYING FOR LIFE (P4L)

4.4. Conclusion successful models of delivery of physical education, sport and organized physical activity programs through and around the school environment References

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3 3 4 4 5 5 7 7 8 8 9 10 12 13 14 14 15 16 16 17 17 19 19 21 21 21 24 25 26 27 27 30 32 33 33 35

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Appendix A: Search strategy for Value of Physical Education and Sport in Schools and Education review.

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Appendix B: Inclusion/exclusion criteria for the value of physical education and sport in schools and education literature search.

45

Appendix C: Australian research demonstrating the value of physical education and/or sport in schools and education from 2000 to date.

46

Appendix D: Sport and Government Reports into Sport, Physical Education and Physical Activity as it relates to the value of participation.

47

Appendix E: Search strategy for barriers to participation in physical education and spot by school-aged children and youth review.

48

Appendix F: Inclusion/exclusion criteria for the barriers literature search.

49

Appendix G: Studies (2000-2011) identifying barriers to participation in physical education (PE) and sport by Australian school-aged children and youth.

51

Appendix H: Reports (2000-2011) identifying barriers to participation in physical education and sport by Australian school-aged children and youth.

53

Appendix I: Search strategy for successful models of delivery of physical education, sport and organized physical activity programs through and around the school environment.

55

Appendix J: Inclusion/exclusion criteria for successful models of delivery of physical education, sport and organized physical activity programs through and around the school environment.

57

Appendix K: Australian Studies (2000 to date) of TGfU and Game Sense.

58

Appendix L: Australian Studies (2000 to date) of Sport Education.

60

Appendix M: Australian Study (2000 to date) of a Hybrid TGfU-Sport Education model.

61


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1. INTRODUCTION The Australian Government‘s new directions for sport, articulated in the Australian Sport: The pathway to success document, commits the Government to the delivery of a National Sport and Education Strategy (NSES) “to increase the role and effectiveness of sport in schools and to boost the number of our children participating in our sporting base” (p. 2, Commonwealth of Australia). As quality physical education and sporting programs in schools have the potential to make people active for the rest of their lives (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010). It is a primary objective of the Australian Government to boost the number of children ―participating in sport through education‖ (p.3, Commonwealth of Australia). This is particularly important, given the decline of ‗quality‘ physical education and sport being delivered in primary and secondary schools (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010). The delivery of a NSES that firmly embeds quality sport and physical education in our schools would add value and removes barriers to future sport participation if delivered in an appropriate manner. Literature reviews have been carried out to inform this work and have focussed upon three areas (1) the value of PE, sport and physical activity; (2) the barriers to participation faced by young people; and, (3) examples of successful models of PE delivery and organised physical activity programs in and around the school environment. In order to answer these questions three separate systematic reviews were conducted. For the purpose of the reviews, the following definitions of the terms ‗sport‘ and ‗physical education‘ were adopted. ‗Sport‘ is “a human activity of achieving a result requiring physical exertion and/or physical skill which, by its nature and organization, is competitive and is generally accepted as being a sport” (Australian Sports Commission [ASC], n.d) and ‗physical education‘ is ―a sequential, developmentally appropriate educational experience that engages students in learning and understanding movement activities that are personally and socially meaningful, with the goal of promoting healthy living” (DECS, 2009, p.8).

2.1. THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION Research findings show that physical education and sporting programs in schools have the potential to make people active for the rest of their lives. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010) and a primary objective of the Australian Government is to boost the number of children participating in sport through education. This is particularly important, given the decline of ‗quality‘ physical education and sport being delivered in primary and secondary schools (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010). The benefits of sports participation are well documented in the Cochrane (2008) and Crawford Report‘s (2009). From an economic standpoint the value of participation in and around sport for all Australians is evident and includes reduced health-care costs and improved labour productivity (Frontier Economics, 2010). Despite initiatives to increase participation in sport and physical recreation, Australia has seen a significant decline from 66% to 64% between 2005/06 and 2009/10 for people aged over 15 years (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010)


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and during adolescence (Lubans, Morgan & McCormack, 2011). In addition, participation rates for Australian children have stalled over the last decade (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010). To assist the development of the NSES, the aim of the first literature review is to present current research that demonstrates the value of sport and physical education in schools.

2.2. METHOD THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION The National Sports Information Centre (NSIC) catalogue and the Victoria University Library catalogue and Google Scholar (google.com), via the Internet, were used to locate sources of information on the value of physical education and sport in schools and education, these included: journal articles and reports to Government agencies (in Australia and Internationally). Additional studies, reports and publications were found by hand searching reference lists and then searching the subsequent Title and/or Author. Full reports were only used as a source of information. The Cochrane review was also examined for potential outstanding studies and documents. For databases searched, key words and search terms refer to Appendix A. The initial search of the 12 electronic databases revealed 5714 potentially relevant publications/‘hits‘. This number was reduced to 239 when the search was restricted to include the term ―Australia‖ and further reduced to 61 peer-reviewed full-text publications between 2000 and 2011 with duplicates from the databases removed. Subsequently the full-text of all possible publications were assessed to ensure those ultimately selected met all the inclusion criteria. The NSIC were contacted to obtain articles that were not available electronically. To be included, the publications had to report on the value or benefits of physical education in schools and be published in peer-reviewed literature, book chapters or recognised Government/other publications during the period 2000 to 2011 inclusive. For criteria for considering studies for this review refer to Appendix B.

2.3. RESULTS/ DISCUSSION THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION Table showing all Australian research demonstrating the value of physical education and/or sport in schools and education from 2000 to date are presented in Appendix C whereas Appendix D displays governmental reports which have alluded to the beneficial effects of regular physical education, physical activity and sport participation. The literature study identified four potential areas where PE, Sport and Physical Activity programs could be beneficial: 

Physical benefits



Educational outcomes


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

Motivation



Teacher attitudes and confidence

2.3.1. PHYSICAL BENEFITS Physical Education and Sport has consistently been found to be a vehicle for promoting health and well-being in children and adolescents (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Siesmaa, Blitvich, Telford & Finch, 2011). The physical benefits of physical activity are well established and include; decreasing the incidence of coronary heart disease, non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, colon cancer, breast cancer, stroke, depression, and obesity. (Armstrong, Doyle & Waters, 2008). In a recent 2-year longitudinal study by Telford et al. (2011) it was shown that increases in body fat percentage was moderated by the type of teacher which took classes. In particular, students taught by visiting specialized teachers showed smaller increased in age-related body fat in comparison to students who were taught by generalists‘ classroom teachers. Classroom teachers perceive the benefits of physical education to provide students with the opportunity to improve fitness to counter societal trends towards obesity and increased sedentary behaviour. Health benefits were reported as the major reason for conducting physical education lessons (Morgan & Hansen, 2008). Long term participation in physical activity and sport is also directly associated with the successful acquisition of fundamental movement skills (Bailey, 2006, cited in Penney, 2011). Fundamental Motor Skills proficiency has been found to be important in increasing muscular fitness and flexibility, physical fitness and decreasing body mass (Lubans et al., 2010). These findings are supported by research conducted using the Gold Medal Fitness Program (GMFP), where students across 10 Government schools in NSW had improved Fundamental Motor Skills following the program intervention (Wright, Konza, Hearne & Okely, 2008). Incidentally, the teachers in this study also reported “a greater use of playground equipment, of students actively coaching each other in the playground, and of increased numbers of students trying out for the local interschool competition teams and voluntarily participating in Athletics and Cross Country carnivals” (p.60).

2.3.2. EDUCATION OUTCOMES Morgan and Hansen (2008) examination of teachers‘ perceptions of physical education reported ―a range of mechanisms; improved behaviour, greater the students capacity to concentrate and greater retention of learned material‖ (p.203). The teachers in this study provided anecdotal evidence of a relationship between PE and academic performance. A recent study by Telford et al. (2011) showed that students who received PE from specialized teachers over a 2 year period showed increased numeracy and writing scores in comparison to children who received PE from their regular teacher. In support, a literature review by Stead and Nevill (2010) further demonstrates the impact of physical education and sport in relation to education outcomes. While this


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report is not limited to Australian peer-reviewed literature, it does provide sufficient Australian based evidence to warrant inclusion in this review, as presented below: - The impact of physical education, physical activity and sport on academic achievement: o

Academic achievement is maintained or enhanced by increased physical education, physical activity or sport when a substantial proportion of curricular time (up to an extra hour per day) is allocated to physical education, physical activity or sport, learning seems to proceed more rapidly per unit of classroom time (p .13).

- The impact of physical education, physical activity and sport on cognitive function: o

A positive relationship exists between physical activity and cognition (p. 19), particularly with primary and middle-school aged children.

o

Perception skills, attention and concentration are all improved by a bout of physical activity, but perceptual skills seem to benefit the most from prior exercise (p. 19).

o

Prior exercise may be beneficial to cognitive function in both the morning and afternoon (p. 19).

- The impact of physical education, physical activity and sport on classroom behaviours that may impact on academic achievement: o

As little as 10 minutes of additional organized physical activity in or outside the classroom implemented into the school day improves classroom behaviour, and consequently may enhance academic performance. The addition of break times when physical activity is undertaken improves classroom behaviour and consequently may enhance academic performance (p. 23).

- The impact of physical education, physical activity and sport on psychological and social factors which may impact on academic achievement: o

There is a positive association between physical activity and several components of mental health, including self-esteem, emotive well-being, spirituality, and future expectations.

o

Physical activity has a positive impact on anxiety, depression, mood and wellbeing.

o

Young individuals who participate in organized sport demonstrate lower anti-social behaviour (p. 27).

- The impact of physical education, physical activity and sport on school attendance: o

A positive relationship between participation between sports programs and school attendance (p. 31).

- The impact of physical education, physical activity and sport on wider social outcomes which may impact on academic achievement:

o Physical education, physical activity and sport have been shown to impact positively on the extent to which young people feel connected to their school; the aspirations of young people; the extent to which positive social behaviours exist within school; and the development of leadership and citizenship skills (p. 38).


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2.3.3. MOTIVATION A study of adolescent students in Western Australia explored the relationship between PE enjoyment, Physical Activity involvement and exercise habit strength (Hashim, Grove & Whipp, 2008). This study found “enjoyable PE experiences could indirectly increase exercise habit strength among adolescents” (p. 29) and therefore relates positively to subsequent physical activity (Hashim et al., 2008). In support, Lubans et al. (2010) suggested that while students‘ beliefs may not be a ‗predictor‘ of subsequent physical activity, a more positive affect of school sport is the ‗more likely‘ it is to lead to increases in physical activity. More recently, Lubans, Morgan and McCormack (2011) conducted a questionnaire study with 147 students in NSW exploring ―the relationship between adolescents‘ school sport beliefs, social support received during school sport and physical self-esteem‖ (p. 244). This study found that ―students, who perceived higher levels of social support, encouragement, and motor skills development from their teachers and instructors during school sport, exhibited more positive feelings about school sport‖ (p. 245). The most important reasons reported by the students for choosing school sport activities were ‗enjoyment‘ and ‗spending time with friends‘. Similarly, Hashim et al. (2008) found enjoyment in physical education as a way to maximize student involvement.

2.3.4. TEACHER CONFIDENCE AND ATTITUDES Whipp, Hutton, Grove and Jackson (2011) investigated the impact of externally provided physical activity programs (EPPAPs) on generalist teachers‘ perceptions of their ability to teach Physical Education. The aim of the study was to equip the teachers with the skills, confidence and subject-specific knowledge required to better perform their PE-related duties. Following a 6 month (EPPAP) intervention the generalist teachers reported a greater belief in their ability to meet Physical Education requirements (e.g., inclusive, fun, safe, catering for different abilities), and also described a number of specific personal benefits associated with the EPPAP. Similarly findings were also found by Wright et al. (2008) following the Gold Medal Fitness Program, for example, a significant increase in confidence and enthusiasm in teaching physical education for primary school teachers. Morgan and Hansen (2008) surveyed 189 and later interviewed 31 primary school teachers in NSW and found a positive relationship between a teacher‘s attitude to teaching PE and their perceptions of their physical education programs‘ success. It was unclear whether a teacher‘s positive attitude leads to successful lessons or whether successful lessons influence attitudes to physical education. A possible explanation could be that teachers with more positive attitudes teach PE more frequently and experience more success as they become more experienced and effective. Interestingly, the positive effect of PE reported by teachers in this study did not translate to the delivery of a quality programming. In fact, many of the teachers saw PE as an opportunity to get the children ―outside and running‖ (Morgan & Hansen, 2008). Alternatively, the Gold Medal Fitness Program reported significant improvement in the teaching of physical education (Wright et al., 2008). One reason for this difference could be the differences in duration of these interventions i.e. PPET – 6 month intervention as opposed to GMFP – 3 year intervention. IS E A L , Vi c t o r i a Un i v e r s i t y  2 0 1 2

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2.4. SUMMARY THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION REVIEW The review of literature on the value of physical education and sport in schools provide evidence for the legitimacy of physical education and sport in an already crowded curriculum. Benefits derived from participation include physical benefits, positive education outcomes and improvements in young people‘s motivation and increased teacher confidence. As such this review supports the NSES and in particular the need for ‗quality‘ physical education provision throughout Australia. This requires implementation of professional development programs for generalists‘ teachers in primary schools throughout Australia or the inclusion of physical education specialist‘s teachers in all schools throughout Australia. Taking into consideration latest findings by Telford et al. (2011) the introduction of specialized teachers might be more beneficial. Research has shown that physical education and sport are the main source of physical activity for children and adolescents. (Morgan & Hansen, 2008). Quality physical education is central to young people‘s enjoyment of physical education and their subsequent engagement in physical activity. In view of this school sport should include activities which match student needs, skills and preferences, be perceived as exciting and challenging by students and offer a wide range of involvement choices.

