Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3
Editors
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati K. C. Lalmalsawmzauva
Department of Geography and Resource Management School of Earth Sciences and Natural Resources Management Mizoram University (A Central University) Aizawl – 796004, Mizoram India
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Preface Natural resources are depleting at alarming rates because of their irrational use pattern. Although, utilization of resources is an intrinsic component of the process of development yet, overexploitation of natural resources has led to environmental degradation and change in pattern of rural economy. Rural communities, in particular, are greatly affected by the increasing use of natural resources. To many of them, development is about livelihood and survival rather than increasing productivity and accumulation of wealth. Management of natural resources seems to be the only way forward to sustain the livability of rural communities. Management of natural resources requires collaborative works from various stakeholders as the use and un-use of natural resources depend upon a number of factors including historical, political, economic, social and cultural. Through the substantial holistic approach and concrete framework for policy research could be conceptualized, planned and implemented. Department of Geography and Resource Management, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India, hosted an International Conference on ‘Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods’ (26-28 Oct, 2017) which have addressed ways to boost agricultural productivity for food security and sustainable economic development, while conserving and restoring the natural resource base. Topics were covered include: assessment, management of natural resources for sustainable development, rural livelihoods and food security; integrated management of water and land resources; conserving agriculture systems; climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies including carbon sequestration in soils for different land use systems; and policy frameworks for capacity building to mitigate emerging problems in natural resource management. Developing and transition economies will be increasingly concerned with natural resources management, sustainable development and rural livelihood issues; they will have to solve a three-fold challenge: a better environment, good economic performances and poverty reduction as targeted by the Millennium Development Goals. Developing and emerging countries will also have to tackle with increasing scarcities.
Major objectives of conducting the conference was to evaluate past research efforts in integrated natural resources management for sustainable development and rural livelihoods, to streamline future scientific efforts in support of sustainable livelihood, to draw recommendations for capacity building in land, forest and water management Invited participants were international and national geographers and scientists, leading farmers and experts from governmental and nongovernmental organizations, researchers, representatives of donor organizations, and decision-makers who exchanged views on how to use and manage natural resources for sustainable development and rural livelihoods. This proceeding, an output an International Conference, contains 109 chapters which are published in three volumes. The first volume is devoted to the theme, ‘natural resources use pattern, management and policy perspectives’ in which 22 chapters are incorporated. The second volume contains 37 chapters and the theme is ‘agriculture and livelihood sustainability’. The third volume has three sections; the first one is ‘climate change’ with nine chapters. It is followed by the second section ‘population and socio-economic development’ which also contains nine chapters. The last section is interdisciplinary in nature in which 32 chapters are incorporated. The whole proceedings comprise chapters from different disciplines such as Earth Sciences, Biological Sciences, Environmental Sciences, Social Sciences and Medical Sciences and thus the authors of the proceedings chapters are divers in nature and they contributed chapters from different respective fields. We received financial support from the national and local level institutions and organizations to host this conference and to publish this book. Among them the major funding institutions were ‘North Eastern Council’ and NERC-ICSSR from Shillong; ICSSR, SERB and ICAR from New Delhi and NABARD, Mizoram University, APEX Bank, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Koinonia from Aizawl, Mizoram. We gratefully thank them for their valuable supports. Besides, many other agencies from Aizawl city have also assisted us financially. We are thankful of all of them. We are thankful of the Mizoram University for providing us all the logistic and other support. Similarly, the faculties, staffs and students from the Department of Geography and Resource Management have supported us substantially. We are thankful of them. We are also grateful of Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi for publishing these
volumes. In the last but not the least, we are thankful of all of those who supported us to host this conference successfully and to publish this proceeding.
Aizawl Vishwambhar Prasad Sati K. C. Lalmalsawmzauva
Contents Volume 1 (Theme: Natural Resources Use Pattern, Management and Policy Perspectives) Chapter 1: Submissive Role of Power in Resource Access: An Application of “Theory of Access” in Wetland Resource Mohammad Nazrul Islam and Subarna Akter
1-17
Chapter 2: Integrated Watershed Management by Mississippi Watershed Management Organization in Minnesota, United States of America Douglas Snyder
19-33
Chapter 3: Design and Implementation of Water Resources Monitoring Program for the State of Mizoram-Pilot Project Udai B. Singh, Joseph Magner, K. C. Lalmalsawmzauva and R. Zonunsanga
35-42
Chapter 4: Rational Resource Management and the Role of Traditional Knowledge Among the Santhal and the Bhumij Tribes of Binpur II Block, Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal Nilanjana Das Chatterjee and Kousik Das
43-58
Chapter 5: Site Suitability Analysis for Identifying Potential Water Harvesting Sites in Lachigad Watershed, Uttarakhand L. Mirana Devi, S.K.Bandooni and Masood A.Siddiqui
59-71
Chapter 6: Protection of Ox-bow Lake with Sustainable Management –A Case Study of Khalsi Lake, Nadia Rakhi Biswas
73-77
Chapter 7: Sustainable Resource Management in North East India: A Socio-Economic and Political Perspective Satabdi Das
79-93
Chapter 8: Sustainable Management of Sundarbans as Green Heritage: Essential for Climate Future Sonali Narang
95-115
Chapter 9: Identifying the Causes of Water Scarcity and Sustainable Water Conservation for Improving Livelihood in Bankura District, West Bengal: A Geographical Perspective Indrajit Roy Chowdhury
117-130
Chapter 10: Ground Water Prospecting using Remote Sensing and GIS in Champhai District, Mizoram, India F. Lalbiakmawia and Shiva Kumar
131-145
Chapter 11: Conservation and Sustainable use of Biological Diversity by the Instrumentality of Biological Diversity Act, 2002 with Special Reference to North East India Yumnan Premananda Singh
147-167
Chapter 12: Natural Resource Management and Rural Livelihood Development in Churchu Block of Hazaribagh District, Jharkhand Soumik Halder
169-181
Chapter 13: Community Based Ecotourism as a Means of Resource Management: an Assessment in Nameri National Park of Assam Niranjan Das
183-197
Chapter 14: Tribes, Sacred Jungles and Natural Resources Management in West Bengal Tapas Pal 199-217 Chapter 15: Homegardens: Traditional Systems for Maintenance of Biodiversity in Kolashib district of Mizoram, Northeast India U. K. Sahoo
219-245
Chapter 16: Natural Resource Management and its Preservation for Better Livelihood Md. Salauddin Khan
247-255
Chapter 17; Need of Effective Public Policies on Conservation of Forest for Sustainable Development: A Case Study of North East India H.Laldinmawia.
257-262
Chapter 18: Forest Resources, Traditional Medicines and Sustainable Livelihood of Tribal Population of North East India Pranay Jyoti Goswami
263-273
Chapter 19: Flowering and regeneration of bamboo (Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz.) in natural forests of Mizoram F Lalnunmawia and Lalrammuana Sailo
275-285
Chapter 20: Tree Species Diversity and Composition in Naturally Regenerating Forest Stands of Tripura Maria Debbarma, Thiru Selvan and A. S. Senthi Vadivel
287-300
Chapter 21: Soil Erosion: A Lose of Natural Resource B. Gopichand
301-305
Chapter 22: Spatio-Temporal Changes in Pichavaram and Sundarbans Mangrove Forest: A Geographical Analysis Mijing Gwra Basumatary, Subhash Anand and Usha Rani 307-322
Volume 2 (Theme: Agriculture and Livelihood Sustainability) Chapter 23: Agricultural Water Resources Availability in the Koshi River Basin, Nepal and the Associated Farmers’ Livelihoods Adaptability Analysis DengWei KongBo Song Xuqian
323-341
Chapter 24: Prospect of Community Based Renewable Energy on Rural Resiliency: A Secondary Study on Different Renewable Energy Projects Mohammad Nazrul Islam and Kelly Vodden
343--360
Chapter 25: Changes in Shifting Cultivation in Mizoram, India Karlyn Eckman and Laltanpuii Ralte
361-375
Chapter 26: Jhum Cultivation and Changing Livelihood Strategy of Tripura Tribe, Longtharai Valley, Tripura Chandra Shekhar Tripura and Raghubir Chand
377-399
Chapter 27: The Role of Value Chain Analysis in Developing Sustainable Land Use Options Dean Current, K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva, Lalnilawma Vuite, F. Lalnunmawia, John Zothanzama, John Chisholm, Brock Flint, Brooke McManigal and Tai Stephen 401-412 Chapter 28: Impact of Oil Palm Plantation on Rural Livelihood: a Case Study of Mamit and Kolasib District, Mizoram, North East India Lalrinpuia Vangchhia and Vishwambhar Prasad Sati
413-423
Chapter 29: Improving Agriculture through Indigenous Method of Cultivation C. Hmingsangzuala and P.Rinawma
425-433
Chapter 30: Analysis of Agricultural Employment in Serchhip Town, Mizoram Ramengmawii, V.P. Sati, Angela Laldingngheti and LalrinpuiaVangchhia
435-441
Chapter 31: Assessment of Land Capability and Suitability Classification for Agriculture using Geospatial Techniques in Rudraprayag District (Garhwal Himalaya) Atul Kumar and M.S. Negi
443-463
Chapter 32: Assessing the Impact of Fly-ash on Crop Productivity and Surrounding Environment in and Around Bandel Thermal Power Station, Hugli Mousumi Basu
465-474
Chapter 33: Importance of soil Seed Bank in Shifting Cultivation Affected Areas Shijagurumayum Baleshwor Sharma and Suresh Kumar
475-486
Chapter 34: Value Chain Analysis of Maize in Mizoram K. Hmingthansangi and Lalnilawma
487-491
Chapter 35: Alternative Agricultural Techniques with the availability of Water in Purola District of West Bengal Tanima Ghosh
493-500
Chapter 36: Crop Productivity and Crop Specific Soil Suitability of Arambagh Subdivision in Hugli District, West Bengal Pompa Moadal and Tapas Mistri
501-512
Chapter 37: Rural Livelihood under Shifting Cultivation System in Mizoram R.Vanlalauvi and Lalnilawma
513-519
Chapter 38: Importance of Floriculture among Horticulture Crops: A Case Study on Howrah District, West Bengal Sujit Maji and Sayani Mukhopadhyay
521-532
Chapter 39: Sensitization for Sustainable Tourism Development in East Khasi Hills District of Meghalaya Ashok Kumar and Deborah Rose Shylla Passah
533-541
Chapter 40: Edible Plants of Traditional (Meitei) Homegardens in the Hailakandi District, Assam, India N. Linthoingmabi Devi and DipendraSingha
543-557
Chapter 41: Expansion of Food Processing Industry in Rural Areas of West Bengal: A New Horizon in Rural Livelihood Sumana Roy
559-572
Chapter 42: Sustainable Rural Development through Lac Cultivation in Purulia District of West Bengal: a Case Study Kalyan Kumar Mandal
573-582
Chapter 43: Sustainable Utility Index Value of Wild Edible Plants amongst the Tai Khampti Tribe of Arunachal Pradesh Sheelawati Monlai, Nang Sena Manpoong and Chowlani Manpoong
583-592
Chapter 44: Ecological Restoration and Livelihood Options through Forestry: A Case Study of Pasolgad Watershed, Uttarakhand B. W. Pandey, Akshansh Yadav and Himanshu Mishra
593-603
Chapter 45: Empowering the Poor through Rural Livelihood Programme ‘JEEViKA’ in Bihar Jyotish Kumar and Dhiraj Kumar Sharma
605-616
Chapter 46: Impact of Ponds and Livelihood Issues of Rural Communities with Special Reference to Dhanaipur Mauza in Harirampur Block, Dakshin Dinajpur Md. Ismail
617-631
Chapter 47: Impacts of Tourism on Rural Development in the Mukutmanipur Village of Bankura District, West Bengal, India Uday Chatterjee and Samik Chakraborty
633-640
Chapter 48: Assessment of Sustainable Livelihood through SHGs’ Activities under NRLM Scheme: A Block Level Case Study in Hooghly District of West Bengal Sharmistha Sarkar and Sayani Mukhopadhyay
641-654
Chapter 49: Issues of Sustainable Livelihood in the Chars of Teesta in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal Sanghamitra Sarkar
655-668
Chapter 50: Status of Potable Water in Rural Areas of Lunglei Town: Challenges and Solutions Malsawmtluanga, Lalmalsawmi Zadeng and Lalhmangaihsangi
669-678
Chapter 51: A Critical Review on Biodiversity in North East India Saikat Majumdar
679-685
Chapter 52: Biodiversity: Utility, Threats, Conservation Hotspots and a Sustainable Model Prabhat Kumar Rai
687-702
Chapter 53: Diversity of Tree and Shrub Species and Assessment of Carbon Stock in Mizoram University Campus Forest, Mizoram S. B. Sharma and U.K. Sahoo
703-723
Chapter 54: Floral Biodiversity in Buffer Zone of Dampa Tiger Reserve and Impact of Developmental activities Nagaraj Hegde and Chowlani Manpoong
725-739
Chapter 55: Diversity of the Understory Vegetation in the Disturbed and Undisturbed Sites of Community Conserved Forest of Reiek in Mamit District of Mizoram S.T. Lalzarzovi and Lalnuntluanga
741-757
Chapter 56: A Study of Land Use and Land Capability Classification in Chemlui sub-watershed, Kolasib District, Mizoram Using GIS and Remote Sensing Techniques David B. Lalhruaitluanga, P. Rinawma and Ch.Udaya Bhaskara Rao
759-771
Chapter 57: Participation of Women in Water Resource Management in Rural Areas of Mizoram: An Empirical Analysis Lancy Zodinpuii Chawhte and Vishwambhar Prasad Sati
773-782
Chapter 58: An Overview of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Indian Western Himalaya Neena Kumari and Suresh Kumar
783-800
Chapter 59: Cultivation of Oil Palm in Mizoram Lalherliana Sailo
801-807
Volume 3 Section 1: (Theme: Climate Change) Chapter 60: Socio-economic Transformation in the Backdrop of Climate Variability: A Case Study of a Santal Village in Bankura District of West Bengal, India Suman Chakrabarty, Ananda Dhali and Mahua Sengupta
809-825
Chapter 61: Does Global Warming a Blessing for Areca Nut Cultivators in Mizoram K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva and PC Lalrohlua
827-838
Chapter 62: Multi-temporal Standardized Precipitation Index and Regional Drought Monitoring in the Western Part of West Bengal Pradip Patra
839-851
Chapter 63: Climate Change Impact on Migratory Birds in Kolkota, West Bengal Akhi Sarkar
853-859
Chapter 64: Risk perception of flood and its management by the stakeholders along Mayurakshi Basin: a New Arena in Flood Research Management Sayani Mukhopadhyay
861-876
Chapter 65: Media and Climate Change: Mizoram Scenario Irene Lalruatkimi
877-883
Chapter 66: An Assessment of Meteorological Drought of a part of Western Tract of West Bengal for the Need of Water Conservation of the Area Payel Saha and Asutosh Goswami
885-893
Chapter 67: Impact of Climate Change on Human Comfort and its Relation in Market Rise of Electronic Gadgets: A Case Study of Kolkata City, India. Deep Chakraborty, Sangita Roy, Asutosh Goswami 895-903 Chapter 68: Understanding Global Warming in Local Contexts: Mizoram’s Jhum Cultivation and Hybridised “Chapchar Kut” Samuel L Chuaungo
905-917
Section 2: (Theme: Population and SocioEconomic Development) Chapter 69: Out-Migration and its Impact on Socio Economic Profile of Natives in Lachigad Watershed, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Anupama M. Hasija, S. K. Bandooni and Ashok N. Selwatkar
919-938
Chapter 70: Ethnicity and Socio-Cultural Restructuring of Bhotiya Tribe: A Case Study of Johar Valley of Kumaon Himalaya Atithi Pant, V.S Negi and B.W. Pandey
939-952
Chapter 71: Impact of Population Pressure on Landscape Changes in Aizawl City: A SpatioTemporal Analysis Ch.Udaya Bhaskara Rao
953-961
Chapter 72: Population and Development in the Third World: A Case Study of India Aslam Mahmood and Sushil Dalal
963-978
Chapter 73: Role of Kanyashree Project on Empowerment of Women in West Bengal Moumita Ghosh
979-985
Chapter 74: Socio-Economic Status of Women Population in Dhule District, Maharashtra Suryawanshi Dnyaneshwar Ahire and Suresh Chintaman Chapter 75: Sustainability of Jute Farming and Socio – Economic Issues of the Jute Farmers in Assam Bidyut Jyoti Kalita and Anjan Bhuyan
987-996
997-1009
Chapter 76: Socio-Economic Condition of Indian Sundarban: An Issue on Food Scarcity Priyanka Pal
1011-1018
Chapter 77: Socio-Economic Profile of Rural Dimapur, Nagaland Geeta Kumari
1019-1032
Section 3: (Theme: Multi-Disciplinary Studies) Chapter 78: Finding Common Ground: Interdisciplinary Narrative Sharing As A Way Forward for Human and Environmental Sustainability Kathryn C. Smith, MDV, DMin 1033-1043 Chapter 79: Physio-Chemical Analysis of Potable Water in the Vicinity of Aizawl, Mizoram M. Lalruatfeli, Shiva Kumar, B. Lalhriatpuii and John Blick
1045-1054
Chapter 80: Contamination of Potable Water Sources of Lawngtlai Town, Mizoram John Blick and Shiva Kumar
1055-1071
Chapter 81: Zonation of Landslide Susceptibility and Risk Assessment in and Around Serchhip Town, Mizoram Lalramdina 1073-1078 Chapter 82: Comparative Study of Physico-chemical Properties of Soil under Three Different Bamboo Stands ImokoklaImsong, AngomSarjubala Devi and Lalnuntluanga 1079-1084
Chapter 83: Use of Geographic Information System in Hypsometric Analysis of Chite Lui Watershed, Aizawl District, Mizoram Binoy Kumar Barman, K. Srinivasa Rao and N. S. R. Prasad
1085-1096
Chapter 84: Landslide Hazard Zonation Along State Highway between Aizawl City and Aibawk Town, Mizoram, India, Using Geospatial Techniques Laltlankima, F. Lalbiakmawia, K. S. Rao
1097-1110
Chapter 85: Evaluation of Phytochemical and Acute Toxicity of Various Extracts of Croton caudatus Geiseler Longjam Shantabi, Ganesh Chandra Jagetia and Thaodem Tomcha Singh
1111-1126
Chapter 86: Efficacy of L- Carnitine Supplementation on the Tuibur (Tobacco Smoke Infused Water) Induced Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Status in Testis of mice. Maibam Sunita Devi, Sanasam Sanjeev and Guruswami Gurusubramanian 1127-1137 Chapter 87: Refocusing the Correlates of Carbon Sequestration through Maintaining the Carbon Stock in Home Gardens of West Bengal, India Mohit Subba, Nazir A. Pala, Gopal Shukla, Kausik Pradhan and Sumit Chakravarty
1139-1151
Chapter 88: A Comparative Study of Gestural Communication on Three Species of Macaques (Assamese macaque, Rhesus macaque and pigtailed macaque) in Mizoram Phoebe Lalremruati, Vansawmkimi and G.S. Solanki
1153-1164
Chapter 89: Determination of Serum Lipid Profile and β- estradiol Level in Pre-Menopausal and Post-Menopausal Women in Aizawl District, Mizoram Sarda Sh, Lalsanglura R and Lajji D
1165-1175
Chapter 90: Growth Hormone Gene Polymorphism and its Association with Performance Trait in Mizoram Local Pig “Zovawk” T.C. Tolenkhomba and P. Mayengbam
1177-1182
Chapter 91: Pharmacognostic and Physicochemical Profile of the Leaves of Trevesia palmata Victoria Devi, Lanutanget and H. Lalhlenmawia
1183-1192
Chapter 92: Women and Natural Resources Conservation: Study in Community Based Wetland Resources Management Groups in Hail Wetland Mohammad Nazrul Islam, Mohammad Mojammel Hussain Raihan, Subarna Akter and Mohammad Saiful Islam 1193-1204 Chapter 93: Impact of Industrial Model Township on Natural Resources: A Case of Manesar Town and its Envions Shashi Mehta
1205-1211
Chapter 94: Impact Assessment of Forest Cover Changes of Havelock Islands in Andaman’s: a Study through Geospatial Technique Kajal Kumar Mandal
1213-1225
Chapter 95: Geomorphic Evolution and Landscape Development of Tut Drainage Basin K. Lalduhawma, Ch. Udaya Bhaskara Rao and K. Srinivasa Rao
1227-1240
Chapter 96: A Study on Relief Characteristics and Erosion Status of Tuirini Watershed, Mizoram Vanlaltanpuia, Ch. Udaya Bhaskara Rao, P.Rinawma
1241-1251
Chapter 97: Diversity and Dynamics of Rural Landscapes in the Brahmaputra Floodplain, Assam Sourav Saha and N. Deka
1252-1265
Chapter 98: Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Channel Morphology of Raidak River-II in Alipurduar District, West Bengal, India Ajit Kumar Singha and E. Iswarjit Singh
1267-1285
Chapter 99: Mapping of Vegetation Changes in Lakshadweep using Remote Sensing Tipu Sulthan. M.M, M. Muthukumar
1287-1297
Chapter 100: Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil from Grain Size Analysis G. Nengzouzam, Y. Pordung, R. Phawa, A. Bandyopadhyay and A. Bhadra
1299-1311
Chapter 101: Economic Dynamicity of Sunderban: A Perception Study Baisakhi Biswas
1313-1320
Chapter 102: Shifting Land Surface Temperature (LST) due to Change in Urban Land Use: A Case Study of Bidhannagar Township, West Bengal Mahua Bardhan, Sujay Sadhu and Nandini Chatterjee
1321-1338
Chapter 103: Changing Occupational Trend of the Brass Artisan Moria Community of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam with Special Reference to Lakhimpur District Jyoti Saikia and Sailajananda Saikia
1339-1349
Chapter 104: Ecosystem Services from Homestead Production System – a Case in a Deforested area of Bangladesh Md Abiar Rahman and Masakazu Tani
1351-1358
Chapter 105: Acute Toxicity Study of Various Extracts of Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook. F. on Swiss Albino Mice Nambam Bonika Devi and Ganesh Chandra Jagetia
1359-1368
Chapter 106: Comparison of Rainfall Records of Mizoram, India by means of Isohyetal Maps Generated using GIS Technique F. Lalbiakmawia
1369-1379
Chapter 107: Dynamics of Organic Wastes Treatment on Soil Characteristics and Growth of Brassica oleracea Angom Sarjubala Devi, Yaiphabi Akoijam and Elangbam Jadu Singh
1381-1387
Chapter 108: Relation of Soil Bulk Density and Elevation with some Soil Physico-Chemical Properties in Pare River Basin of Arunachal Pradesh L. G. Kiba, N. K. Mondal, V. Khatso, A. Bandyopadhyay and A. Bhadra