3.1. BARRIERS TO PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT BY SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN AND YOUTH The Australian Government recently released its report The Future of Sport in Australia (Australian Government, 2009). This report, also referred to as the „Crawford Report‟, reviewed Australia‘s sporting systems and structures, concluding with a set of recommendations targeting both elite and grass-root sport. Amongst its extensive findings, the report highlighted the need to reunite sport and the education system given the education system no longer consistently carries out its historical and vital role of introducing students to sport and establishing pathways to community sport. Pursuant to the recommendations of The Future of Sport in Australia report Kate Ellis MP, the Minister for Youth and Sport, announced the Government‘s plan for Australian Sport: the Pathway to Success in May 2010. This plan aims to increase the number of Australians participating in sport at all levels. One key element of the plan is the Government‘s commitment to delivering a National Sport and Education Strategy (NSES) to increase the role and effectiveness of sport in schools and to increase the number of Australian children participating in our sporting base. To this end, specific strategies will be required to understand and remove existing barriers and to create inclusive environments where participation can grow (Commonwealth Government, 2009). The aim of this systematic review of the literature is to present publications that identify barriers to participation in physical education and sport by Australian school-aged children and youth. Physical education and sport are integrally related given sport is one of the key physical activity/movement forms of the Australian physical


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education curriculum (Department of Education and Children‘s Services [DECS], 2004). As noted in The Future of Sport in Australia report, physical education in schools plays a central role in breaking down barriers to participation in sport (Australian Government, 2009). The scope of this review was limited to publications from 2000 to date that identify barriers to participation in physical education and sport for Australian school-aged children and youth. It is these barriers that, in the authors‘ opinions, should underpin the NSES rather than barriers relating to physical education and sport participation in other countries or to earlier time periods.

3.2. METHOD BARRIERS TO PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT BY SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN AND YOUTH The search strategy included searching several databases and the Australian Sports Commission/ National Sports Information Centre records. The internet was used to locate information generated by the Australian Government and relevant sporting authorities and organisations. In addition, reference lists of included studies, reports, publications and relevant Cochrane reviews were examined for potential outstanding studies and documents. Primary authors of included papers were contacted as required for additional information. For databases searched, key words and search terms refer to Appendix E. The initial search of the 10 electronic databases revealed 2873 potentially relevant publications/‘hits‘. This number was reduced to 522 when the search was restricted to peer-reviewed full-text publications between 2000 and 2010 with duplicates from the databases removed. Using Endnote (version 9), a further culling was undertaken by reviewing all the titles and abstracts identified as a result of the search against the inclusion criteria. We subsequently assessed the full-text of all possible publications to ensure those ultimately selected met all the inclusion criteria. Forty five potentially relevant publications were identified in the search of the records of the National Sports Information Centre. The titles and publication dates of each record were assessed against the inclusion criteria and full text obtained and reviewed where pertinent to do so (see Appendix F). Fifty six potentially relevant publications were identified in the search of the Google search engine and assessed against the inclusion criteria. The process for doing so again involved assessing titles, executive summaries and/or abstracts and, as required, the full-text. The parcel of publications identified in the searches of the databases, National Sports Information Centre and Google were then examined for duplicates. Duplicates were removed with the reference lists of the resultant set of publications then manually searched to identify any outstanding relevant literature. In total, 30 publications satisfied the inclusion criteria.


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The literature study identified seven areas relating to barriers to participation in physical education and sport: 

Injury and safety



Socio-economic Status



Gender



Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Communities



Schools



Indigenous communities



People with disabilities.

A summary of the publications included in this review is included in the appendices G and H. Appendix G provides a summary of studies (2000-2011) identifying barriers to participation in physical education (PE) and sport by Australian school-aged children and youth. Appendix H provides a summary of reports (2000-2011) identifying barriers to participation in physical education and sport by Australian school-aged children and youth.

3.3. SPORT AND CHILDREN Participants in the 2002- 2003 Youth Sports Issues Forum (ASC, 2003) provided insight into barriers they perceived to deter participation in sport. The main barriers were the costs associated with sport, a lack of access to sporting opportunities and an emphasis on achievement and elitism. Young people felt that opportunities to participate were only offered to those good at sport. Rigid rules, compulsory uniforms, pushy parents and excess emphasis on skill training were also seen as negative aspects of sport and, specifically, junior sport where resources and attention were seen to be directed to those participants with high skills. Other barriers identified were embarrassment for older adolescents of participating alongside more capable athletes and, for country participants, a perception that poor facilities, limited choice of sports and out-of-date coaching were deterrents to playing sport. Building on the 2002- 2003 Youth Sports Issues Forum, the ASC commissioned a report into Children and Sport by the University of South Australia (ASC, 2004). This extensive report provided further insight into perceived barriers to sport participation for children. Data was collected via survey from 4661 10-15 year old children from 144 randomly selected schools in South Australia. Specifically, children were asked to indicate what they perceived to be barriers to sports participation. They could choose multiple responses from an extensive list or provide their own ideas. Perceived lack of time was considered the main barrier followed by too much homework, friends not involved, transport, too expensive, health or injury problems, not into sport, no coach, part-time job, unfit, too embarrassed and too competitive. In further findings, the study found a strong association between participation and family income. The parents of junior sport participants were predominantly in white-collar


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occupations. The researchers concluded the results support that children, in general, want to participate in sport but need to be provided with the means and encouragement, including time, infrastructure and peer group involvement. In a further study with South Australian children, and commissioned by the South Australian Government, 204 children aged 4-12 years gave their views about barriers to playing sport (MacDougall, Schiller & Darbyshire, 2004). While reported barriers are not fully described or discussed in the publication, they are listed as injuries, cost, distance and travel, lack of facilities, clubs, bullying, put-downs, humiliation and gender issues. O‘Dea (2010) provides additional understanding on barriers to sport participant with her study of 690 boys and 650 girls from 16 New South Wales primary and secondary schools. In this study participants were asked about the main barriers to their involvement in sport, physical education and physical activity. The results are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Major barriers to sport, physical education (PE) and physical activity in 690 boys and 650 girls from 16 NSW primary and secondary schools (O‘Dea, 2010) What stops you participating in PE, sport or physical activity?

Males (n=690)

Females (n=650)

% answering yes

% answering yes

Prefer to do other things

24

25

Don‘t like changing

22

25

Self-conscious about body

18

25

Don‘t have time

18

23

No-one to play with

15

23

Don‘t want to get hurt

13

12

Too tired

12

16

I am no good at it

11

15

Don‘t like to be hot and sweaty

10

25

Don‘t like the training

9

8

I have become bored with it

9

10

My parents don‘t have time

8

16

Others tease and laugh at me

7

10

My friends don‘t play

6

12

In discussing the results O‘Dea (2010) noted that the major barriers to physical education, sport and physical activity were similar between boys and girls, with a preference for other uses of their time; a dislike for changing in front of others and body consciousness being the 3 major concerns for both boys and girls. O‘Dea concluded


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that the data obtained ―clearly show the barriers that need to be overcome in order to improve participation in sport and physical activity among schoolchildren‖ (p.11). The studies reported to date in this review of literature have involved asking children about their perceptions of barriers to sport participation. Adopting a different perspective, Hardy, Kelly, Chapman, King and Farrell (2010) examined parents‘ perceptions on how cost, time, travel and the variety of organised sporting activities influenced their decisions to allow their child to participate in organised sport. Four hundred and two parents of children aged 5-17 years living in New South Wales participated in computerised assisted telephone interviews. The results of the interviews revealed that 63% of children participated in organised sport and, for parents of 512 year old children the decision to allow their child to participate was strongly influenced by time. In other findings, the financial costs associated with sport participation influenced families with lower incomes and girls. For rural families, the option of a wider variety of local sporting activities influenced parents‘ decisions about their child‘s participation in organised sport. Footwear and uniforms were reported as the main sporting related expense. It is noted that Hardy et al.‘s study limited its investigation to the factors cited (cost, time, travel and the variety of organised sporting activities) and did not ask parents to nominate any other influencing factors, issues or barriers.

3.4. INJURY AND SAFETY Consistent with Hardy et al.‘s (2010) approach to examine parent‘s perceptions about barriers to sport participation, an earlier study by Boufous and Bauman (2004) examined parents‘ perceptions about safety and injury concerns. Specifically, Boufous and Bauman examined the extent to which parents and carers perceive injury and safety risks as serious enough to prevent or discourage their children, aged 5-12 years, from participating in sport. An analysis of responses from 7936 parents or main carers who participated in a computerassisted telephone interview for the 2001 NSW Child Health Survey revealed that more than 25% reported discouraging or preventing their children from playing a particular sport because of injury or safety concerns. For boys, the most frequently discouraged sports were rugby league, rugby union, and Australian Rules football. For girls, the most frequently discouraged sports were rugby league and soccer. The findings of Boufous and Bauman (2004) are consistent with a growing body of publications that highlight sports injury as a barrier to sport participation (e.g., Deakin University, 2006; Gabbe, Finch & Camerion, 2007). In a recent study, Siesmaa, Blitvich, Telford & Finch (2011) examined the views of 43 children aged 9-17 years who were involved in an organised (after school) sport and played Australian football, badminton, golf, netball, soccer and swimming. Children were asked about the reasons for their continuation/discontinuation of sport and reported few concerns about the risk of injury while participating in sport. However, many children discussed not wanting to play contact sports such as boxing, Australian football or rugby perceiving these sports as being too rough and with an increased chance of injury. In further findings, the primary reasons cited by children for


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discontinuing a particular sport were due to dislike for the sport or because of injury-related factors. The injuries that were reported to have led children to discontinue their sport were mainly sustained in Australian football. Other reasons for discontinued sport participation included wanting time to do other things; having to travel long distances; desire to concentrate on one particular sport and not being distracted by other sports; not having a good trainer or coach; not enjoying training; time restrictions or because the children did not believe they were good enough to continue.

3.5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS A recent study examined socioeconomic position (SEP) as a barrier to sport participation. Dollman and Lewis (2010) surveyed 1737 South Australian children (aged 10-15 years) on their organised sport participation in the previous 12 months. The researchers found that SEP gradients were predictors of youth organised sport participation with the greater barriers to participation reported by low SEP parents. In particular, low SEP girls were the most disadvantaged in terms of parental support to participate in sport. Parental support included buying equipment, providing transport, encouragement and playing with their children. The findings of Dollman and Lewis (2010) are further strengthened in light of similar findings of the importance of socio-demographic factors as reported in an Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) research paper, Children‟s Participation in Organised Sporting Activity (ABS, 2009). This report analysed data in 3 successive instances of the Children‘s Participation in Cultural and Leisure Activities (CPCLA) surveys (2000, 2003 and 2006). Characteristics identified as most informative in explaining differences in sport participation rates for children aged 6-14 years include parent‘s country of birth, sex, capital city, family structure, parent‘s employment status and economic status of an area. In brief, children are less likely to participate in sport if they are overseas-born (versus Australian-born), female (versus male), live outside capital cities (versus in the larger cities), from a 1 parent (versus 2) family, and those families are without (versus with) a secure source of income living in a low (versus high) socioeconomic area. The research report also suggested that the decision to participate in organised sport was strongly associated with time allocated to television and computer use. It is noted that the report highlighted other possible factors not examined in the research (e.g., school support) might influence children‘s participation in sport. Two final comments about the Children‟s Participation in Organised Sporting Activity study (ABS, 2009) are relevant. First, it is noted that, contrary to its reported findings about participation for children living in capital cities or elsewhere, the recently released Sports and Physical Recreation: A Statistical Overview, Australia, 2011 (ABS, 2011) found the participation rates in sport and physical recreation of children living in capital cities and children living elsewhere in Australia to be similar at 63% and 64% respectively. Notwithstanding, the findings reported in Children‟s Participation in Organised Sporting Activity (ABS, 2009) are consistent with those revealed in a study by Olds, Dolman and Maher (2004 ) with 2200 9-16 year olds across Australia. This study identified


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strong gradients in sports participation for age, gender, weight status and SEP. Specifically, sports participation was found to be lower in: 

Girls than in boys



Older than in younger adolescents



Adolescents from lower income households (compared with adolescents from higher income households)



Obese adolescents (compared with non-obese adolescents)



Holiday and weekend time periods (compared with school days).

A study by Cleland, Venn, Fryer, Dwyer and Blizzard (2005) investigated whether parental exercise was associated with extracurricular sport participation. Data from 6659 children (aged 9-15 years) collected from the Australian Schools Health and Fitness Survey in 1985 were analysed. The study found that parental exercise was associated with children‘s extracurricular sports participation in both girls and boys. There was very little difference between the associations of mothers exercise compared to fathers‘ exercise with children‘s extracurricular sports participation.

3.6. GENDER 3.6.1. GIRLS A report on barriers to girls‘ participation in sport was presented to the Australian Senate in 2006. The publication, About time! Women in Sport and Recreation in Australia (Parliament of Australia, 2006) covered findings from extensive investigations and consultations with sporting organisations and personnel and relevant literature. The major barriers identified were: 

Poor body image and self-confidence – girls believed they lacked skills or competence.



Dress code – strict dress code in some sports was a deterrent together with feeling uncomfortable in certain sports attire.



Lack of positive role models – a lack of media coverage and promotion of women‘s sport reinforces the notion that sport is male dominated.



Role of family and peers – girls whose parents regularly exercise are more likely to continue to participate (particularly in case where mother exercises). Unflattering and unwelcoming comments from friends and peers are deterrents.



Physical education in schools – a lack of opportunity and quality physical education at school has a negative impact. Classes are often not geared to girls.


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The barriers identified in the About time! Women in Sport and Recreation in Australia (Australian Government, 2006) report were further supported by studies conducted by Evans (2008) and Slater and Tiggemann (2010). In the first study, Evans surveyed 558 secondary school students in NSW and found that the main reasons for dropping out of organised sport participation were not fun anymore, a lack of time and did not like the coach. Slater and Tiggemann conducted a number of focus groups with 49 girls aged 13-15 years and examined their reasons for ceasing participation in sport. Reasons cited by all focus groups were: losing interest or becoming bored with a particular sport, insufficient time, lack of competence, sport not available, injury, practical considerations (e.g., transport) and the coach. The influence of friends and family and issues relating to teammates and teasing were also mentioned by many of the groups. Sports attire was considered ‗not cool‘ or too revealing for many girls. Further, a number of girls highlighted their decreasing participation in sport after leaving primary school believing that sports were too competitive and they did not ‗fit in‘. With respect to the relevance of role models for girls participating in sport, Vescio, Crosswhite and Wilde‘s (2003) study shed some light on this issue. They conducted interviews and a survey with 357 girls (aged 9-17 years) and found that the majority of girls nominated a family member or friend as their role model (versus an elite sportsperson). Based on these findings the researchers concluded that non-elite role models play a pertinent role in the participation of sport by adolescent girls.

3.6.2. RURAL LIVING GIRLS Two recent studies, Casey, Eime, Payne and Harvey (2009) and Eime, Payne, Casey and Harvey (2010), have addressed barriers to participation in sport for rural living girls. In the first study, Casey et al. conducted focus group discussions with 34 girls aged 12-13 years who lived in rural Victoria. Participation in sport was negatively influenced by a perceived lack of self-competence which was affected by a range of social and organisational factors. Girls perceived they were limited in their choice of sports and access to sporting facilities. Teasing was a commonly identified problem, particularly in the school environment. Girls also reported that sport and physical education was often too competitive and rough with male teachers frequently thought to lack understanding of the girls‘ needs. In the second study, Eime et al., (2010) again adopted a focus group approach with 27 girls aged 16-17 from rural Victoria. A lack of time was a commonly reported barrier to participation in structured sport, resulting from the burden of school study and homework and increased interest in social activities. These activities frequently conflicted with the perceived inflexibility scheduling of club training and competition. A major barrier to participation in club sport was perceived lack of motor skill competency. With respect to physical education classes, reported barriers included mixed (gender) classes, having to change in and out of school uniform, not wanting to be hot and sweaty in school and a preference for studying while at school. Aggressive or unsupportive coaches were also a deterrent for some girls. Without parental support, the barrier of geographic remoteness was evident in relation to participating in club sport (e.g., travel costs). IS E A L , Vi c t o r i a Un i v e r s i t y  2 0 1 2

15


In summary, the study identified intrapersonal, interpersonal and organizational/environmental factors that negatively impact on sport participation for rural living adolescent girls. The researchers concluded that rural living adolescent girls are experiencing many life changes during this transitional time in their lives and the desire to be educationally successful seems to be a strong factor motivating change in sport participation.

3.6.3. GIRLS FROM LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE AND LOW INCOME BACKGROUNDS In a study of 38 girls (Year 11) from low income and predominantly linguistically diverse backgrounds in NSW, Dudley, Okely, Pearson and Peat (2010) recently highlighted barriers confronting these adolescent girls‘ participation in school sport. Key barriers included: 

Teacher knowledge and attitudes – teachers frequently had limited knowledge of sport and provided little motivation or role modelling.



Programming – too much time lost changing into sport uniforms and setting up equipment. There is a general lack of lesson planning and preparation by teachers.



Student input – a lack of input into the school‘s sporting curriculum (e.g., choice and duration of sports, wearing sports uniforms through the day etc) by students negatively impacted on participation.

3.6.4. CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE COMMUNITIES The Centre for Multicultural Youth Issues [CMYI], recently released a report on Good into Good Sports Inclusion Models for Young People from Linguistically Diverse Communities (The Centre for Multicultural Youth Issues & Garry Henshall & Associates, 2005). The purpose of this report was to identify barriers to participation in sport and recreation for this special population (aged 12-30 years) in order to develop good practice models. Barriers identified were listed as: 

Lack of inappropriate information provision



Language difficulties



Racial discrimination



Lack of parental support



Lack of money to pay fees, buy uniforms and equipment



Lack of or poor access to transportation



Lack of appropriate facilities



Specific religious or cultural reasons (e.g., where women‘s exposure of arms, legs or torso is considered inappropriate or where there are males present is not acceptable)


16




Lack of time (e.g., due to academic demands)



Lack of appropriate skills



Lack of awareness of particular sports



No interest in sport.

The report concluded that many young people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are reluctant to approach a sports club for the factors cited above and are more likely to participate in sport in the school setting. The Centre for Multicultural Youth Issues subsequently conducted a series of consultations and forums in 2007 to explore the role of sport and recreation in supporting refugees and migrant young people to ‗settle well‘ in Australia. This research is reported in Playing for the Future: The Role of Sport and Recreation in Supporting Refugee Young People to „Settle Well‟ in Australia (The Centre for Multicultural Youth Issues, 2007). Barriers to participation for newly arrived and refugee young people (aged 15-24 years) were identified as: a.

b.

c.

Structural barriers 

Unsustained once-off programs



Lack of inclusive and accessible programs



Inappropriate referral into programs through settlement services



Poor linkage between targeted sports programs and mainstream programs and competition



Poor access to transport, public space and facilities.

Mediating barriers 

Lack of inclusive practices



Resettlement experience



Lack of support from parents/guardians



Differences between the culture of sport in Australia and overseas



Racism and discrimination.

Personal Barriers 

Lack of time and competition from other commitments



Financial constraints



Not knowing the particular rules of the game.

3.7. SPORT AND SCHOOLS 3.7.1. PHYSICAL EDUCATION While some of the studies cited above (e.g., Eime et al., 2010; Dudley et al., 2010) make reference to barriers to participation in physical education at school, only one known study specifically examines such barriers. Recently


17


Jenkinson and Benson (2010) conducted an on-line questionnaire study with 115 Victorian physical education teachers to identify barriers they believed impacted on student participation in school-based physical education. Teachers nominated the main barriers (listed in order of importance) as: 

Crowded curriculum



Lack of facilities



Difficulty engaging students



Students have low level of interest in physical education and physical activity



Peer pressure



Sport/physical activity not priorities in school



Focus on too many traditional sports



Past negative experiences with physical education



Large class sizes



The school environment does not encourage physical activity



Cost of subject



Staff use outdated teaching methods



Physical education/sport staffs provide limited activity time



Semesterisation of units



Outdated curriculum



Lack of equipment.

The researchers of this study noted that Victorian state secondary schools are required to timetable and provide compulsory physical education from Year 7 to Year 10 (approximate ages 12-16 years). This mandate is not however always met (Jenkinson & Benson, 2009) suggesting that the gap between actual policy and implementation may be quite widespread with conflicting interests competing for timetable and curriculum space. This observation is supported by Morgan and Hansen (2008) who found in their study with 31 NSW classroom teachers that the crowded curriculum and pressure to teach a number of subjects made the implementation of physical education programs particularly difficult. Competition with other subjects was found to be the main barrier preventing teachers from incorporating regular and sufficient physical education into their weekly program. Other barriers to teaching physical education that were identified included a lack of funding to support physical education programs and poor expertise/qualifications of teachers to conduct these programs. Teachers in the study identified that the key consequences of perceived barriers were: (a) reduced time spent teaching physical education, and (b) variations in the type and/or quality of physical education programs delivered. This


18


study‘s findings are consistent with Pill‘s (2006) contention that ―without doubt, the number one barrier to physical activity is schools is the perception that time spent in activity such as physical education will undermine academic learning‘ (p. 39).

3.7.2. SCHOOL SPORT A report on the Future Development of School Sport and Physical Activity (Ministerial Review Committee for School Sports and Physical Activity, 2007) identifies a number of barriers preventing students from participating in school sport and physical activity programs. The report covered analyses of data collected from 270 schools, sporting organisations, school sports officers and school sports committees across Queensland. Five common barriers across these groups and barriers identified by participants of the School Sport and Physical Activity Forum (July, 2006) were: (1)

Financial – including costs of participating, equipment, hiring facilities, uniforms, specialist coaches etc.

(2)

Workforce – related to the workforce capacity to deliver sport including a lack of skills, training and qualifications of teachers, pressure on teachers due to travel and working across schools etc.

(3)

Time – a lack of time within the school curriculum devoted to sport due to competing priorities within the school system and distance to competition.

(4)

Resource – availability and accessibility to specialised facilities, equipment and expert sporting professionals.

(5)

Cultural – school sport lacked value when compared with other learning areas, many students unwilling to participate and a lack of reporting accountability meaning sport is not always a priority.

3.7.3. ACTIVE AFTER-SCHOOL COMMUNITIES PROGRAM The report School‟s Out, Get Active: Learnings from the Out of School Hours Sports Program (Victorian Health Promotion Foundation, 2006) found few barriers to children‘s participation in the program. The Out of School Hours Sports Program (OSHSP) was a joint initiative of the ASC and the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation that provides children with an opportunity to participate in sporting experiences. Cost was considered a barrier for some families as was transport to local club sport. The OSHSP has now been replaced by the Active After School Communities (AASC) program. This program is funded by the Australian government and provides primary school-aged children with access to quality, fun, safe, inclusive and structure physical activity in the after-school timeslot of 3-5.30pm. The program is designed to encourage traditionally non-active children into physical activity and to build pathways with local community organisations (Australian Sports Commission, 2005).