1389-1401
Chapter 109: Scope of Resource Re-generation by following 3R Policy from Urban Solid Wastes – A Study on Kolkata Municipal Corporation, West Bengal, India Samik Chakraborty and Uday Chatterjee
1403-1411
Section 1:
(Theme: Climate Change)
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 809-825, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
60 Socio-economic Transformation in the Backdrop of Climate Variability: A Case Study of a Santal Village in Bankura District of West Bengal, India Suman Chakrabarty1*, Ananda Dhali2and Mahua Sengupta3
3
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith, Birati, Kolkata – 700 051, West Bengal, India, Email:
[email protected]
2
Laboratory Assistant, Department of Geography, Mrinalini Datta Mahavidyapith, Birati, Kolkata – 700 051, West Bengal, India Email:
[email protected]
Consultant, Institute of Livelihood Research and Training, Basix India, 3rd Floor, Surabhi Arcade, Troop Bazar, Bank Street, Koti, Hyderabad – 500 001, E-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract In search of the livelihoods burden among the scheduled tribe under unfamiliar climatic events, the present study aims to investigate the impact of climate variation on the present socio-economic condition of the Santal tribe living in a village (Gidhuria) located at the drought prone district (Bankura) of West Bengal, India. Structured schedule, focus group discussion and key informant interviews were used to collect data from 58 families. The results revealed that about 90% of the villagers engaged in rainfed agriculture. The declining monsoon rainfall, rise of temperatures, shifting season and dryness of top soil in the agricultural land for the last 15 years may heavily impact on agricultural production, socio-cultural life and livelihoods of the Santal
810 villagers in a negative way. The perception regarding climate variability among villagers was also supported by the meteorological data of that region. Though they tried to cultivate high yielding varieties of paddy but failed to get sufficient yield due to water scarcity, economic barrier to use modern technology and frequently occurring dry seasons. The development programmes (like Grain Bank) were often failed to meet their challenges. These erratic conditions have forced the villagers to migrate in other districts or urban areas in search of their secondary earning as daily wage labour which form a new socio-economic dimension for their survival. Key words: Climate variability, Santal tribe, socio-economic status, paddy production, Bankura district
Introduction In addition to the poorest socio-economic conditions, the marginalized people who have close relationship with natural environments are the foremost victims of unfamiliar climate change/climate variability and which may be added as additional burden for their survival and development. According to the Stern Review and IPCC 4th Assessment Report, “poorest people in the poorest countries expected to suffer first and foremost” by the adverse impact of climate change in the health, safety and livelihoods. The report is also emphasized the fact that future climate change will have created barriers to poverty reduction and failed many of the important socio-economic ventures made by developing countries (IPCC, 2007). In recent years, the rate of climate change is alarming, and poor people, who have small landholding and natural resources based livelihood, are facing unexpected challenges to meet their means for survival (Mbilinyi et al., 2013; FAO, 2014). However, they have their own traditional perception and unique technologies to find the first hand solution in a creative ways and that may help them a lot for mitigating the impact of climate change (UNPFII, 2008). In India, the foremost vulnerable marginalized social groups are scheduled tribes (STs), who are owing to low socio-economic status even after 69 years of Indian independence (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2014). They constitute 8.60 percent of total population of India and live in remote rural areas (Census of India, 2011; Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2013). They are the marginal farmers and mainly depend on rain fed agriculture for their own livelihoods and food security (NABARD consultancy services, 2007). Climate change and its overall consequences could, therefore, catalyze the ongoing agrarian crisis in rural India into a migratory rout (Sainath, 2002). Revi (2008) in his study reported that climate change induced drought and resource conflict may force the pace of rural-urban migration (urbanisation) over the next few decades. He also showed that a
811 demographic transition that will see India’s population stabilizing at about 1.6 billion in the 2060s. Sengupta and Chakrabarty (2015) showed that people (mainly tribal) are migrating in search of secondary occupation from rural to sub-urban areas in Kalchini administrative block of north Bengal and involving in various illegal activities to form a new socioeconomic dimension for their survival. The studies on the impact of climate variability/ change on socioeconomic life and livelihoods of Indian tribes are sporadic. For instance, the Naga tribes of Nagaland of Northeast India exemplified a good traditional knowledge of seeds, crop varieties as well as medicinal plants specifically among the women, which may help them to tackle the adverse impact of climate variability (AIPP and IWGIA, 2014). In contrast, the Khanda tribal of Jharkhand did not accept the modern fertilizers and pesticides as they belief that this is an offence against their traditional practice of agriculture (World Bank, 2014). Again Singh et al. (2011) reported that the Adi tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh have rich knowledge of bicultural resources that may play an important role for coping the climate change and livelihood security. The Mizos tribal people (Hmar, Paihte and Mara) of Mizoram has excellent potential in their traditional knowledge of environment to combat the problem of climate variability and sustain the socio-economic life (Chinlampianga, 2011). However some of the groups have given little attention towards the erratic of climate events like the Rabha tribes of North Bengal and Baiga and Gond tribes of Chhattisgarh and as a results they suffered by socio-economic problem to a large extent (Chakrabarty, 2015; Nema and Tripathi, 2013). On the basis of above discussion, it is, therefore, beyond any doubt that climate variability/ change may have heavily impact on the socioeconomic life of the tribal people in India and they are fighting against these adverse consequences in their own ways. But there is hardly any systematic study on these issues among the tribes, who are living in drought prone areas (Bankura and Purulia districts) of West Bengal state in India. In order to understand these consequences, the present study aims to investigate how far the present climate variability of this region is influenced on the socio-economic condition of the Santal tribe (autochthonous group of this region) and also to investigate the adaptive strategies and associate hindrances at local level in terms of socio-economic transformation. Materials and Methods People and the Study Area For the present study, the Santal tribe was selected. They perhaps
812 considered to be the most populated tribal group in Eastern parts of India and third largest tribe in India with a total population of around 69 Lakh. They belong to the Austro-Asiatic language group (Mundari speaking) of people and mainly concentrated the state of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Assam, Tripura and even few areas of Bangladesh and Nepal. In western part of West Bengal, the Santals are concentrated in the Bankura and Purulia districts (Dey, 2015). The present study area was located at Bankura district of West Bengal, India. It is situated between 220 38’ and 230 38’ N latitude and between 860 36’ and 870 46 E longitude. It has an area of 6788 Sq.km which is the connecting link between the plains of Bengal on the East and Chota Nagpur plateau to the West. The name of the studied village was Gidhuria (a monoethnic village of the Santal tribe), which was situated in Susunia gram Panchayat of Chatna Block under Bankura Sadar subdivision of Bankura district. Geographically the village was situated at the cross sectional point of 280 80’ 06" N and 86058’ East (Google Map accessed on March, 2017).
Figure 1: Map showing study areas and studied village
Data Collection The present study was based on both the primary and secondary information. Published reports on meteorological data were used for understanding the regional level climate variability of the studied areas. Primary cross sectional data from 58 households including 90 individuals were used for the analysis. The data was collected from 9th to 25th December, 2015. All the households of the studied village were taken into consideration for the present study. Individual as well as household level socio-economic variables like education, occupation (both primary and secondary), monthly household income and expenditure, food expenditure, house type,
813 household size, household assets (like Pressure cooker, Bicycle, Radio, Mobile, T.V. with cable, Car, Tractor, Motor cycle, Fan, Sewing machine, Refrigerator, Fishing net, Plough, item-wise household food production, and livestock possession data was collected by using pre-tested structured schedules. Besides this, another pre-tested structured schedule was used to get people perception on climate change including its different parameters like heat, cold, rain etc., adaptive strategies and hindrances related to adaptive strategies in individual levels. One focused group discussion (FGD) was performed to gather information regarding community perception and their involvement related to climate change measures in community or village level and finally six key informants (primarily engaged in cultivation) were interviewed to collect data of climate change and its mitigating measures in their agriculture field and major problem faced by them over the last 10 years. The study integrated both qualitative and quantitative methods to build on their complementarities for crosschecking information received from the respondents. Data Analysis Standard of living index (SLI) was estimated by using score of household assets. Income, expenditure and food expenditure were calculated in terms of monthly per capita. All continuous socio-economic variables like SLI were categorized by using 50th (median) percentile values in order to understand the inequalities within the group (Chakrabarty and Bharati, 2012). Systematic coding was done to analyse the data on perceptions of climate change and its variability as well as adaptive measures by using SPSS software. Results and Discussion: Table 1 demonstrates the age group and sex-wise distribution of sample under study. For the present study, a total of 90 individuals aged 30 to 65 years were considered. The mean age of the sample was 44.24±10.76 years. All the sampled individuals have been living in the studied villages for at least last 20 years. Table 1: Age group and Sex –wise distribution of Sample size Age group (Years)
No.