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A report evaluating the AASC (Australian Sports Commission, 2008) identified barriers for children transferring to club sport include cost, parental time constraints, travel and transport issues. These findings are consistent with those reported in Evaluation of AASC Program: Community Case Study – Vasse Community (Colmar Brunton Social Research, 2008). In this report commissioned by the ASC to evaluate the Active After-school Communities program, barriers to children taking part in sport and physical activities were transport issues, children‘s preference for video and computer games, a lack of volunteers or coaches, lack of parental knowledge and the weather. Spittle, O‘Meara, Garnham and Kerr (2008) conducted a study where they surveyed 556 Victorian parents and children. While the Out of School Hours Sports Program aimed to provide community links to local clubs for continued involvement in sport, these researchers found that competing activities, including participation in other sports, might be barriers to transition from the program to junior membership with local clubs. There was limited support for children making the transition to participation in sport at a local club. The difficulty in transferring participation in school-based sports programs to sustained participation in community club sport was also explored by Eime and Payne (2009). They surveyed 49 Victorian Sports Governing Organisations and found that barriers linking school programs to clubs included: difficulties for volunteers to assist with programs during school time, parents not wanting to commit to clubs on weekends, participation and travel costs, a lack of interest to promote the transfer of participants into clubs, and clubs were not interested in contacting program participants. The researchers concluded that there was ―an absence of formal links between school-based sports programs and local community sporting organisations despite the state objective being to promote community-based sports participation … In general, it is apparent that the school-based programs are delivered in a manner that is not integrated into the broader community context‖ (p.297). The Active After-school Communities Program was extensively examined in The Future of Sport in Australia report (Australian Government, 2009). It was concluded that ―a major criticism of the program from some sporting organisations was that it does not necessarily lead to an increase in participation at the organised sport level‖ (p125). It is noted that The Future of Sport in Australia report (Australian Government, 2009) addressed the issues identified by Jenkinson and Benson (2010), Jenkinson and Benson (2009), and Morgan and Hansen (2008). The report concluded: 

Physical activity enhances academic and other educational outcomes.



There was no formal accountability and reporting to the Australian Government on the previous requirement to include two hours of physical activity per week in school hours as a condition of Australian Government funding.



There are inadequate numbers of teachers trained to deliver physical education in our schools.



Local sporting organisations have difficulty gaining access to school and other educational facilities.



The Active After-School Communities program needs to be reviewed before a decision is made on its future‖ (p.145-146).


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3.8 INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES The searches of the databases and other avenues conducted in this review of the literature revealed no specific studies on sport participation by indigenous children and youth. It is however noted that a study exists that explored perceived barriers to physical activity of young people living in remote communities in the Torres Strait and Northern Peninsula Area of Far North Queensland (Abbott, Jenkins, Haswell-Elkins, Fell, MacDonald & Cerin, 2008). In this study of 367 children (aged 9-16 years) the barriers to physical activity identified were: 

It‘s too hot and sweaty



Don‘t have the equipment for the things I want to play



I don‘t feel like it, not motivated



My friends aren‘t active



Shyness, embarrassment



Fear of dogs



Activities aren‘t organised for us



Don‘t want to wear sports clothes



I have health problems so I can‘t.

3.9. CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES The searches of the databases and other avenues conducted in this Literature Review revealed no specific studies on sport participation by Australian children/youth with disabilities. This void suggests a potential and vital area for future sport researchers. It is however noted that Downs and Briffa (2004) completed a review of the literature on levels of physical activity in children with disabilities. This concluded that there was a range of physiological, psychological, socio-cultural and ecological barriers that negated the ability of children with disabilities to establish regular patters of participation in physical activity.

3.10. SPORT AND GOVERNMENT REPORT AND STATISTICS The Future of Sport in Australia report (Australian Government, 2009) clearly contends that the underpinning premise of participation in physical education and sport for school aged children and youth in ―activities must be fun, enjoyable and accessible‖ (p.27). To this end, the report sets out a detailed submission of recommendations. One of the central themes is ―the need to reunite sport and the education system‖ (p.11). Other


21


recommendations further highlight a resolve to address barriers in order that Australian children and youth can be actively involved and engaged in physical education and sport. It is evident that recommendations contained in The Future of Sport in Australia report (Australian Government, 2009) are drawn heavily from the findings reported in Independent Sport Panel: Report on Community Consultations Forums March –May 2009 (Independent Sports Panel, 2009). This section of the literature review highlights barriers cited in these reports. It is not intended that this overview will cover all barriers to sport participation but rather highlights those that appear to impact directly on participation in physical education and sport for Australian school aged children and youth. Barriers cited in The Future of Sport in Australia (Australian Government, 2009) and Independent Sport Panel: Report on Community Consultations Forums March –May 2009 (Independent Sports Panel, 2009) are classified as Education, Social-demographic, Infrastructure and Cost. A. Sport and Education Barriers A wide-ranging number of barriers relating to sport and education include: 

Changing nature of sport within the education system with limited compulsory physical activity.



Not enough consistency in the application of physical education in Australian schools.



Limited compulsory physical activity currently in schools.



Number of qualified physical education teachers in primary and secondary schools decreasing.



Overcrowded curriculums make sport an easy target for removal as educational outcomes not obvious.



Discretion given to schools as to how physical education outcomes are achieved has added to declining standards in physical education across Australia.



Preparation time pressures.



Shortage of equipment.



Fears of accident and injury.



Area of interest from relevant teachers limits class participation.



Physical education degrees now usually combined with other health and personal development modules (led to moving physical education teacher away from pure sport focus).



Lack of sporting programs aimed at high school children.



Lack of children transferring from the Active After School Community program to participation in organised community sport.



The Active After School Community program viewed by some as a replacement to sport in school.


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B. Social and Demographic Barriers A wide-ranging set of barriers include: 

Changing family dynamics and increased number of single parent families.



‗Low activity‘ families (those with low sporting participation rates).



Increased number of people from culturally diverse backgrounds.



Changed higher paced society that is considered ‗time poor‘ (thereby affecting children who are required to attend training or competition during weekends).



Changing nature of participation including involvement in non-organised and less ‗traditional‘ sporting activities.



Lifestyle factors such as study, social commitments, career aspirations and part-time work impact on teenagers‘ dedication to sport.



Trend away from participation in organised, club based sporting participation to informal, community sporting or physical recreation activities.



Changing priorities of teenagers as they complete school, begin to work and become more involved in other activities.



Trend for teenagers to place less emphasis on sport participation and more on social activities.



Increased involvement by juniors in ‗non-traditional‘ sports.



Propensity for some students to focus on academic pursuits in final years of schooling.



Competing teenage commitments with compelling evidence of range of entertainment and recreational activities with which sport now competes.



Injuries.



Lack of interest.



Travel time.



Lack of accessible (regionally active) sporting role models for teenagers.



Poor body image and low self-esteem (particularly for girls).

C. Infrastructure Barriers Key barriers include: 

Lack of provision and access to sporting facilities.



Local sporting organisations have difficulty gaining access to schools and other educational facilities.



Impact of climate change and therefore the lack of water to adequately maintain sporting fields.


23


D. Cost Barriers Key barriers include: 

Increasing costs of sport including equipment, registration fees, insurance costs and uniforms.



Increasing cost of travel to sporting venues particularly in rural and regional Australia.



Increased number of families defined as working poor.

3.11. CONCLUSIONS An extensive array of barriers has been identified in The Future of Sport in Australia report (Australian Government, 2009). It is noted that such barriers are consistent with: 

Constraints on participation identified in the documents Participation in Sports and Physical Recreation, Australia, 2005-2006 (ABS, 2007a) and Motivators and Constraints to Participation in Sports and Physical Recreation (ABS, 2007b). In the first it is reported that 47% of people aged 15-17 years indicated a lack of interest as their main reason for not participating in sport and physical recreation activity. Insufficient time due to work or study commitments was the main reason most commonly indicated for those aged 18-24 years. In the latter document the main constraints to participation in sports and physical recreation for youth 15 – 24 years were also ‗not interested‘ and ‗insufficient time due to work/study‘.



Research findings of this review of the literature.

The implications of this literature review suggest that the development of the NSES can look to The Future of Sport in Australia report (Australian Government, 2009) and have considerable confidence in its findings. Recent children/youth sport participation research provides consistent and substantial support for those barriers identified in this Australian Government report. As such, the recommendations contained in The Future of Sport in Australia can justifiably form the basis and a framework for a NSES. Strategies to remove existing barriers to sport participation by Australian children and youth are required. This review of the literature suggests such strategies need to address the broad and varied existing barriers. There is evidence to suggest that the epicentre of these strategies is rightfully physical education and sport in our education system. The key here is to restore the education system to its historical role of introducing children to sport, and in doing so, to be the strong platform upon which much of Australia‘s sporting activity for this country‘s children and youth is based.


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4.1. SUCCESSFUL MODELS OF DELIVERY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, SPORT AND ORGANIZED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PROGRAMS THROUGH AND AROUND THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT One of the key objectives outlined in the Australian Government‘s (2010) new directions for sport, Australian Sport: the Pathways to Success document, is to “increase the role and effectiveness of sport in schools and to boost the number of our children participating in our sporting base” (p.2). This document also specifies that the Australian Government ―will deliver‖ a National Sport and Education Strategy (NSES) ―that firmly embeds quality sport and physical education in our schools‖ (p.3). It is therefore timely to consider which model(s) is appropriate for quality teaching and learning of sport and physical education. Based on the tenants of Constructivist Learning Theory the following approaches to physical education and sports coaching have been developed: Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU), Game Sense (Light & Dixon, 2007, Bunker & Thorpe, 1982) and Sport Education (den Duyen, 1996; Light, 2004). More recently, the Playing for life (P4L) modified games approach, based on the philosophy of Game Sense, is used by the Active AfterSchool Communities (AASC) program (Australian Sport Commission (ASC), 2010b). These approaches are designed to provide ―authentic and educationally valid sport experiences in school physical education within the time allocated to physical education‖ (p.29, Alexander & Penney, 2005; Siedentop, 1994, cited in Pill, 2010b). In addition, they are considered holistic in nature, being student-centered and inquiry-based (Light & Dixon, 2007), and have the capacity to engage students in meaningful and enjoyable physical activity, social interaction, problem-solving and decision-making (Dyson, Griffin & Hastie, 2004; Wright & Forrest, 2007). This is an extremely important consideration given the program of instruction (curriculum), and the way it is enacted (pedagogy) determine the participant‘s engagement with the sport experience in school and beyond (Drummond & Pill, 2011). Current researchers acknowledge and support ―the use of ―a ‗tool kit‘ of instructional strategies to meet specific task outcomes and in order to create a menu of learning experience‖ (p.5, Pill, 2011b). Furthermore, there are aspects of TGFU, Game Sense and P4L that are not distinctive instructional strategies, for example, use of questioning and modified games (Pill, 2011b). However, what the literature does tell us is that current teaching of sport and physical education in Australia continues to embraced the ‗skill/drill‘ focus of what is variably known as the ‗technical‘ (Griffin, 2005), ‗multi-activity‘, ‗dominant‘, or ‗traditional‘ model of teaching (Light, 2006; Pill, 2011a). In support for a move away from the ‗traditional‘ mode of teaching physical education, Drummond and Pill (2011) highlighted concerns such as the way this approach marginalises the knowledge of sport, it makes it ‗too difficult‘ for both teachers and students and has failed to reach its potential for making an effective educational impact. In support, Light and Dixon (2007) concluded that, ―recent developments in learning theory confirm that the traditional model of teaching as the transmission of knowledge is outdated and ineffective‖ (p.172). Althoug some elements of the skill drill may need to occur for technique refinement to occur (Pill &


25


Priest, 2009). Unfortunately, there is still an assumption that ―the fundamental technique needs to be developed before playing the game‖ (p.171, Light, 2004). While there is considerable debate over ‗what is physical education‘ (Smith, 2011), Pill (2010a) has put forward the concept of Sport Literacy as a ―contemporary response to curriculum design and pedagogical issues in physical education sport teaching‖ (p.33); specifically, -“learning through, about and for sport in physical education” (p.32, Pill, 2009, cited in Pill, 2010a). Similarly, Kirk (2010) argues the idea of physical education as sport-techniques ―could secure the long term future of physical education as a school subject‖ (p.28, cited in Smith, 2011). As such, the aim of this literature review is to present descriptions, and supporting empirical evidence, of the most pervasive model‘s of physical education that demonstrate ‗quality teaching‘ utilising sport as the vehicle for learning.

4.2. METHOD SUCCESSFUL MODELS OF DELIVERY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, SPORT AND ORGANIZED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PROGRAMS THROUGH AND AROUND THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT The search strategy included searching several databases and the ASC/National Sports Information Centre (NSIC) records. The internet was used to locate relevant studies. In addition, reference lists of included studies were examined for potentially outstanding studies. Primary authors of included papers were contacted as required for additional information. For databases searched, key words and search terms refer to Appendix I The National Sports Information Centre records of the Australian Sports Commission were searched to identify relevant reports, publications and research not located through the search of the 10 electronic databases cited above. Further, we conducted an internet search using the Google search engine (www.google.com) to locate studies in the Medicine, Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities subject areas. Where additional information or clarification of material was required, authors of publications were contacted. These search strategies yielded an additional 10 papers. Each search strategy utilised the 10 electronic databases. The first search revealed 119 potentially relevant publications/‘hits‘. This number was reduced to 48 when the search was restricted to peer-reviewed full-text publications between 2000 and 2010 with duplicates from the databases removed. Endnote (version 9) was used to review all the titles and abstracts against the inclusion criteria and relevant documents were removed. We subsequently assessed the full-text of all possible publications to ensure those ultimately selected met all the inclusion criteria. Where discrepancies existed, discussion amongst the authors occurred until consensus was reached. The parcel of publications identified in the searches of the databases, NSIC and Google were then examined for duplicates. Duplicates were removed with the reference lists of the resultant set of publications then manually


26


searched to identify any outstanding relevant literature. In total, 15 empirical studies satisfied the inclusion criteria. During the second search the key terms of the search (see above) were restricted to peer-reviewed full-text publications between 2000–2011 from the onset. This second search revealed 5 additional papers included herein, following review of abstracts using the inclusion criteria and removing any duplicates found in the initial search. Criteria for considering studies for this review refer to Appendix J.

4.3. RESULTS/DISCUSSION SUCCESSFUL MODELS OF PE DELIVERY AND ORGANISED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY The following Literature Review presents descriptions and research on the most pervasive and recognised models of delivery of physical education, sport and organised physical activity programs through and around the school environment in Australia, between 2000 and 2011, namely: TGfU / Game Sense, Sport Education, Hybrid Sport Education and TGfU, and Playing for Life.

4.3.1. TGFU AND GAME SENSE TGfU is a pedagogical approach to teaching games developed from the work of David Bunker and Rod Thorpe at Loughborough University during the 1970s and early 1980s (Bunker & Thorpe, 1982). At the heart of this approach is the use of modified games to suit the developmental level of the learners. As described by Light and Dixon (2007), TGfU views learning games as a holistic process to place all learning within modified games and uses questioning of learners in place of instructing them. The teacher designs a learning environment and encourages students to work together to solve the problems that typically arise in any game. As such, TGfU shifts the teaching emphasis from technique to total performance in a game situation. In doing so, it turns traditional teaching/coaching ‗upside down‘ by starting with the game versus the skills of the game. Game Sense (den Duyen, 1996) is an Australian variation of TGfU which aims to develop ‗thinking players‘. Game Sense was introduced in the mid 1990s when Rod Thorpe regularly visited Australia and consulted with the ASC and Australian coaches to develop a systematic approach to coaching. Game Sense is currently used as the model for junior sport teaching and is embedded in coach education programs throughout Australia. In terms of exposure, TGfU and Game Sense are yet to make a substantive impact within school physical education programs (Pill, 2011a). Despite being recognised as an effective model for the teaching of games and sport in New South Wales and Tasmanian schools and its ‗tactical‘ approach is the preferred curriculum design model in the Queensland curriculum Source Book Sport Modules and Western Australian Senior Physical Education curriculum (Pill, 2011b).


27


A modest study (n=8) conducted by Georgakis and Light (2009) using student drawings to elicit dialogue with students during and following a term of a Game Sense approach to cricket found that students attitudes toward cricket, relationships and social interactions with peers had all improved. In addition, improvements in ―game play, enthusiasm, interaction and motivation‖ (p.26) were also noted, despite not being an aim of the study. In support, Chen and Light (2006) found Game Sense had a significant and positive impact upon the children‘s attitudes toward sport and social relations within the class and in the children‘s game play. Most children reported the experience was ‗really fun‘. The social interaction stimulated by Game Sense helped the children to feel needed, encouraged and supported by their classmates. They felt that they had participated in the decisionmaking process of the games and contributed to the team effort. The new-found enthusiasm of the ‗less sporty‘ children toward sport led the researchers to propose that Game Sense appears to “offer a means through which teachers can provide enjoyable, inclusive experiences of sport that can contribute toward making sport more meaningful and a more attractive social and physical activity” (p.57). Nash‘s (2009) examination of 118 pre-service teachers‘ perceptions of TGfU over a three year period revealed positive affirmation for TGfU pedagogy. Teachers reported that on the whole they had developed a sound understanding of the TGfU model and how it can be used to enhance student‘s experience of physical education lessons. Positive outcomes for teachers who participated in a TGfU elective included an increase in selfconfidence, pedagogic content knowledge, communication skills and behaviour management strategies. Such were the positive outcomes achieved Nash concluded that the teachers had improved their physical education teaching capabilities and established emerging habits of collaborative critical reflective practice as a result of completing the TGfU-focused physical education elective. Mirroring Nash‘s (2009) findings, Light and Georgakis (2005) also found pre-service education teachers reporting positive outcomes from a unit of study on Game Sense teaching in a primary teacher education program. There was a significant change in teacher confidence and inclination to teach physical education and a marked change in perceptions of physical education‘s value in the primary school curriculum. The researchers proposed that the teachers‘ positive responses were primarily a result of their recognition of Game Sense pedagogy as being able to provide a means though which they could teach physical education and link it to classroom practice. The critical role of planning advocated in a TGfU and Game Sense approach was highlighted in Randall‘s (2003) study with 13 pre-service secondary physical education teachers. This study found that teachers frequently viewed lesson planning as unnecessary believing their own knowledge of games was sufficient to conducting effective sessions. In further findings, teachers reported being confused about teaching skills and tactics concurrently in a game context rather than the traditional skill instruction, practice and game approach. Randall concluded that the study‘s findings suggest that pre-service teachers struggle to comprehend and execute TGfU and Game Sense. Brooker, Kirk, Braiuka and Bransgrove (2000) investigated Game Sense in a basketball unit in lower secondary school. In this study a familiarity with both the theoretical assumptions and pedagogical elements of Game


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Sense was necessary for teacher confidence to use of this approach. These findings are consistent with Pill‘s (2011b) in that a barrier to adopting a TGfU is a lack of understanding, experience and teaching ability (Pill, 2011b). In addition, Pill (2011b) found the use of questioning was generally not planned for in teacher lesson preparation and lesson planning did not utilise TGfU and Game Sense categories. Pill (2011b) concluded that TGfU and Game Sense has not substantially influenced the physical education teaching practice of the teachers surveyed although some instructional elements consistent with TGfU and Game Sense were common practice. Given the study‘s findings Pill advocated for more research to demonstrate how TGfU and Game Sense achieves enhanced learning. These sentiments had been earlier expressed by Griffin, Brooker and Patton (2005) who contented, ―the case for legitimacy will only improve with more databases work‖ (p.213). A number of studies listed in Appendix K have examined TGfU and Game Sense from a coaches perspective. Light‘s (2004) interviews with experienced coaches and coach educators in Victoria and ACT highlight the capabilities of Game Sense to develop more complete players, yet suggest implementation of this approach may not be an easy task. The experiences of coaches in this study indicated that coaches interested in moving from a technique-focused approach to a Game Sense approach are likely to face difficulties. These difficulties are thought to arise because Game Sense challenges the values and beliefs of coaching cultures and structures. Notwithstanding this challenge, Light proposes that Game Sense has the potential to ‗light up the sport‘ for persons of all ages and abilities. He concludes that further research into the subjective and social nature of coaching will assist and encourage the implementation of Game Sense that holds such promise for children‘s and youth sport. Addressing Light‘s (2004) call for additional research, Evan‘s (2006) examined the impact of Game Sense and game-based training has had on elite level rugby coaching in Australia. While the four elite level rugby coaches in the study reported they used games in their training and see it as a valuable part of their training regimes, they did not actually take up Game Sense pedagogy. Evans suggested that reluctance to do so was a result of the conflict of beliefs about good coaching. Specifically, the player-centred, inquiry based approach of Game Sense was thought to be at odds with the coaches‘ commonsense assumptions about learning (via instruction). Evans concurred with Light‘s suggestion that, while many coaches in Australia have long used games as an important part of their daily teaching, they do not necessarily adopt Game Sense‘s innovative pedagogy. Further discussion of these sentiments was subsequently presented in Light and Evans‘ (2010) recent publication. Light and Evans (2010) suggest that Game Sense has had an influence on coaching in Australia, helped by its initial promotion by the ASC and the resources supporting it (de Duyn, 1997; Light, 2004). Notwithstanding this influence, the authors suggest that Game Sense‘s most distinctive feature – its player-centred pedagogy – has had far less impact than its emphasis on the use of modified games. This contention is consistent with Evans and Light‘s (2008) findings of a study with a rugby coach where elements of Game Sense were effectively used in elite level rugby coaching.


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Gabbett, Jenkins and Abernethy‘s (2009) recently published a review of the literature on game-based training. These researchers concluded that although there are few studies that have investigated the effectiveness of game-based training, most have reported that it offers coaches an effective method of conditioning for teamsport competition. Available evidence suggests that game-based training results in comparable (and in some cases, greater) improvements in physical fitness and performance than traditional conditioning activities. Further, game-based training has been associated with greater cognitive effort. The extent, and key findings, of Australian research of TGfU and Game Sense since 2000 is illustrated in Appendix K. We would like to mention that these studies are not without limitations. For example the study by Pill (2011b) although consisting of an adequate sample size was only conducted in one Australian state. Only one of the studies was conducted with primary school children (Chen & Light, 2006) and the method used in this study to extract information, children‘s drawings, is not without limitations. In the study by Georgakis and Light (2009) student selection was based on the subjective opinion of the teacher. Finally, the research is characterised by small sample sizes and the lack of generalizability due to use of coaches or students participating in only one sport.

4.3.2. SPORT EDUCATION Sport Education is an instructional model developed by Siedentop (1994) as an alternative to the dominant multiactivity physical education curriculum model. Sport Education is also referred to as SEPEP – the Sport Education in Physical Education Program (Pill, 2010b). In Australia, SEPEP‘s originated in 1995 from a trial of Sport Education by Edith Cowan University‘s Sport and Physical Activity Research Centre (SPARC) and the Western Australian Ministries of Education, Sport and Recreation (Pill, 2010b). Sport Education/SEPEP link the sport taught in physical education to the wider sporting community and emphasises experience that is relevant to the real world of sport (Siedentop, 1994). In brief, the approach seeks to emulate the structure of community-based sports clubs within which students take on a range of roles that are typically found in a club (e.g., coach, players, manager, trainer, etc). The teacher sets up the structure of the ‗club‘ and gradually steps back to allow students to take over the running of the club (including practice and competition between teams) over a school term. This involves collective problem solving and organisational skills required to manage the ‗club‘ (and its personnel) effectively (Pill, 2010b). AFL Sport Education is currently an example that applies the curriculum intentions and features of the Sport Education model in a comprehensively resourced AFL football curriculum package (Pill, 2010c). A limited number of Australian studies have addressed Sport Education since 2000. The most extensive research thus far conducted by Alexander and Lucknow (2001) surveyed 377 primary and secondary physical education teachers to discover how teachers implemented this model and whether it produced better learning outcomes. Feedback from teachers using the Sport Education model was ‗overwhelmingly positive‘. Specifically,


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teachers reported student outcomes on a range of measures (including knowledge of rules, strategy and fitness, values and attitudes towards physical education, interest in physical education, level of participation, motor skill development, interpersonal skills and appropriate behaviour) was better than under their previous approach to teaching sport in physical education (Alexander & Lucknow, 2001). Further to the student outcomes identified in the study by Alexander and Lucknow (2001), teachers reported that Sport Education had provided a positive contribution to their repertoire of pedagogical skills and to their overall professional development. In addition, all teachers reported being able to justify a Sport Education focused physical education unit in the school curriculum. In discussing the study‘s findings, the researchers concluded that their study provides support for the view that Sport Education can be an exemplary context for pursuing a wider range of learning outcomes than Physical Education has traditional sought and achieved. Specifically: “This study adds weight to the argument that Sport Education is an adequately theorised, empirically supported curriculum model and pedagogy for contemporary school PE. We believe there is now enough evidence of its successful application across a range of contexts for it to be a mandatory inclusion in the professional preparation of PE teachers” (p.262-263). Similarly, a ‗teaching experiment‘ conducted by Pill (2008) investigated a teachers‘ perceptions of Sport Education following the implementation of a Basketball season conducted over one term. In this study, the teacher reported a broad range of outcomes such as the inclusive nature of Sport Education, ―heightened attention and motivation levels for most of the students‖ (p.24), an increase in student participation and a decrease in behaviour management. In support, Spittle and Bryne (2009) in their investigation on the influence of Sport Education on student motivation in secondary physical education found the Sport Education condition was more successful in maintaining high levels of intrinsic motivation and significant differences in perceived competence, task orientation and mastery climate than the ‗traditional‘ condition. However, there were no significant differences between the conditions on interest, enjoyment, effort, importance, pressure, tension, egoorientation or performance climate. In their discussion of the results, the researchers concluded that it is important that teachers use the most effective instructional approach for enhancing student motivation. Adopting a case study approach, Pill (2008) found Sport Education provide an enhanced climate of inclusion and motivation for a group of Year 6 and 7 primary school students. The teacher in this study reported increased attention and motivation for most students during the Sport Education season compared to the previous physical education curriculum. Further, students were more supportive and inclined to help others and exhibited improved independence in the co-curricular sport setting. In other findings, the Sport Education season facilitated a broad range of curriculum outcomes because of its extensive requirement for tasks and activities. Pill (2010b) found that those students who were previously ‗reluctant to participate‘, reported a range of positive responses, such as feeling included, challenged and more motivated to participate when the Sport Education model was adopted. Furthermore, participation in the Sport Education program was thought to be different and


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enjoyable. They were generally supportive of the team roles and responsibilities but did not see an application for what they learnt outside of the Sport Education class. These findings led Pill (2010b) to conclude that, “when Sport Education is taught by an experienced physical education teacher it is a curriculum model providing the potential for productive learning for primary school aged children” (p.35). Appendix L provides an overview of Australian research on Sport Education. This research is not without some important limitations. For example, Pill (2010) acknowledged the lack of validity in the methodology of this study. He proposed that this was necessary to be ‗situated and contextual to the needs of the teacher (p.32) and that this was reasonable in curriculum development. Also, the experimental conditions in the study conducted by Spittle and Byrne (2009) were different. The Sport Education condition was 10 weeks and the ‗traditional‘ condition was 5 weeks. Finally, there are issues with the generalizability of results in the different studies.