Male %
No.
Female %
No.
%
30- 44
41
45.6
7
7.8
48
53.3
45-65
32
35.6
10
11.1
42
46.7
Total
73
81.1
17
18.9
90
100.0
Mean age (years)
43.90±11.25
45.71±8.48
Total
44.24±10.76
814 Socio-Economic Condition of the Studied Village Socio-economic parameters of an area or a community like education, household size, household income, access to information etc. is positively associated with peoples’ adaptive capacity to the climate change/ variability (Ndamani and Watanabe, 2016). For the present study, both the individual level as well as household level socio-economic parameters were used for the analysis. Table 2 depicts the individual level data on educational status and occupation of the respondents. It was observed that 51.1% of the individuals were illiterate followed by 32.2% studied up to secondary level. The percentage of literacy was higher in recent generation. Occupation-wise, majorities of the individuals engaged in the agricultural activities (83.3%) of the studied village. They generally engaged in rain fed agricultural in their own agricultural land. The rate of participation in agriculture was more or less equal by males and females. However, during post monsoon and/or just after their own agricultural activities, they engaged as daily wage labour (75.6%) either at the neighbouring villages or far from their native place as hired agricultural labour (like other districts as Birbhum or Burdwan) in search of their secondary earning. Table 2: Education and occupation of the studied respondents Level of education
Primary occupation
Secondary occupation
Variables
No.
%
Variables
No.
%
Variables
No.
%
Illiterate
46
51.1
Agriculture
75
83.3
Agriculture
15
16.7
Primary
09
10.0
Daily wage
08
8.9
Migratory daily wage
68
Secondary
29
32.2
Service
05
5.6
Service
05
Higher Secondary
04
4.4
Business
02
2.2
Business
02
2.2
Graduation and above
02
2.2
—-
—-
—-
—-
—-
—-
Total
90
100.0 Total
90
100.0
Total
90
75.6 5.6
100.0
Table 3 represents the household level socio-economic variables of the studied population. It was observed that majorities of the houses were Kaccha (84.5%) in structure. More than 90% households possessed their own cultivable land but the amount of land was very small as 52.8% of households had possessed up to 1 Acre of cultivable land. They were considered as marginal farmers. Although they have their own cultivable land but more than 88% households did not get any irrigation facilities
815 during cultivation of paddy. They have to depend on rainy water during monsoon season. They, therefore, often failed to get desire amount of paddy for their own consumption. In order to increase the production, majorities of the households (90.6%) have cultivated high yielding varieties (HYV) of paddy for the last 10 years. Even though, they received very less amount of paddy (41.5% households up to 5 quintal for the last season). Generally the households members involved in cultivation (71.7%) rather than the hired labour. Present day, they are using modern technologies for agriculture in form of used tractor, but the percentage of households was only 24.5%. Apart from cultivation, the households’ member also engaged in livestock raring. 93.1% of households possessed livestock specifically cow and goat. They have been using cow for ploughing in their agricultural land and have kept the goat for earning during household occasions. Overall, a sharp socio-economic division was observed between households, which were reflected in the Standard of Living Index (SLI) (Low 51.7% household vs High 48.3% household). The monthly per capita income, expenditure and food expenditure was Rs. 1410.2, 851.80 and 608.60, respectively. Table 3: Household level summery variables of the Santal community Variables
No.
%
House type ( n = 58) Kaccha
49
84.5
Pakka
9
15.5
Less than 5 person
26
44.8
Above 5 person
32
55.2
Present
53
91.4
Absent
5
8.6
Up to 1 Acre
28
52.8
Above 1 Acre
25
47.2
Present
6
11.3
Absent
47
88.7
Household size (n = 58)
Cultivable land (n = 58)
Amount of cultivable land (n=53)
Irrigation facility at the cultivable land (n= 53)
816
Type of paddy seeds used (n= 53) High yielding varieties (HYV)
48
90.6
Traditional varieties (TV)
5
9.4
Up to 5 Quintal
22
41.5
Above 5 Quintal
31
58.5
Paddy production of last year (n = 53)
Hired labour during cultivation (n = 53) No38
71.7
Yes
15
28.3
Only plough
28
52.8
Only tractor
13
24.5
Plough and tractor both
12
22.7
Present
54
93.1
Absent
4
6.9
Low (score up to 4)
30
51.7
High (score 5 and above)
28
48.3
Used during cultivation (n = 53)
Livestock (n = 58)
Standard of living index (n = 58)
Mean
±SD
Income (Monthly per capita)
1410.2
811.6
Expenditure (Monthly per capita)
851.8
361.8
Food Expenditure (Monthly per capita)
608.6
192.3
Regional Climatic Variability The studied village Gidhuria is located at the northern slopes of Susunia hills. Geographically, the area falls under the “Red Laterite – Agro –Climatic Zone”. It is characterized as undulating topography, coarse textured soil with acidic in nature. There is a high chance of soil erosion. The annual temperature varies from 14.8o to 37.0o centigrade and annual rainfall varies from 1100 to 1300 mm. However, there was a clear climate variability observed in last ten years (2000-2009). This region is now experiencing lower rain fall than expected in the non-monsoon months (WBPCB, 2016).
817 More intensive analysis (for the 48 years i.e. 1961 to 2009) of the climate variability of this region showed that though the monsoon rainfall was slightly increased but post monsoon rainfall was moderately decreased. Analysis of different components of temperature shows that the average daily temperature is increasing almost everywhere. Average daily minimum temperature is rising faster than the average daily maximum temperature, causing a reduction in the diurnal range. After 1970, increasing trend is well marked and more marked since the beginning of the present century. So the date of onset has been delayed by about a week, but the date of its withdrawal remains almost unchanged. However in recent years, delayed withdrawal is noticed. Although the area is well marked as ‘drought prone’, but the dryness is more due to poor moisture holding capacity of the soil rather than poor rainfall. A period of the last three and a half decade depicts that there is a decreasing trends in deposition of dew, increasing erratic nature in weather behaviour, typical seasonal character of weather is disappearing, and exceptional incidences like storm and unexpected rainfall are becoming the usual ones. In general, winters are becoming shorter, warmer and drier and summers are becoming longer. Monsoons are becoming more variable. Firstly the onset of monsoon is being delayed whereas the withdrawal remaining almost the same, therefore a reduction in the span of monsoon is observed. Secondly, the variability of rainfall of the monsoon months has increased without causing much change in the total quantity of the season. thirdly, the incidences of partial break in one region and heavy rainfall in the other causing partial drought and flood is on the rise (Cited in Adoption Fund Project of DRCSC and NABARD, 2014). Perception of climate Variability, Adaptive Strategies and Hindrances Among the Studied Population Table 4 demonstrates the people’s perception of climate change and it was observed that 80.0% individuals were aware that the environment is changing over time. However, the percentage of awareness may be varied from population to population (Amir and Ahmed, 2013). The Rabha tribal people were reported lower awareness level (66.6%) compared to the present studied population (Chakrabarty, 2015). However, 73.7% of individuals failed to give the reasons behind such climate change in the studied region. Surprisingly, few individuals believed that these may be due to the willing of God of the Santal community i.e. Marang Buru. The low perception level regarding the causes of climate change may be due to their high illiteracy and small exposure to mass communication. Though the Santal villagers have lower awareness level about the causes of climate
818 change, but they have perceived quite well regarding the adverse impact of heat, cold and rainfall over the last five to ten years ago. 84.4% respondents agreed that the heat during summer was increased in comparison to the last five to ten years. In contrary, 92.2% of the respondents perceived that the present bitterness of cold during winter was decreased. However, majority of the individuals (95.5%) perceived that the present intensity of rainfall during rainy session has been decreased in comparison to the last five to ten years. Table 4: Perceptions of climate variability among the studied population (n = 90) Climatic perceptions
Have you perceived that environment is changing in your village?
If yes, what are the reasons behind it? (n = 72)
Total No.
%
No
07
7.7
Yes
72
80.0
Don/t know
11
12.3
God
05
6.9
Deforestation
14
19.4
Don/t know
53
73.7
06
6.6
76
84.4
Don’t know
08
9.0
No
83
92.2
Yes
02
2.2
Don’t know
05
5.6
No
03
3.3
Yes
86
95.5
Don’t know
01
1.2
Have you perceived that heat during summer is No increased in comparison to the last five to ten years? Yes
Have you perceived that the present bitterness of cold during winter is increased in comparison to the last five to ten years?
Have you perceived that the present intensity of rainfall during rainy session is decreased in comparison to the last five to ten years?
The perception about shifting of seasons is a relevant indicator of climatic change. In the present study, the perceived view of shift of climatic seasons was taken into consideration (Figure 2) and 78.7% of the individuals perceived that climatic seasons have been shifted from last five to ten years. A similar study was conducted among the people of the Kalapara Upazila of Patuakhali district in Bangladesh, where 66% reported positive response of shifting climate change (Amir and Ahmed, 2013), while another
819 study by Chakrabarty (2015) on Rabha tribes of North Bengal showed that 85.5% informants reported affirmative response. .
Figure 2: Perception about shifting of climatic season among villagers (n = 90)
Table 5 narrates the people’s perception regarding the threat of climate change on livelihood option. 76.7% individuals replied that the major impact was noted on health than other factors. Similar findings have been reported among the indigenous people located in Jema’s local government areas of Kaduna state of Nigeria (Ishaya and Abaje, 2008). Table 5: People’s perception regarding the threat of climate change more on Parameter
No.
%
Health and food supply
69
76.7
Fuel wood availability
07
7.8
Businesses
02
2.2
Instigating disaster
03
3.3
Biodiversity quality and sustainability
09
10.0
Total
90
100.0
It is well known fact that adverse impacts of climate change have been found in agricultural production as well as in natural resources. In the present study, 91.1% individuals perceived that the current annual rainfall is not suitable for crop production as was before (Table 6). However, comparatively lower percentage of people (78.9%) perceived that climate
820 change has lead to crop infestation and diseases. Besides, 66.7% of the people negatively responded regarding the perception of increasing costs of food crops due to climate change. This may be because of their poverty and/or less dependency on market economy for their survival. 52.2% of the respondents perceived that people, specifically youths and young couples, have been migrating seasonally as wage labour, due to low agricultural production for last 10 years. But they did not feel that climate change has lead to permanent rural-urban migration in the studied village. Table 6: Perceptions of impact of climate change on food production and migration (n= 90) Climatic perceptions
No.
%
Have you current annual rainfall is not suitable No for crop production as was before?
05
5.6
Yes
82
91.1
Don’t know
03
3.3
No
07
7.8
Yes
71
78.9
Don’t know
12
13.3
No
60
66.7
Yes
21
23.3
Don’t know
09
10.0
No
31
34.4
Yes
47
52.2
Don’t know
12
13.4
No
73
81.1
Yes
08
8.9
Don’t know
09
10.0
Do you perceive that climate change has lead to crop infestation and diseases?
Do you perceive that the costs of food crops are increasing because of climate change?
Whether people are migrating due to low production?
Do you feel that climate change has lead to rural-urban migration
In order to overcome the adverse effect of climate variability/ change, the studied Santal people have taken multiple measures or adaptive strategies to mitigate the problem and also faced several hindrances. It was observed that 95.6% people have taken at least one adaptive measure
821 from last 10 years. Almost all the respondents are using High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of paddy for agriculture and depositing certain amount of paddy in their village Gain Bank. This is for the purpose of using it during the low productive years or any marital occasion in their families. Besides, more than 60% informants are using chemical fertilizers as well as shortening of growing seasons of paddy. In contrast, only 24.4% are using power tractor during ploughing of their agricultural land. It may be due to low economic capabilities of the studied farmers for investing costly input in the cultivation. They had tried for the best for their survival but they believed that the major challenges are the lack of irrigation system (93.3%), frequent dry weather (84.4%) and economic burden (62.2%). The repeated loss of production may have played major role on the mind of the villagers as 11.1% of them expressed their unwillingness to cultivate in the coming years (table 7). Table 7: Adaptive strategies and hindering factors related to climate change (n = 90) Adaptive strategies and hindering factors
No.
%
Do you take any adaptive measures for climate change?
No
04
4.4
Yes
86
95.6
Planting High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of paddy
86
100.0
Shortening growing season
57
66.3
The use of chemical fertilizer
53
61.6
Use of tractor
21
24.4
Storage in “Grain Bank” of the village
86
100.0
Lack of irrigation
84
93.3
Frequent dry weather
76
84.4
Economic problem
56
62.2
Lack of knowledge about the use of modern technology in agriculture
32
35.5
Unwillingness to cultivate
10
11.1
Adapted strategies (n = 86)
Hindering factors (n = 90)
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) A focus group discussion was conducted on 13th December 2015 at the studied village by involving 10 male and 4 female farmers aged 30
822 to 65 years on the topic of present socio-economic burden due to climate variability for the last 10 years. It was noted that the agriculture has been the main source of income for their livelihoods. Apart from that they engaged in livestock raring mainly cow and goat and also daily waging. Besides they had also performed occasional fishing and wood cutting for their subsistence. For the last 10 years, they suffered a lot for uneven climate variability in this region. All of them agreed that erratic rain fall during monsoon and post monsoon season may heavily impact in the form of low agriculture output. The temperature during summer was rapidly increased and reflected in the form of draught. The water bodies in and around the village were shrinking rapidly. One of the main causes of increased temperature was de-forestation at Susunia hill tracks for the last three decades. These anthropogenic incidences were not only hampered on their livelihoods but also influenced on surrounding biodiversity. For the last two decades, the local Mahua and Sal trees were disappeared. The extinction of fauna was also noted along with extinction of some indigenous fish from ponds and rivers. They believed that the prevalence of cold and cough as well as the prevalence of tuberculosis was increased due to sudden increased of temperature. They clearly told that summer period has been extended and food stock has been diminishing. They also reported that the earth worm is not visible in the recent times due to dryness of the top soil in their agricultural land. Similarity leafy vegetable like Kantha Shak, which was important source of nutrient during post harvesting season, were also extinct. The reason behind these events may be the excessive use of chemical fertilizer in their agricultural land in the recent time. Earlier they cultivated some wild verities of paddy like Uperlaya, Vutmuri, Kaya etc. but due low productivity and absence of seeds, the replaced into high yielding varieties of paddy at present like Lal Swarna, Sada Swarna, Jaya, Padda, Puja etc. However, it needs sufficient amount of water, which they don’t have. They explained that earlier when they performed worship of land Goddess before the start of agriculture, the rain came within a week but now a day, the rain came even after one month. Therefore, their sociocultural believe system was also getting hampered. The World Bank had come forward for making two Check Dams in the river (locally known as Jhara) running at the north western part of the village by the help of local Susunia gram Panchayat. This is basically for supplying water for cultivation in a sustainable way. However, they have some confusion regarding the distribution of water especially for the high land (Danga Jami). They often scared for their future agriculture and ways of earning. Presently they encouraged the young generation to educate themselves and involve in service instead of cultivation. They believed that the rainfall
823 in future will be getting more erratic. For mitigating strategies for water scarcity, the traditional village council of Santal community made some restriction in use of water from village pond during post monsoon season. This may heavily decreased the vegetable cultivation after rain fed agriculture. Currently they were eager to learn the new technologies for cultivation. The hope lies on the Government agricultural farm at Susunia and local NGOs, who may provide their expertise to train the villagers and transfer them sufficient skills for mitigating the problem of climate variability in the studied community. Conclusions On the basis of the above discussion, it may be concluded that the Santal tribe of Gidhuria village at Bankura district perceived that the climate is changing with the evidences like increased heat, decreased cold and shifting of rainy seasons over the years. The regional meteorological findings also supported their perception. The major impact was on agricultural production with low output due to water scarcity, followed by some visible changes in biodiversity. They used to take different adaptive strategies by using their local knowledge but failed to overcome it due to several hindrances. These erratic conditions have forced the villagers to migrate in other districts or urban areas in search of their secondary earning as daily wage labour, which form a new socio-economic dimension for their survival. Finally the low level of education, insufficient household income and inadequate use of new technologies may have also taken into consideration due to its strong association with people’s adaptation capacity to climate change. As because, it is beyond any doubt that enhancing adaptive capacity of climate change/variability among the marginalized people including Indian tribes with small landholding will be the most important policy option in smoothing the sustainable development of the community. However, in-depth study is required to understand this complex nature of climate change at micro level and its impact. The probable solution should be made through providing proper awareness along with - training and skill development on modern agricultural practice in dry weather condition. References Adaptation Fund. (2014) Enhancing Adaptive Capacity and Increasing Resilience of Small and Marginal Farmers in Purulia and Bankura Districts of West Bengal. Adaptation Fund Board. Project and Programme Review Committee Fifteenth meeting, Bonn, Germany, 7-8 October 2014, Agenda Item 6 h). Proposal from India, 2014, submitted by DRCSC and NABARD.
824 Amir, K.I. and Ahmed, T. (2013) Climate Change and Its Impact on Food Security in Bangladesh: A Case Study on Kalapara, Patuakhali, Bangladesh. Journal of Earth Science and Climate Change, [Online] 4 (5): 155. Available from doi:10.4172/ 2157-7617.1000155 [Accessed on 15th July, 2015] Asia Indigenous Peoples’ Pact (AIPP) and the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). (2014) Shifting Cultivation, Livelihood and Food Security New and Old Challenges for Indigenous Peoples in Asia. Chiang Mai, Thailand. Census of India (2011) Census of India 2011. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, Government of India, New Delhi. Chakrabarty S. (2015). People’s Perception on Climate Change: A Case Study among the Rabha Tribe Living in Fringe Forest Areas of North Bengal, India. In Climate Change and Socio-Ecological Transformation. Edited by V.P. Sati and Others. New Delhi: Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, pp 1-11. Chakrabarty, S., and Bharati, P. (2012). Household economy and nutritional status among the Shabar tribe living in a protected forest area of Orissa, India. Human Biology Review, 1, 16-33. Chinlampianga M. (2011) Traditional Knowledge, weather prediction and bioindicators: A case study in Mizoram, Northeastern India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 10: 207-211. Dey A. (2015) An Ancient History: Ethnographic Study of the Santhal. International Journal of Novel Research in Humanity and Social Sciences, 2: 31-38. FAO. (2014) Adapting to climate change through land and water management in Eastern Africa Results of pilot projects in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, USA. IPCC. (2007) Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group 2: Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Accessed on 14 th September, 2016. http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm. Ishaya, S.and Abaje, I. B. (2008) Indigenous people’s perception on climate change and adaptation strategies in Jema’a local government area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, 1: 138-143. Mbilinyi, A., Saibul, G. O., and Kazi, V. (2013) Impact of climate change to small scale farmer: Vice of farmers in village communities in Tanzania. ESRF Discussion Paper No. 47. Economic and Social Research Foundation, Ursino Estate. Ministry of Tribal Affairs.(2013) Annual Report 2012-13. Ministry of Tribal Affairs. New Delhi, Government of India. Ministry of Tribal Affairs. (2014) Report of the High Level Committee on Socio-economic, Health and Educational Status of Tribal Communities of India. New Delhi: Government of India. NABARD Consultancy Service. (2007) Comprehensive district agricultural plan for Jalpaiguri (undivided) district, 2007-2012. West Bengal. Nadamani, F. and Watanabe, T. (2016). Determinants of farmers’ adaption to climate change: A micro level analysis in Ghana. Scientia Agricola, 73: 201-208.
825 Nema, J., and Tripathi, H. (2013) Awareness and Risk Perception to Climate Variability among Baiga and Gond Tribes in Chhattisgarh State of India. International Journal of Livestock Research, 3: 49-57. Revi, A. (2008) Climate change risk: an adaptation and mitigation agenda for Indian cities. Environment and Urbanization, 20: 207-229. Sainath, S. (2002) Everybody loves a Good Drought: Stories from India’s Poorest Districts. New Delhi: Penguin. Sengupta, M., and Chakrabarty, S. (2015) Rainfall, Agriculture and Socio-economic Transformation: A Study from Kalchini Block of Alipurduar District in North Bengal, India. In Climate Change and Socio-Ecological Transformation. Edited by V.P. Sati and Others. New Delhi: Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, Pp 133-147. Singh, R.K., Bhowmik, S.N., and Pandey, C.B. (2011) Biocultural diversity, climate change, and livelihood security of the Adi community: Grassroots conservators of eastern Himalaya, Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 10: 39— 56. United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII). (2008) Indigenous people Indigenous voice. Accessed on 18th July, 2016. http://www.un.org/en/events/ indigenousday/pdf/Backgrounder_ClimateChange_FINAL.pdf WBPCB. (2016) State Environment Report,2016. West Bengal, West Bengal Pollution Control Board, Kolkata: Saraswaty Press Ltd. Pp 275-276. World Bank. (2014) Republic of India. India: Food Security and Nutrition in Tribal Areas. Report No: ACS9269. SASDL SASDS South Asia, Washington, DC, 2014.