4.3.3. HYBRID SPORT EDUCATION AND TGFU A combination or hybrid Sport Education and TGfU approach was trialed by Hastie and Curtner-Smith (2007) with 29 Year 6 Australian primary school students (see Appendix M). The organisational structure of the sport unit in this study was pure Sport Education however the main pedagogical style employed was pure TGfU. The study found students responded well to the myriad of problems they were asked to solve and were able to execute a range of skills at the conclusion of the sessions. Combining Sport Education and TGfU did however place more emphasis on the teacher to drive and give momentum to the sessions and therefore teaching was more labour-intensive. Hastie et al. (2007) concluded that to be successful when delivering a hybrid Sport Education – TGfU unit, a teacher would have to possess superior content and pedagogical content knowledge. The notion of a possible hybrid approach is consistent with Dyson, Griffin and Hastie (2004) paper on theoretical and pedagogical considerations in physical education. These authors contend that, although Sport Education and Tactical Games/TGfU are considered mutually exclusive approaches to teaching, they actually inform practices within the other model. Further exploration of this hybrid possibility remains outside the scope of this literature review however personal communications with Shane Pill (2011) highlight the misconception held by many who see the issue of pedagogy as Sport Education / TGfU / Game Sense versus direct skill teaching. According to Pill, this is inconsistent with the principles of these emerging models. Rather Pill contends, the consideration is when to use each respective model to best progress individual and team game competencies. In this context, a ‗blended‘ Sport Education / Game Sense framework would appear to be a sound option. Hastie and Curtner-Smith (2006) also identified some issues and challenges when conducting research in this area. They included the lack of skills in some students (pitching/bowling), insufficient time – 30 minute lessons, teachers needing superior content and pedagogical content knowledge and the implications of using this approach for Physical Education Teacher Education.


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4.3.4. PLAYING FOR LIFE (P4L) Despite an extensive search, no peer-reviewed publications were found on P4L. However, the ASC (2011a) commissioned Newspoll to conduct an independent evaluation (program monitoring research) on the AASC program in 2009, 2010 and 2011. In 2009 and 2010 a national survey of parents of participants and nonparticipants of the program (n=850), schools OSHCS, program coaches and staff was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the program delivery and the impact the program had on the children (ASC, 2011a). During 2011, the program extended its evaluation to include12 case studies with the aim of finding the factors associated with successful implementation of the program. The aim of the P4L approach is ―to develop skills through fun, game like activities in a variety of sports and physical activities‖ (ASC, 2010b). The key findings of the research conducted by Newspoll (ASC, 2010b), which are relevant to this literature review, are: 

The P4L philosophy is the ‗key‘ to the AASC‘s programs success.



Parents of participating children and other stakeholders believed the program was having an impact on children in terms of physical activity levels, attitudes toward physical activity, and propensity to join a sports club (p.3).



A decrease in sedentary activity in the hours after school (p.2).



Playing for Life companion books and games resources were seen as very useful by those who had received them‖ (p.5).



―Between 2009 and 2010, however, the proportion of regional coordinators who felt confident training and appraising community coaches in Playing for Life had increased and the majority were confident doing this‖ (p.5).

While there is no empirical evidence of P4L, the program monitoring research conducted thus far provides substantial support for further implementation and research into P4L ‗within‘ a school hours.

4.4. CONCLUSION SUCCESSFUL MODELS OF DELIVERY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, SPORT AND ORGANIZED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PROGRAMS THROUGH AND AROUND THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT The relevance of TGfU and Sport Education for junior sport is presented in the Australian Sports Commission publication, Junior Sport Matters: Briefing Papers for Australian Junior Sport (2007). In this publication MacDonald, Cote and Kirk present an overview of overseas research findings with respect to each model. It is appropriate to highlight this overview as it provides additional insight into the respective potential of TGfU and Sport Education for junior sport in Australia.


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With respect to TGfU, MacDonald et al. (2007) contend that the most powerful findings across international studies are that learners perform better on tests of strategic knowledge when taught from a TGfU compared to a technique-based approach, enjoy it more and may be more highly likely to participate. As articulated by den Duyn (1996), ―probably the best reason for adopting a game sense approach is that games are challenging and fun!‖ (p.7). According to MacDonald et al. (2007), Sport Education provides a more meaningful experience of physical education for young people that the traditional model and higher levels of positive identification with school physical education. Sport Education has also been shown to deliver improvements in (a) the development of technique, tactical decision making and understanding of sports and games; and (b) young people‘s abilities to provide peer support and tolerance of different levels of ability. Finally, it is suggested that Sport Education enriches learning experiences for all categories of young participants including ‗lower-skilled‘ young people. MacDonald et al. (2007) concluded that ―junior sport could benefit from incorporating some aspects of Sport Education into its pedagogies‖ (p.35). A hybrid TGfU and Sport Education model has also emerged in the literature and despite having TGfU as the dominant pedagogical style employed in this study (Hastie & Curtner-Smith, 2006). This certainly supports the notion of creating a learning environment, which uses a variety of pedagogical strategies that are student centred and not teacher driven (Pill, 2011b).


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MacDonald, D., Cote, J., & Kirk, D. (2007). Physical activity pedagogy for junior sport. In Junior Sport Matters (p28-40). Briefing paper for Australian Junior Sport. Belconnen: Australia Sports Commission. MacDougall, C., Schiller, W. & Darbyshire, P. (2004). We have to live in the future. Early Childhood Development and Care, 174(4), 369-387. Maynard, J. (2009). Football barriers – Aboriginal under representation and disconnection from the ‗world game‘. Soccer & Society, 10(1), 39-56. Morgan, P. & Hansen, V. (2008). Classroom teachers‘ perceptions of the impact of barriers to teaching physical education on the quality of physical education programs. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79(4), 506-516. Morgan, P. (2008). Teacher perceptions of physical education in the primary school: Attitudes, values and curriculum preferences. Physical Educator, 65(1), 46-56. Morgan, P.J., & Hansen, V. (2008). Physical education in primary schools: Classroom teachers‘ perceptions of benefits and outcomes. Health Education Journal, 67(3), 196-207. Nash, M. (2009). Using the idea of ‗communities of practice‘ and TGFU to develop physical education pedagogy among primary generalist pre-service teachers. Asian Journal of Exercise & Sports Science, 6(1), 1-7. O‘Dea. J. A. (2010). Studies of obesity, body image and related health issues among Australian adolescents: how can programs in schools interact with and complement each other? Journal of Student Wellbeing, 4(2). 3-16. Olds, T., Dollman, J., & Maher, C. (2009). Adolescent sport in Australia: Who, when, where and what? ACHPER Australia Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 56(1), 11-16. Olds, T., Dollman, J., Kidley, K., Boshoff, K., Hartshorne, S., & Kennaugh, S. Penny, D. (2011). Recent research into the value of quality physical education and school sport. Pill, S. (2006). Physical education in the middle school. Primary & Middle Years Educator, 4(2), 25-29. Pill, S. (2008). A teachers' perceptions of the Sport Education model as an alternative for upper primary school physical education. ACHPER Australia Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 55(2/3), 23-29. Pill, S. (2010a). Sport literacy: It‘s not just about learning to play sport via ‗textbook techniques‘. Journal of Student Wellbeing, 4(2), 32-42.


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Pill, S. (2010b). Student reflections of sport education in one urban Australian primary school. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport & Physical Education, 1(3/4), 29-36. Pill, S. (2010c). AFL sport education (SEPEP) recreational football. Active and Healthy Magazine, 17(2), 13-14. Pill, S. (2011a). Seizing the moment: Can game sense further inform sport teaching in Australian physical education? Physical and Health Education Academic Journal, 3(1), 1-15. Pill, S. (2011b). Teacher engagement with teaching games for understanding-game sense in physical education. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 11(2), 5-13. Priest, N., Armstrong, R., Doyle, J., & Waters, E. (2008). Interventions implemented through sporting organisations for increasing participation in sport. The Cochrane Library, 3, 1-15. Queensland Government (2007). Future development of school sport and physical activity. Brisbane: Queensland Government. Randall, L. (2003). Pre-service teachers understanding of teaching games for understanding approach to content delivery. Avante, 9(1), 49-61. Salmon, J., & Timperio, A. (2007). Prevalence, trends and environmental influences on child and youth physical activity. Medicine and Sport Science, 50, 183-199. Siedentop, D. (1994). Sport education: Quality PE through positive sport experiences. Champaingn, Il: Human Kinetics. Siesmaa, E. J., Blitvich, J. D., Telford, A., & Finch, C. F. (2011). Factors that are most influential in children‘s continued and discontinued participation in organised sport: The role of injury and injury risk perceptions. In A. D. Farelli (Ed.) Sport Participation (pp.1-38). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Siesmaa, E., Finch, C., Blitvich, J., & Telford, A. (2010). The role of sport injury and injury risk perceptions on children's continued participation in organised sport. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 12(S2), e20. Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2010). ―Uncool to do sport‖: A focus group study of adolescent girls‘ reasons for withdrawing from physical activity. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 11(6), 619-626. Smith, W. (2011). An alternative to Kirk‘s idea of the idea and a future of physical education. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education, 2(2), 23-33. Spittle, M., & Byrne, K. (2009). The influence of sport education on student motivation in physical education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 14(3), 253-266.


41


Spittle, M., O'Meara, J., Garnham, J., & Kerr, M. (2008). Providing sporting experiences for children in Out of School Hours Care (OSHC) environments: Sport and physical activity participation and intentions. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 11(3), 316-322. Sport England (2008). Guidance on what works for national governing bodies of sport – Lessons from Active England. London: Sport England. Sport England (2008). Project „Experience of sport‟: Research debrief. London: Sport England. Sport England (2009). The impact of achieving Sport England's target for making England an active nation by 2020. London: Sport England. Sport England (n.d). Increasing participation in sport: Research debrief. London: Sport England. Sport for Development and Peace (2007). Literature reviews on sport for development and peace. Sport Skills Australia (2011). Sport, fitness, outdoor and community recreation. Standing Committee on Recreation and Sport (2011). Participation in exercise, recreation and sport Ssurvey (ERASS) – Annual Report. Canberra, ACT: Australian Sports Commission Stead, R., & Nevill, M. (2010). The impact of physical education and sport on education outcomes: A review of literature. Telford, R.D., Cunningham, R.B., Fitzgerald, R., Olive, L.S., Prosser, L., Jiang, X., & Telford, R.M. (2011). Physical education, obesity, and academic achievement: A 2-year longitudinal investigation of Australian elementary school children. American Journal of Public Health, ahead of print. The Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary (2009). USA: Oxford University Press. The Centre for Multicultural Youth Issues (2007). Playing for the future: the role of sport and recreation in supporting refugee young people to „settle well‟ in Australia. The Centre for Multicultural Youth Issues, Melbourne. Vescio, J. A., Crosswhite, J. J., & Wilde, K. (2003). The relevance of sporting role models in the lives of adolescent girls. ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 50(3-4), 3136. VicHealth, (2006). School‟s Out, Get Active: Learnings from the Out of School Hours Sports program. Victorian Health Promotion Foundation and Australian Sports Commission, Melbourne.


42


Whipp, P.R., Hutton, H., Grove, J.R., & Jackson, B. (2011). Outsourcing physical education in primary schools: Evaluating the impact of externally provided programmes on generalist teachers. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education, 2(2), 67-77. Wright, J., Konza, D., Hearne, D., & Okely, T. (2008). The Gold Medal Fitness Program: A model for teacher change. Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 13(1), 49-64.