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Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 827-838, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
61 Does Global Warming a blessing for Areca nut cultivators in Mizoram K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva and PC Lalrohlua Department of Geography & RM, Mizoram University, Aizawl Email:
[email protected]
Abstract The problems causes by global warming are multiple. It costs many lives and undue situation globally. Many scientists and scholars talk about the negative impacts and work hard to mitigate increasing green house gases worldwide by predicting the uncertainty of future generations. However, the effects and responses of global warming might not be similar across the world, particularly the responses of the hilly state like Mizoram. This paper is an attempt to investigate how global warming is responsible for increasing areca nut production in the selected villages of Hortoki and Bilkhawthlir located in the north western part of the state. Literatures tell us that certain plant species have been migrated upward and towards north or south poles following favourable temperatures cause by global warming. Present study is also base on the assumption that during the last few years areca nut attains ideal climatic environment in certain pocket of Mizoram wherein before, the area was not warm enough to bear the nut or even if it bore a nut/fruit it cannot ripe properly. It is interesting to reveals that areca nut plantation becoming much more productive during the last couple of years compared with roughly the previous 20 years or more ago. This reality can be a blessing for areca nut planter in Mizoram. Key words: Global warming, areca nut, production, ripen, market
828 Introduction Global warming and Climate change is one of the greatest concerned in the 21st century. It is well-established fact that global warming has multiple negative effects world-wide. Many literatures showed how global warming and climate change disturb normal ecosystem. This reality may not need to elaborate in this article rather the ironical facts based on the pilot research done in Mizoram on areca nut plantation is interesting and worth to consider. This pilot study found that global warming is one of the most important drivers of increasing production of areca nut in Mizoram. IPCC estimated that global mean surface temperature have risen by 0.74 ºC±0.18 ºC when estimated by a linear trend over the last 100 years and the warming rate during last 50 years is almost double that of the last 100 . According to the regional climate report of IPCC (2007), the entire Asian region is very likely to warm during the last 100 years. The temperature is likely to be above the mean in East and South Asia, and similar to the mean temperature in Southeast Asia. (Kunihisa Morinaga, 2016) Research has shown that Northeast India, home to about 40 million people, has warmed significantly in the last 10 years and the situation could get worse in the near future. Average temperatures are projected to increase by about 1.7°C in almost all the districts of the Northeast, according to a study conducted by Prof. N. H. Ravindranath from the Indian Institute of Science and supported by KfW Development Bank on behalf of Germany’s Federal Government (Source: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/ articles/surviving-amid-change-meghalaya-video) Areca nut production in India is the largest in the world, as per FAO statistics for 2013, accounting for 49.74 % of its world output and is exported to many countries. Within India, as of 2013-14, Karnataka produces 62.69 percent of the crop followed by Kerala and Assam; all three states together account for 88.59 percent of its production. In the other states of Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, where it is also consumed, the crop is grown in a very small area. In Karnataka, in the Shivamoga District the crop is grown extensively, and is considered by the plantation owners as a prestige symbol (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Areca_nut_production_in_India) Migration of crops along with temperature is also proven from literature. Elizabeth Weise, USA today, September, 2013 reported interesting story that “John Nowatzki’s brother left North Dakota in 1965.
829 Two years ago, he came back for a visit. The brothers spent a day driving around the area where their family had farmed cool-season grains like wheat and barley for almost 100 years. Only now the fields were full of warm-season corn and soybeans” (usatoday.com.googlrweblight.com/). This is one proof of crop migration, which we are hopeful to identify in the case of areca nut cultivation in Mizoram. The Assam tribune and Down to Earth magazine reported that ‘Assam Muga Silk’ may soon become a passé as Mizoram is likely to unseat Assam as one of the major centres of muga silk production due to increasing temperature. This report is based on a pilot survey conducted in 2012 and 2013 which found that the high-altitude of Mizoram, Nagaland and other Himalayan states showed promising results for muga silkworm rearing due to global warming whereas Assam faced drastic decline in muga silk production in the recent years. It is well known that the reality of global warming is felt everywhere including Mizoram. Before 2000 Mizoram maximum temperature record hardy reached 300C and today 300C is normal in the summer day and often experiences 330C. It is therefore obvious that increasing temperature will have some positive or negative impact to the whole ecosystem of the state. It was reported that areca nut never be a native plant in Mizoram as the temperature is not conducive for its cultivation in the past years. Even though present study villages are growing areca nut many years ago, it could not ripen properly as temperature was colder than it requires. However, since some years back, the areca nut can ripen properly and the production also increase and due to which a good number of families are encourage to cultivate the plant. We are therefore hope to the fact that global warming can be the main reason for increasing production of areca nut cultivation in the study areas and pilot survey has been conducted during April, 2017. Geographical Attributes of the Study Area The geographical attributes of present study is extremely important because the affect of global warming varies on elevation and typical geographical position. Both Hortoki and Bilkhawthlir villages are located in Kolasib district in the northwestern part of Mizoram, comparatively in the low lying area and not far from Assam plain areas. Among the eight district capital of Mizoram, Kolasib is the lowest in altitude with 880m above mean sea level. As a result of this low-lying area, the district in general and the two selected villages in particular are relatively warmer
830 than many villages in Mizoram, which is one ideal condition for areca nut cultivation. Table 1. Geographical attributes of the study areas Village
Hortoki
District
Kolasib o
Bilkhawthlir Kolasib o
Lat-Long
24 03.819' N-92 35.731E
24 0 19.811’N to 920 42.641’E
Elevation
70 m
460m
Accessibility
20 km from NH-4,Unmettaled
NH-54 passes, Metalled
Climate
Warm and moist
Warm and moist
Temperature
15-34 0C (approximate-2016)
14-33 0 C (approximate-2016)
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017
The geographical location is also close to each other as Bilkhawthlir is located more north than Hortoki with 24o 03.819' N-92o 35.731’E and 240 19.811’N to 920 42.641’E latitude and longitudes respectively. Hortoki village is lower in altitude and closer to Tlawng river, the longest Mizoram river while Bilkhawthlir is more in the proximity of Serlui river. These two rivers somehow play an important role in controlling the temperature and humidity of the two villages and also provide favourable climatic condition for areca nut plantation. Research Methods Present study is a pilot research on the impact of global warming on areca nut production. Only two villages of Bilkhawthlir and Hortoki are selected for field investigation as these two villages are recently popular for their cultivation of areca nut. Both qualitative and quantitative data are use for the present research. For secondary sources we used - Book, Magazine, Articles, Journal (especially E-journals) and Meteorological data of Mizoram, published by Mizoram Remote Sensing Application Centre, Aizawl. Regarding primary sources, questionnaires were prepared for households in both English and Mizo. Questionnaire contains the following: Farmers’ understanding about areca nut, year of cultivation started, their past experiences about the plant, understanding about global warming, their observation about variation of productivity and the reasons as well as market of the areca nut production.
831 Sample Size We applied purposive sampling technique as all the households in both villages are not areca nut planter. We select only those family cultivating areca nut and the universe is not from total household in the villages but from the total household of areca nut cultivators. Similarly, sample sizes are also taken from total cultivator of areca nut. Table 2. Household Sample Bilkhawthlir Village
Hortoki Village Household Number
%
Household Number
%
Sample size
50
9
30
50
Number of Areca nut grower
550
100
60
100
Total Household (2011 census)
1100
490
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017& Census of India-2011
Table-2 shows that the sample size in Bilkhawthlir was relatively so small because in Bilkhawthlir they have active association that maintain proper records about areca nut plantation and they can give us detail information whereas Hortoki village do not have any association to maintain records and as a result we need to collect 50 % sample. Research Question Present study is based on the assumption that areca nut plantation is comparatively much more productive in the recent years due to global warming. The main research question of present research is that ‘Does global warming a blessing for areca nut planter in Mizoram? Even though global warming has countless negative impacts across the world, it may also have positive impact in the hilly state of Mizoram. Objectives 1. To study the history of areca nut cultivation in the study area 2. To examine production of areca nut cultivation 3. To investigate the role of global warming in the production of areca nut cultivation. Discussion India is the largest producer and consumer of areca nut palm in the world. Mostly areca nut palm are grown in the warm and humid temperature.
832 Major producing states in India are Karnataka, Kerala, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya and West Bengal. Literatures reveal that areca nut palm can thrives well in wide verities of soil. It requires annual rainfall of between 750 mm to 4500 mm. This crop can be grown in an altitude up to 1000 m above mean sea level. The ideal temperature range is 100 C to 400C (source: www.agrifarming.in/arecanut-cultivation/ dated: 10/06/2017). History in Mizoram The cultivation of areca nut palm never popular in Mizoram as the climatic condition used to be moderate and cold temperature throughout the year. Even though there is no historical record of reliable climatic data, it is well known by the people that Mizoram never be a warm state rather it experiences ice-dew in many places across the state 30 years back. Therefore, it is hardly an ideal place for cultivation of areca nut. Betel nut, the product of areca nut is also known by Mizoram mainly from Khasi people of Meghalaya and Assam. The state never had large scale production even till today as the climatic condition is not favourable in many places, particularly the temperature. Bilkhawthlir village has the longer history of areca nut plantation compared with Hortoki village. The areca nut planter association of Bilkhawthlir recorded that areca nut cultivation was started in the year 1953 by Mr. Liankhuma without much success. However, present research clearly reveals that Mr Hmartawnvunga of Bilkhawthlir popularized areca nut plantation. He started areca nut plantation in the year 1965 but in a meager quantity and without much success. In 1977 he starts planting Assam variety (as the local called it) but that was also failed. It appears from his statement that areca nut plantation was not much success before 1980 in the Bilkhawthlir village located at an altitude of 460m above mean sea level before 37 years ago. Therefore, at least in Bilkhawthlir, the present success story of areca nut plantation was only during the last 37 years or so. Hortoki village has a younger history of areca nut cultivation compared with Bilkhawthlir village. The Hortoki village started areca nut plantation only in 1994 with small quantity along the lemon fruit and without noticeable success. But since then they start planting gradually in large quantity. Thus, the planting history of Hortoki village shows that areca nut plantation is new and a recent success merely around 10 or 15 years back. Therefore, plantation history clearly shows that the success story of areca nut in the selected two villages is recent and also can be assumed that the climatic condition was not much favourable in the past 50 years
833 ago. Most importantly, areca nut was not native species of Mizoram and so from the beginning they imported from outside the state. Production Trends of Areca Nut The above historical discourse makes us wonder why areca nut plantation was successful today in the study villages while it was not success in the past years. This is an interesting research question that we challenge to answer. Under normal circumstances, the soil fertility of areca nut cultivation might be poorer or at least similar compared with the past cultivation and present cultivation. But in such situation the production is much more today than the previous 30 years back. If that is the case, soil is not responsible for present success of the villages. If so, global warming might be the main driver. Since Bilkhawthlir has a longer planting history, they have proper association with some records while Hortoki village does not have any proper record and no association, which make limitation of present research. Variety of Areca Nut Plantation Table-3 discusses about variety of areca nut plantation in the study villages. There are two popular varieties, such as Assam variety and Dessi/ Local variety. Table-3. Variety of Areca nut cultivation Bilkhawthlir Village
Hortoki Village
Variety
Number
%
Number
%
Assam
28
56
17
56.67
Dessi/Local
0
0
13
43.33
Both
22
44
0
0.00
Total
50
100
30
100.00
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017
Table-3 reveals that in Bilkhawthlir village 56 % grows Assam variety while 44 % grow both Assam and Dessi/Local variety. In Hortoki, Assam variety is more common than Dessi/Local variety as 56.67% grow Assam variety while 43% households grow Dessi variety. Production Pattern Table-4 shows that all the cultivators reported that production of areca nut was increases year after year. Interestingly this is true in both villages.