43


Appendix A: Search strategy for Value of Physical Education and Sport in Schools and Education review. Databases searched for The Values of PE, Sport and Physical Activity 

A+ Education



Academic Research Premier



Australian and New Zealand Reference Centre



CINAHL



Education Research Complete



ERIC



Medline Fulltext



PsycARTICLES



Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection



PsycINFO



SPORTDiscus Fulltext



Teacher Reference Center.

The following ‗key words‘ and ‗search terms‘ were adopted. These ‗key words‘ and ‗search terms‘ had been formulated by the authors of this Literature review as those they considered directly addressed the topic under consideration. These ‗key words‘ and ‗search terms‘ constituted four groups, namely: Group 1 ‗value‘ or ‗benefits‘ or ‗outcomes‘ or ‗advantages‘ or ‗attitude‘ Group 2 ‗physical education‘ or ‗sport‘ Group 3 ‗schools‘ or ‗education‘ or ‗participation‘ or ‗curriculum‘ Group 4 Australia


44


Appendix B: Inclusion/exclusion criteria for the value of physical education and sport in schools and education literature search. Criteria for considering studies for the values of physical education and sport in schools and education literature review: Inclusion criteria 

Published in English during 2000 to 2011 inclusive.



Original research published in peer review literature, book chapters or recognized Government/other publications.



Data addressing the value of ‗physical education‘ and ‗sport‘ in ‗schools‘ and ‗education‘. Research and reports that focused on the ‗value‘ or ‗benefits‘ of ‗physical education‘ and/or ‗sport‘ were only included if data and findings specifically referred to ‗schools‘ and/or ‗education‘. In this context, the following definitions were adopted: o

‗Value‘ – “the desirability of a thing” (Collins English Dictionary, 1999).

o

‗Benefit‘ – “something that improves or promotes” (Collins English Dictionary, 1999).

o

‗Physical education‘ - “as education in, through, and about movement” Smith (2011).

o

‗Sport‘ - “a human activity of achieving a result requiring physical exertion and/or physical skill which, by its nature and organisation, is competitive and is generally accepted as being a sport” (Australian Sports Commission, n.d).



Research/reports addressing Australian school aged children, youth and adolescents.

Exclusion criteria 

Research/reports addressed ‗physical activity‘ per se (i.e., no mention of ‗physical education‘ and/or ‗sport‘). As articulated by ACHPER (2010), there is an important distinction between ‗physical activity‘ and ‗physical education‘. ‗Physical activity‘ as behaviour whereas ‗physical education‘ is a curriculum area where instruction is planned with educational objectives and conducted by teachers.



Given the purpose of this Literature Review is to inform the formulation of strategies and actions for sport in Australia, empirical research demonstrating the value of physical education and sport in schools pertaining solely, and uniquely, to Australian conditions and young people are considered relevant. As such, literature demonstrating the value of physical education and sport in schools in other countries, in the authors‘ opinions, should not solely underpin the new NSES.



A prolific amount of Sport and Government Reports highlighting the value and/or benefits of physical education, sport and physical activity in schools was found. As these were not in the scope of this report (i.e. empirical evidence) they were not included in the review, however, it was deemed pertinent by the authors to acknowledge those deemed relevant to this document (see Appendix C).


45


Appendix C: Australian research demonstrating the value of physical education and/or sport in schools and education from 2000 to date. Author(s) (listed from most recent) Lubins et al. (2011)

Whipp et al. (2011)

Sample

Method

249 adolescents from 10 secondary schools in NSW

Questionnaire

5 generalist primary teachers

Pre & Post Interview

Quantitative data analysis

EPPAP Intervention Content analysis

Wright et al. (2008)

20 Primary schools in NSW. (10/20 Gold Medal Fitness Program Intervention)

Action Research Model

Key Findings Value of sport associated with perceived value of social support and sporting competence. Student enjoyment & spending time with friends. Increase self affect in teaching PE. Improvements in self satisfaction and enthusiasm.

Group Interviews

Engaging and successful model of professional development. Increased teachers‘ confidence & capacity to teach PE.

Portfolios

Improved FMS‘s in students.

Surveys

Hashim, Grove & Whipp (2008)

481 students from grades 8, 9 & 10 in Western Australia

Questionnaire Quantitative data analysis

Support for the notion that PE enjoyment is important in promoting adolescent physical activity.

Morgan & Hansen (2008)

189 teachers from 38 randomly selected schools in NSW

Semi-structured interviews (of 31 teachers)

All teachers identified benefits of PE for their students:

Morgan (2008)

422 pre-service teachers and 63 in-service classroom teachers in NSW


Questionnaire Quantitative data analysis Questionnaires Quantitative data analysis

 



Physical & social Cognitive & behavioral Enhanced learning

Teacher‘s belief that PE is a valuable component of the curriculum. PE has a positive impact on learning and behavior. PE is a beneficial vehicle for physical activity.

46


Appendix D: Sport and Government Reports into Sport, Physical Education and Physical Activity as it relates to the value of participation. Author(s) (listed from most recent)

Title

Standing Committee on Recreation and Sport (2011)

Participation in Exercise, Recreation and Sport Survey – 2010 Annual Report

Sport Skills Australia (2011)

Sport, fitness, outdoor and community recreation.

Stead & Nevill: Institute of Youth Sport, Loughborough University

The impact of physical education and sport on education outcomes: a review of literature.

(2010) Commonwealth of Australia (2010)

Australian Sport: The Pathway to Success.

ACHPER (2010)

Sport working with schools: Growing grassroots participation: Improving student learning.

Government of Western Australia (2010)

Brain Boost: Sport and physical activity enhance children‘s learning.

Fontier Economics (2010)

The economic contribution of sport to Australia.

Department of Education & Early Childhood Development (2009)

Improving school sport and physical education in your school.

Sport England (2009)

The impact of achieving Sport England's target for making England an active nation by 2020.


Guidance on What Works for National Governing Bodies of Sport – Lessons from Active England.


Project ‗Experience of sport‘: Research debrief.

Sport England ()

Increasing participation in sport: Research debrief.

Government of Western Australia (2007)

Premier‘s Physical Activity Taskforce: 2007-2011 Strategic Plan.

Heart Foundation (2007)

Physical activity and children: A call to action from the Heart Foundation.

Sport for Development and Peace (2007)

Literature reviews on sport for development and peace

Queensland Government (2007)

Review report: Future development of school sport and physical activity.

Commonwealth of Australia (2005)

Discussion paper for the development of recommendations for children‘s and youth‘s participation in health promoting physical activity.


47


Appendix E: Search strategy for barriers to participation in physical education and spot by school-aged children and youth review. Ten electronic databases searched were: 

Academic Search Premier



Australian and New Zealand Reference Library






ERIC



Medline Fulltext



PsycARTICLES






PsycINFO







We also consulted with the Australian Sports Commission to search the National Sports Information Centre records to identify relevant reports, publications and research not located through the search of the 10 electronic databases cited above. Further, we conducted an internet search using the Google search engine (www.google.com) to locate studies in the Medicine, Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities subject areas. Google search engine was also used to search for recognised National and State reports and publications that directly addressed the topic under consideration. Key words adopted in the searches were ‗sport‘, ‗physical education‘, ‗participation‘, ‗barriers‘, ‗constraints‘, ‗children‘, ‗youth‘, ‗adolescents‘, ‗boys‘ and ‗girls‘ and ‗Australia‘ for the period 2000 to date. Where we considered additional information or clarification of material was required, we contacted and consulted authors of publications. Search methods for identification of studies, reports and publications To search the electronic databases a combination of ‗keywords‘ and ‗search terms‘ was adopted. These ‗key words‘ and ‗search terms‘ had been formulated by the authors of this Literature Review as those they considered directly addressed the topic under consideration. These ‗keywords‘ and ‗search terms‘ constituted three groups, namely: Group 1: ‗school-aged children‘ or youth or adolescen* or child* or boys or girls Group 2: ‗physical education‘ or ‗sport‘ or ‗organised sport‘ or ‗competition sport‘ or ‗after school sport‘ or ‗community sport‘ or ‗team sport‘ Group 3: barrier* or constraints or dropout or retention Accordingly the database searches consisted of key words from Group 1 AND Group 2 AND Group 3.


48


Appendix F: Inclusion/exclusion criteria for the barriers literature search. To be included, the publications had to report on barriers to sport and physical education participation for Australian children, youth and adolescents and be published in peer reviewed literature, book chapters or recognised Government/other publications during the period 2000 to 2011 inclusive. Full papers, reports and publications were obtained after assessing titles, abstracts and/or executive summaries against the selection criteria. We then identified those full papers, reports and publications that satisfied the inclusion criteria. Where discrepancies existed, discussion amongst the authors of this review occurred until consensus was reached. Inclusion criteria 




Original research or reports published in peer review literature, book chapters or recognized Government/other publications.



Data addressed barriers to participation in ‗sport‘ and ‗physical education‘. Research and reports that focused on barriers to participation in ‗sport and physical activity‘ and ‗sport and recreation‘ were only included if data and findings specifically included, or referred to, ‗sport‘. In this context, the following definitions were adopted:





Sport:“a human activity of achieving a result requiring physical exertion and/or physical skill which, by its nature and organisation, is competitive and is generally accepted as being a sport” (Australian Sports Commission, n.d). Physical education: “a sequential, developmentally appropriate educational experience that engages students in learning and understanding movement activities that are personally and socially meaningful, with the goal of promoting healthy living” (Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, 2009, p.8). Physical activity: “movement of large skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure” (Salmon & Timperio, 2007, p.184). Recreation: “pleasurable exercise” (Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary, 2011).



Research/reports addressed Australian school aged children, youth and adolescents.



Research/reports focused on ‗barriers‘ per se (versus motivators, facilitators or enablers). In doing so, the definition of ‗barrier‘ provided by the Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary (2011) was adopted being ―obstacle, boundary or agency that prevents communication, success” (p.78).






Research/reports addressed ‗physical activity‘ per se (i.e., no mention of ‗physical education‘ and/or ‗sport‘). As articulated by Achper (n.d), there is an important delineation between ‗physical activity‘ and ‗physical education‘. ‗Physical activity‘ is behaviour whereas ‗physical education‘ is a curriculum area where instruction is planned with educational objectives and conducted by teachers. The link between physical activity, physical education and sport for children is articulated by Salmon and Timperio (2007) as ―children‟s physical activity consists of active play, organised and unorganised sports, school physical education, transport-related activity (e.g., walking and cycling), chores and other incidental activities” (p.184). Notwithstanding these delineations between physical education, sport and physical activity, it is noted that delineation in publications is not always clear-cut. As noted in The Future of Sport in Australia report (Australian Government, 2009), “Submissions noted difficulties with a focus on participation in sport without considering a range of physical activities such as fitness, outdoor recreation, community recreation or participation in non-organised or non-competitive sport” (p.191).


49




Research/reports addressed barriers to participation in physical education and sport for children and adults in countries other than Australia. Given the purpose of this Literature Review is to inform the formulation of strategies and actions for sport in Australia, barriers to participation pertaining solely, and uniquely, to Australian conditions and young people are considered relevant. Barriers to participation in physical education and sport in other countries should not, in the authors‘ opinions, underpin the new NSES.


50


Appendix G: Studies (2000-2011) identifying barriers to participation in physical education (PE) and sport by Australian school-aged children and youth. Author (listed from most recent)

Sample

Key Findings

Siesmaa, Blitvich, Telford and Finch (2011)

21 boys and 22 girls aged 9-17 in Victoria

Reasons why some sports not played included lack of interest and time, not good at other sports and too rough. Reasons for discontinued participation included a dislike for the sport and injury.

Dollman and Lewis (2010)

786 boys and 951 girls in Grades 5-10 in South Australia

Socioeconomic gradients and parental support linked to lack of participation

Dudley, Okely, Pearson and Peat (2010)

37 Year 11 girls in NSW

Major barriers confronting participation in school sport included teacher attitudes, support and activity programming

Hardy, Kelly, Chapman, King and Farrell (2010)

402 parents of children aged 5-17 in NSW

Sporting costs, variety and time commitments influenced parents‘ decisions about their child‘s participation in organised sport

Jenkinson and Benson (2010)

115 PE teachers in Victorian State Secondary schools

Barriers restricting student participation include crowded curriculum, lack of facilities, difficulty engaging students, low level of interest and peer pressure

O‘Dea (2010)

690 boys and 650 girls from NSW primary and secondary schools

Major barriers were a preference to do other things, a dislike of changing in front of others and body consciousness

Jenkinson and Benson (2009)

115 PE teachers in Victorian State Secondary schools

Lack of implementation of PE policies limits opportunities for students to participate in PE

Slater and Tiggemann (2010)

49 girls aged 13-15 in South Australia

Main reasons for ceasing to play sport were losing interest, lack of competence and insufficient time

Eime, Payne, Casey & Harvey (2010)

24 girls aged 16-17 in rural Victoria

Major barrier to participation in club sport was perceived lack of motor skill competence. Other interpersonal and environmental factors identified.

Eime and Payne (2009)

49 Victorian State School Governing Organisations

School-based sports programs not integrated into broader community

Casey, Eime, Payne & Harvey (2009)

37 Grade 7 girls in Victoria

Perceived lack of self competence and a limit of choice were barriers for girls in rural areas to play sport


51


Author (listed from most recent)

Sample

Key Findings

Evans (2008)

24 Secondary School girls in NSW

Main reasons for dropping out of sport was it was no longer fun and a lack of time

Spittle, O‘Meara, Garnham and Kerr (2008)

76 girls and 125 boys (average age 7.9 years) and their parents/guardians

Competing interests and lack of parental support were barriers to transitioning from the Out of School Hours Sports Program to local clubs

Morgan and Hansen (2007)

31 Primary School classroom teachers in NSW

Competition with other subjects main reason limiting PE into weekly program

Boufous, Finch & Bauman (2004)

7938 parents of children aged 5-12 years in the 2001 NSW Child Health Survey

More than 25% of parents reported discouraging or preventing their children from playing sport due to injury or safety concerns

MacDougall, Schiller & Darbyshire (2004)

204 children aged 4-12 years in metropolitan and rural South Australia

Barriers included injuries, cost, distance and travel, lack of facilities and clubs, bullying, putdowns, humiliation and gender issues


52


Appendix H: Reports (2000-2011) identifying barriers to participation in physical education and sport by Australian school-aged children and youth. Report (listed from most recent)

Key Findings

The Future of Sport in Australia (Australian Government Independent Review Panel, 2009)

Barriers in schools included a declining number of qualified physical education teachers, crowded curriculum, preparation time pressures, shortage of equipment, fears of accident/injury and condition of, and access to, school sporting facilities. Other barriers for young people include changing priorities and competing commitments, more involved in computer based activities and social activities, a lack of sporting role models and cost of participation for families

Independent Sport Panel: Report on Community Consultation Forums (cited in the Future of Sport in Australia, Australian Government Independent Review Panel, 2009)

Issues impacting on junior participation rates included propensity for some students to focus on academic pursuits in the final years of schooling, competing teenager commitments, changing nature of participation involving involvement in non-organised and less ‗traditional‘ sporting activities, the trend for teenagers to be involved with technologies and place more emphasis on social activities, the lack of accessible sporting role models and poor body image and low esteem (particularly for young women)

Children‘s Participation in Organised Sporting Activity (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009)

A number of socio-demographic characteristics defined those children who do not participate in sport

Evaluation of AASC Program: Community case study – Vasse community(Australian Government and Australian Sports Commission, 2008)

Barriers to children taking part in sports included transport issues, children‘s preference for video or computer games, a lack of volunteers or coaches, lack of parental knowledge and the weather.

Helping kids and communities get active (Australian Government and Australian Sports Commission, 2008)

Parents‘ time constraints and financial costs inhibit greater movement of children into clubs.

Motivators and Constraints to Participation in Sports and Physical Recreation (Commonwealth of Australia, 2007)

Main constraints to participation in sports and physical recreation for people 15 -24 years were insufficient time due to work/study and not interested.

Participation in Sports and Physical Activity, Australia, 2005-2006 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007)

A lack of interest was main reason for not participating for 47% of people aged 15-17 years. Insufficient time due to work or study commitments main reason for those aged 18-24 years.

Future Development of School Sport and Physical Activity (Queensland Government, 2007)

Main barriers preventing students from participating in school sport were cost of competing, lack of facilities, distance to competition and competing curriculum areas.


53


Report (listed from most recent)

Key Findings

Playing for the Future: The Role of Sport and Recreation in Supporting Refugee Young People to ‗Settle Well‘ in Australia (The Centre for Multicultural Youth Issues, 2007

A range of structural, mediating and personal barriers were identified as barriers for refugee young people.

School‘s Out, Get Active: Learnings from the Out of School Hours Sports Program (VicHealth, 2006)

Few barriers to children‘s participation but transport a barrier to involvement in local club sport.

Women in Sport and Recreation in Australia (Commonwealth of Australia, 2006)

Five key barriers to girl‘s participation are poor self-image and self confidence, dress code, lack of positive role models, role of family and peers and physical education in schools.

Report into Good Practice Inclusion Models for Young People from Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Communities (Garry Hensall & Associates Pty Ltd, 2005)

15 barriers identified including a lack of or inappropriate information, language difficulties and racial discrimination.

Children and Sport (Olds et al, 2004)

Perceived lack of time major barrier to children‘s participation. Other barriers included friends not involved and logistical difficulties.

Getting the Goss: the Findings of the 20022003 Youth Issues Forum (ASC, 2003)

Cost, access to sporting opportunities and emphasis on achievement significant inhibitors to participation


54


Appendix I: Search strategy for successful models of delivery of physical education, sport and organized physical activity programs through and around the school environment. Databases searched included found and key words and search terms for Successful models of PE delivery and organised physical activity: The ten electronic databases searched were: 

Academic Search Premier



Australian and New Zealand Reference Library






ERIC



Medline Fulltext



PsycARTICLES






PsycINFO







To search the electronic databases a combination of ‗keywords‘ and ‗search terms‘ were adopted. These ‗key words‘ and ‗search terms‘ had been formulated by the authors of this Literature review as those they considered directly addressed the topic under consideration. These ‗keywords‘ and ‗search terms‘ constituted four groups, namely: Group 1: model* or delivery or teaching or curriculum or pedagogy Group 2: ‗physical education‘ or sport or ‗organised physical activity‘ or ‗organised sport‘ Group 3: school or ‗after school‘ Group 4: Australia* Accordingly, the database searches consisted of key words from Group 1 AND Group 2 AND Group 3 AND Group 4.

Consultation with Australian Sports Commission to search the National Sports Information Centre records Following feedback from the ASC the following search terms added to the literature search: Group 1: ‗method‘ or ‗delivery‘ or ‗approaches‘ Group 2: ‗physical education‘ or sport or ‗organised physical activity‘ or ‗organised sport‘ Group 3: school or ‗after school‘


55


Group 4: Australia* In addition: Group 1: ‗teaching games for understanding‘ or ‗TGfU‘ or ‗Sport Education‘ or ‗Play for Life‘ or ‗Playing for Life‘ or ‗SEPEP‘ Group 2: ‗physical education‘ or ‗sport‘ or ‗organised physical activity‘ or ‗organised sport‘ Group 3: ‗school‘ or ‗education‘ Group 4: Australia


56


Appendix J: Inclusion/exclusion criteria for successful models of delivery of physical education, sport and organized physical activity programs through and around the school environment. Criteria for considering studies for this review of Successful models of PE delivery and organised physical activity for the review were: Inclusion criteria 




Original research / empirical studies published in peer review literature.



Research addresses the delivery (pedagogy) of sport and physical activity with Australian school aged children, youth and adolescents.


Research that addresses the delivery of sport and physical activity in countries other than Australia.



Research on sport programs (e.g., Gold Medal Fitness Program) versus the pedagogy or curriculum approach of delivery.



Papers that compare pedagogical approaches across countries.



Papers or book chapters that only address theoretical underpinnings and concepts (versus empirical studies) of delivering sport and physical activity.


57


Appendix K: Australian Studies (2000 to date) of TGfU and Game Sense. Author(s) (listed from most recent) Pill (2011b)

Sample

64 physical education teachers in one Australian state

Method

Qualitative Web survey Comparative systematic interpretation

Key Findings

TGfU and Game Sense more suited to:  

Year 11 & 12 students Team & Invasion games

TGfU and Game Sense not yet fully understood and implemented by majority of teachers. Light & Robert (2010)

4 Australian rugby coaches

Noted Observations Semi-structured interviews

Game Sense pedagogy had little impact upon rugby coaching.

Constant-comparative approach Nash (2009)

118 pre-service generalist teachers participating in a PE elective at the University of Melbourne

Three schools over 3 years Action research     

Georgakis & Light (2009)

8 primary school students in Sydney who where identified as ambivalent about sport.

Baseline survey Weekly journals Focus group interviews Observations Data analysis during collection phase

12 week Game Sense intervention in Cricket Questionnaires Interviews based on student drawings

Participants reported increased teacher self-confidence, content knowledge, communication skills and behaviour management strategies.

Game Sense provided positive changes in social interaction and relationships with other class members, improved emotional responses and attitude to Cricket.

Observations Grounded Theory analysis Open coding Selective coding Evans & Light (2008)

1 rugby coach


Case study

Highlights opportunities offered by a Game Sense approach.

58


Author(s) (listed from most recent) Chen & Light (2006)

Sample

16 girls and 14 boys in an inner-city government primary school in Sydney.

Method

Pre and Post Questionnaire assessing Cricket & Softball experiences Observations

Key Findings

Participants reported improved changes in social interaction, relationships and perceptions of learning and attitude toward sport.

Student drawings Interpretation of drawings One-on-one Interviews Data Analysis using Grounded Theory Evans (2006)

4 elite rugby coaches

Case studies Semi-structured interviews

Reluctance to take up Game Sense pedagogy.

Constant-comparative approach

Light & Georgakis (2005)

28 female secondyear pre-service generalist primary teachers in Sydney completing a Unit in Game Sense

Questionnaire (n=28) One-on-one semi-structured interviews (n=6)

Participants felt:  

SPSS statistical analysis Grounded theory approach

 

Light (2004)

included and valued enjoyed the social interaction stimulated by Game Sense ready and motivated to teach PE they could see the value of PE

6 coaches across a variety of sports from novice to elite

Interpretive case studies

Randall (2004)

13 pre-service secondary physical education teachers

Formal, informal & email discussions following coursework completion

Effective planning and questioning essential in delivery of Game Sense approach.

Brooker et al. (2000)

7 females and 4 males in Health and Physical Education Department in Queensland

5 x 90 min Basketball lessons

A number of issues in a school context influence degree of success of implementing a Game Sense approach

Semi-structured interviews Constant-comparative approach

Video taping & transcription Teacher journals

Game Sense provides potential to develop ‗more complete players‘ than is possible with techniquefocused approaches

Informal interviews Distillation of data


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Appendix L: Australian Studies (2000 to date) of Sport Education. Author(s) Pill (2011b)

Sample 26, Year 6 and 7 students

Method Case study: 10 week Basketball Unit, 45 minute lessons p.w. Student reflections

Key Findings Sport Education was a positive experience for students

Interpretative analysis Comparative systematic interpretation Pill (2010b)

1 primary school physical education teacher

Pilot project Case study Student unit reflections

Sport education was seen as a different contextual experience, which was motivating and inclusive.

Interpretive analysis Comparative systematic interpretation Analytical narrative Spittle & Bryne (2009)

97 male and 18 female Year 8 high school students participating in: Sport Education Hockey (n=17) Soccer (n=13) Football codes (n=11) Traditional Hockey (n=21) Soccer (n=26) Soccer (n=27)

Pill (2008)

1 primary school physical education teacher

Pre and Post Test Questionnaires to assess:   

Intrinsic motivation Goal orientations Perceived motivational climate

Non-equivalent control group design Cronach‘s alphas ANOVA Pearsons product moment Qualitative ‗teaching experiment‘ Feedback and counseling Teacher diary Conversational interview Comparative systematic interpretation

Alexander & Luckman (2001)

377 primary and secondary physical education teachers utilising the Sport Education curriculum resource (SEPEP)


Significant changes in perceived competence, task orientation and mastery climate compared with the Traditional condition

Questionnaire SPSS data analysis

Evidence of an observed transfer of learning from the physical education to cocurriculum setting. Intensification of workload for teacher. Teachers perceived Sport Education made a positive contribution to their repertoire of skills and to their overall professional development

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Appendix M: Australian Study (2000 to date) of a Hybrid TGfU-Sport Education model. Author‘s Hastie & Curtner-Smith (2006)

Sample 29 six-grade students

Method 

22 lesson season on batting/fielding games

Data Collection:    

Critical incident technique Tactical quizzes Game design form analysis Team Interviews/Focus group

Data Analysis   


Key Findings Students became more confident. Improvements in:   

Problem solving Performance of technical skills Literacy

Increased enthusiasm

Analytic Induction Technique Enumerative analysis Typological analysis & constant comparison

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