834 Table-4. Production pattern of Areca nut Bilkhawthlir
Hortoki
Production
Number
%
Number
%
Increases with year
50
100
30
100
Decreases with year
0
0
0
0
Not decrease or Increase
0
0
0
0
Total
50
100
30
100
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017
Comparative Income from Areca Nut Yield In order to confirm the statement above table-4, the actual earning of household from areca nut yield was asked. Table-5 clearly reveals that the earning from areca nut was increases enormously within a span of only five years. The average annual income from areca nut was much higher among farmers of Bilkhawthlir compared with Hortoki farmers. When we compared last year earning of both the villages Bilkhawthlir generated average income of as much as Rs 858039 compared with Hortoki income of 5113. What is more important is the five year gap differences in both villages. Table 5. Comparative Income from Areca nut yield Bilkhawthlir Village
Hortoki Village
Last year earning
In Rs
Before 5 year
Differences In Rs
Before 5 year
Differences
Average
858039
323529
534510
35967
5113
30854
Total
43760000 16500000 27260000
1079000
154300
924700
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017
As shown in table-5, last year average annual income of Bilkhawthlir village was Rs 858039 which was much more than the average income five years ago with Rs 323529. Within a short span of five years, the income generated from areca nut plantation was highly varied with Rs 534510. Similarly, average annual earning of Hortoki was also hugely varied within a span of merely five years. Average income of last year among farmers of Hortoki was Rs 35967 which was comparatively higher than the annual income five years ago with merely Rs 5113. The difference between these five years was Rs 30854.In the same way, total earning of last year and five years ago was extremely different in both villages (table-
835 5). This drastic change of production quantity was amazing as it can really provide higher income and contributes fro better livelihood of the villages. Trends of Income from Areca Nut Production in Bilkhawthlir Since Bilkhawthlir village has areca nut grower association, information of the past years can be taken whereas the same kinds of informations are not available from farmers of Hortoki. According to the record of Areca nut Grower Association of Bilkhawthlir, income generated from areca nut production was exceedingly increases within the last six years. Table-6 reflects that there was a continuous increase of income among the farmers since 2010 onwards. In 2010-2011 the income of areca nut grower association of Bilkhawthlir was Rs 609960, which increases to 12727700 in 2011-2012 and ascending fairly high up to Rs 32000000 in 2015-2016. Table 6. Bilkhawthlir Village: Trends of income from Areca nut Production Years
Production (Rupees)
Year-wise differences
2010-2011
609960
12117740
2011-2012
12727700
707150
2012-2013
13434850
5639280
2013-2014
19074130
5425870
2014-2015
24500000
7500000
2015-2016
32000000
Source: Areca nut Grower Association of Bilkhawthlir The year-wise differences were also significantly varied. This clearly shows that areca nut plantation is a blessing for farmers of Bilkhawthlir village. Does Global Warming Play a Role for Increases of Areca Nut Production Farmers in both the villages are questions about their opinion on why is the areca nut production increases. The observations in both the villages were varied. In Bilkhawthlir, the highest number of 45 (90%) reported that increasing production is mainly due to increasing temperature or global warming whereas in Hortoki a lesser number of 28 (93%) are of the viewed that global warming is the main driver of increasing areca nut production.
836 In Bilkhawthlir 42 (84%) reported that market improvement is the reason of production increases of areca nut while as much as 29 (97%) in the case of Hortoki village. A good number of 36 (72%) reasoned that favourable climatic condition is the main factor responsible for increasing production of areca nut while as many as 29 (97%) have similar opinion among farmers of Hortoki village. Table 7. Reason of increasing production Bilkhawthlir
Hortoki
Why
Number
%
Number
%
Market improvement
42
84
29
97
Favourable climatic condition 36
72
29
97
Global warming
45
90
28
93
Total
50
100
30
100
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017 Table-7 clearly shows that global warming is the main driver of increasing production of areca nut. Market improvement is only after production and it cannot be the main driver even though it is important. Pondering all other determinants of increasing productivity, soil fertility might be one important factor but this is also not much to give weightage as soils are somehow similar compared with the time when they failed to grow and today. One respondent says that ‘even 20 years back, the areca nut palm bore fruit/nut but it cannot ripen but today it can ripen’. This really reflects the validity of global warming for increasing productivity. Decreasing Spring Water Sources It is often encountered by researcher in various studies that the farmers or the respondents are not fully understand why things are happened around them because they usually don’t think in the way researcher think and sometime they simply not curious enough to know the reasons why things happened, which were usually reflected in the way answers. Present questionnaire also structure in such a way that, even if the respondents do not fully understand or cannot rationally answer the determining factors of why areca nut can be grown now, we add additional information to prove the validity of global warming. In order to do that we asked their observation on the volume of water in the river/spring near their villages
837 compared with the past years. Table-8. Do you observed springs water volume decreases Bilkhawthlir
Hortoki Number
%
Number
%
Yes
50
100
30
100
No
0
0
0
0
Total
50
100
30
100
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017
All the respondents of both the villages replied that river/spring water in the vicinity of their villages is gradually dry up and the water volume decreases year by year. This is another way of identifying the reality of global warming that happened in the areas. It is also proves that many respondents are not understand the concept of global warming and they lack to link with areca nut cultivation. However, when asked that ‘do you feel temperature are warmer than the past years’ and all of them replied ‘yes’, which clearly validate global warming as one main driver of areca nut cultivation. Generally, that soil condition is also poorer in today’s cultivated area compared with when they start planting areca nut 30 years ago but it bear more fruits today mainly because of warmer temperature. Market for Areca nut Production Apart from global warming, respondents are asked question on market condition of the farmers in both the villages. All of them reported that they do not have market problem. Interestingly, they sell their product outside Mizoram. Mostly buyers from nearby state of Assam came and pluck areca nut from the tree when it ripens and the farmer just to get money from the buyers. Thus all of them sell outside the state. Table-9. Market for areca nut production Bilkhawthlir
Hortoki
Where do you sell
Number
%
Number
%
Within Mizoram
0
10
0
0
Outside Mizoram
50
100
30
100
Total
50
100
30
100
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017
838 Findings and Conclusion Taken together of the above analysis, it can be concluded that(1) Historically, areca nut cultivation never become popular in Mizoram and the seeds are imported from neighbouring states like Assam and Meghalaya. (2) Research find out that areca nut production in the study villages are increases drastically within the recent times and a good number of families are depend on it. (3) Among different potential determinants like global warming, soil fertility and market opportunities; global warming seems the most important determinant for increasing productivity of areca nut in the study areas. (4) Readily market became one of the most important drivers of areca nut cultivators. (5) It is interesting to note that, the areca nut fruit/nut cannot properly ripen 20 years back but it really ripen nicely today due to increasing temperature. Therefore, our objective and research question are answered by the fact that global warming is becoming a blessed for areca nut cultivator in Mizoram at least today. References: Impact of Climate Change on Horticulture Industry and Technological Countermeasures in Japan- Kunihisa Morinaga (2016), Research manager, National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO IPCC (2007): Observations: surface and atmospheric climate change, Fourth Assessment Report: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter3.pdf IPCC (2007): Regional Climate Projections, Fourth Assessment Report Source: http://www.fftc.agnet.org/library.php?func=view&id=20120104150721&type_ id=4 usatoday.com.googlrweblight.com
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 839-851, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
62 Multi-temporal Standardized Precipitation Index and Regional Drought Monitoring in the Western Part of West Bengal Pradip Patra CSIR-SRF, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, E-mail:
[email protected] Abstract Drought is considered as one of the most important natural hazards in the world, and it ranks the first in case of total number of affected people are concerned. Drought may occur due to scarcity of moisture. Therefore, precipitation is the most important factor of drought, but other climatic factors like temperature, relative humidity and wind too influence drought. There are a number of methodologies available to study drought that varies from one region to the other. In general, droughts are classified into four types- meteorological, hydrological, agricultural and socio-economic. There are various drought indices developed, e.g. the simplest index, like: Percentage of Normal, to complex one, like: Palmar Drought Severity Index. McKee, Doesken and Kleist (1993) developed Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), which has been accepted by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and other important meteorological institutes worldwide. In this study, multi-temporal SPI has been calculated to quantify the characteristics of the drought in the western part of the state of West Bengal. Application of SPI does not only monitor regional drought phenomena, it also gives long-term climatic characteristics of a region in terms of dry and wet period, which is the prime objective of this paper. It has been found that both the duration and intensity have changed from one district to the other. Key Points: Meteorological Drought Indices, Regional Drought, SPI, Western West Bengal
840 Introduction Assessment Report Five (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) pointed out the fact that as a result of the increasing surface temperature of the earth, various climatic phenomena also has changed their characteristics. It is now an established fact that frequency and intensity of climate extremes will increase with the changing climate. Various researchers have pointed out that extreme event such as, droughts, heat wave, cold wave, high intensive precipitation, dry days frequency, storm intensities are likely to increase in recent time as well as in the near future (Frich et. al. 2000; Emanuel, K., 2005; Alexander, L.V. et. al., 2006). Easterling, R. D. et. al. (2000) pointed out the fact that, with the rise in climatic extremes, the magnitude of loss too will increase in the future. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) defines a drought index as “an index which is related to some of the cumulative effects of a prolonged and abnormal deficiency.” Drought is a slow onset and long lasting environmental hazards. A drought is a period of dry normal conditions, and usually occurs when an area receives considerably less precipitation compared to the normal one. It is the result of many factors, and accordingly it is classified into different categories. In general, drought can be classified into four categories like meteorological, hydrological, agricultural and socio-economic (Palmer, 1965; Wilhite and Glantz, 1985 and White and Walcott, 2009). It is indeed a big challenge to define and monitor drought. So, the preparedness of drought planning and its monitoring depends on spatio-temporal availability of the data from various sources like meteorological, hydrological, vegetation information, etc. WMO also clarify that, an ideal drought index should have the following criteria: (1) The timescale should be appropriate to define problem, and (2) it should be a quantitative measure of large-scale, long-continuing drought conditions (intensity, duration, spatial extent). Thus, various drought indices (DIs) have been propounded by the different scholars like Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI), Palmer Hydrological Index (PDHI), Palmer (1965) Rainfall Anomaly Index, RAI (Van Rooy, 1965), Deciles (Gibbs and Maher, 1967), Crop Moisture Index, CMI (Palmer, 1968), Surface Water Supply Index, SWSI (Shafer and Dezman, 1982), Vegetation Condition Index, VCI (Kogan, 1990), Standardized Precipitation Index, SPI (McKee et. al. 1993), Temperature Condition Index, TCI and Vegetation Health Index, VHI (Kogan, 1995), Normalized Difference Water Index, NDWI (Gao, 1996), Effective Drought Index, EDI (Byun and Wilhite, 1999), Reconnaissance Drought Index, RDI (Tsakiris et. al., 2007) etc. Before the arrival of SPI, PDSI was widely accepted DI, but due to the complexity of the calculation,
841 it has lost its reputation. Now SPI is accepted worldwide due to its versatility and flexibility (Hayes, et. al., 1998). In 2009 WMO meeting, the Lincoln workshop highlighted on Drought Early Warning System (DEWS) and recommend that the SPI should be computed and used by different meteorological or hydrological services as the common meteorological drought index along with their own drought index. Various researchers have analyzed multi-temporal SPIs to determine the causes and intensity of the drought phenomena, like Loukas et. al. (2004), Dai (2013) and Homdee (2016). As it is time independent, researchers often used SPI for different kind of drought monitoring. McKee et. al. (1993) and Lincoln Declaration (2011) pointed out the fact that, SPI is a more meteorological drought than other types of droughts. While multitemporal drought analysis different time scale have been used by different researchers like Umran Komuscu (1999), Mahfouz et. al. (2016). On the other hand, with the effect of global warming, probability of drought occurrences and its change of intensity were done by various researchers and found that frequency and intensity of the drought event is increased in recent past and will be increases in upcoming future (Dai, 2013, Trenberth, 2014, Touma et. al. 2015, Farahmand et. al. 2015). Objectives Main objectives of this paper are – •
To analyze multi-temporal Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) of the study region.
•
To compare different types of drought among the districts of the region.
•
To know the onset and maximum intensity of the recent drought using DI.
Data and Methodology To look into the drought scenario of the area, 113 years of mean monthly precipitation data of five districts, collected from India Meteorological Department (IMD) Pune, are used. The data is almost complete, only 2% to 3% are missing data, for the entire 113 years of period, hence it is quite reliable. Those small quantity missing data are filled up by simple arithmetic method and normal ration method, which is applicable for suitable cases. After the data preparation i.e. missing data calculation and completion of data MS Excel software is used to compute multi temporal SPI. Total 113 years of data taken, so for SPI3 calculation,
842 data start from 1901 March to 2013 December total 1354 time step. For spatio-temporal analysis of the drought centroid has been generated each of the district and its spatial distribution has been done using Inverse Distance Weightage (IDW) interpolation techniques of ArcGIS 10.2. The Study Area The present study area is extended from 21Ú46¹ 42º N to 24Ú 36¹ 04º N and 85Ú47 ¹ 21º E to 88Ú 23¹ 0ºE covering an area of 34,200 sq.km of the South-Western part of West Bengal. The study area lies between the plateau fringe zone of West Bengal, rainfall gradually decreasing from the eastern part of the study area (1567mm) to the western part (1307mm) and the southern part of the study area to northern part of the study area. But the variability of the precipitation is the maximum throughout the region, hence one district may face acute drought, but the other portion are not same as the previous part. On the other hand, temperature also increases from the south eastern part to the north western part of the study area. The maximum and minimum temperatures lie between 45ÚC and 6ÚC in summer and winter months.
Figure 1: Location map of the study area
Classification of Droughts Droughts can be grouped as meteorological, hydrological, agricultural, and socioeconomic (Wilhite and Glantz, 1985). First, Meteorological drought is defined solely on the degree of dryness, expressed as a departure of actual precipitation from an expected average. Second, Hydrological drought is related to the effects of precipitation shortfalls on stream flows and reservoir, lake, and groundwater levels. Third, Agricultural drought is defined principally in terms of soil moisture deficiencies relative to water demands of plant life, usually crops. Fourth, Socioeconomic drought associates the supply and demand of economic
843 goods or services with elements of meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural drought. Drought Index-Standardized Precipitation Indices (SPI) Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) developed by McKee, Doesken and Kleist (1993) is used to estimate the intensity and duration of the drought event. In general, computation of SPI requires the fitting of a probability distribution of precipitation records for the timescale of interest in order to define probability to the precipitation. Then the fitted probability distribution is normalized to a standard normal distribution using the inverse normal function. In standard normal distribution, the mean of the variance SPI for the location and desired time period are 0 and 1 respectively. Therefore, for any observed precipitation data, the SPI value is the deviation from entire standard normal distribution. Multi-temporal SPI index have been calculated as stated by McKee et. al. (1993). All the equation of the computation of SPI are available in the research papers of Karavitis et. al. (2011), Juliani et. al. (2017). Table- 1: Classification of Drought Drought Category
SPI values
Mild Drought(MD)
0 to -0.99
Moderate Drought(MoD)
-1.00 to -1.49
Severe Drought(SD)
-1.50 to -1.99
Very Severe Drought (VSD)
Ca>Mg>K except in some samples where Na is replaced by Ca in cationic abundance. The order of abundance in anionic chemistry is HCO3>Cl>SO4>NO3. The plots of chemical data on trilinear diagram reveal that majority sub-surface and groundwater samples fall in the field of 1 suggesting that alkaline earths exceed alkalies, and weak acids exceed strong acids respectively. Thus, the total hydrochemistry of sub- surface water in the area under study is dominated by alkaline earths and weak acids. Chloride and sulphate do not exceed bicarbonate in any of the samples. Most of sub- surface waters and groundwater in the study area occur as Ca-Na-HCO3 facies while in some samples sodium is sometimes replaced by magnesium giving rise to Ca-Mg-HCO3 facies (Fig. 5).
Fig. 3 Ternary diagram for cation compositions.
Fig.4 Ternary diagram for anion compositions
1050
Fig. 5 Piper tri-linear diagram.
From the generated data, the pH in the samples ranges from 6 to 7.45 (Fig. 8) which are found well within prescribe limit for the quality of drinking water as specified by BIS 2012. The pH value of 7.0 is considered to be advisable and ideal for the human being (Santhi 2012). The weight of the residue consisting as dissolved ions that are left behind after all the water from a water sample is evaporated is a measure of the TDS and it reflects the general nature of the groundwater quality and extent of contamination ( Davis and de Wiest 1966; AWWA 2005). The BIS specification limit (BIS IS 105001983) for TDS is about 500 mg/l, whereas the WHO permissible limit (WHO 2012) is 1,000 mg/l. In general, TDS values of 1,000 mg/l are considered brackish. The total dissolved solids (TDS) value ranged from 140-260. It is reported that the higher concentration of TDS produce distress in human livestock (Yadav 2010). All turbidity value ranges from 0.0 to 0.5. The WHO recommendation of turbidity is 5NTU. The high turbidity may be due to improper drainage system where domestic wastes are drained. The chloride in the sample ranges from 14.89 to 84.37. Total hardness ranges from 64 to 130 mg/l. WHO (2012) recommended (100500 mg/l) as safe permissible limit for hardness. The nitrate concentrations in all the samples are within desirable limit 0 to 10mg/l. Total hardness is an important property that indicates the quality of groundwater which is affected by calcium and magnesium cations. The desirable limit for TH is up to 200 mg/l, but it is acceptable up to 600 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983). The hardness measured in all the water samples were rather low, ranging between minimum of 64 mg/I to maximum of 130 mg/I (Fig. 6). All the samples were well within the acceptable limits. Sodium [Na+] in natural
1051 water is mainly the soluble products released during the weathering of plagioclase feldspars; sodium concentration of the samples varies from 4.5 to 12.1 mg/l. These values were well below the WHO specification of 200 mg/l for domestic use (WHO 2003). Potassium [K+] Ionic is usually found at low concentrations in groundwater and are however can increase by excessive use of fertilizer in surface as well as in groundwater. Its concentrations in the study area are varying from 0.21 to2.52 mg/l. Calcium [Ca2+] concentration of the area is varying from 8.8 to 216.8 mg/l, the permissible limit of calcium concentration is about 75 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983; WHO 1984), and concentrations of over 200 mg/l are considered excessive. All samples have calcium concentrations well below the permissible limit. Magnesium [Mg2+] also causes hardness in water (Fig.6). Magnesium concentration is varying between 9.6 and 43.77 mg/l. The permissible limit of magnesium is 30 mg/l (BIS IS 105001983; WHO 2012). All the samples of the study area except sample No.1 (Tlangnuam) and 3 (Tuivamit) are well within this limit. Chloride concentrations of the groundwater samples in the study area are varying from 26.8 to 84.37 mg/ l (Fig. 7). The WHO limit for chloride in groundwater is 250 mg/l (WHO 2003) and that of BIS 250 mg/l, and the maximum permissible limit in the absence of alternate source is 1,000 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983). All our samples are well under these limits. The bicarbonate concentration values in the samples vary from 25, 39 to 61.37 mg/l. Bicarbonates can cause alkalinity in natural water. Alkalinity of water defines as the measure of its capacity to neutralize acids. The WHO limit for alkalinity in water is 120 to 250 mg/l (WHO 2012) and that of the BIS limit is 200 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983). In the study area, there values range from 20 to 112 mg/l (Fig. 7). So, its alkalinity value is definitely within the WHO and BIS limits. Sulfate concentrations in our water samples vary from 1.14 to 3.64 mg/l. The WHO limit for sulfate concentration is 150 mg/l (WHO 2003). The desirable limit for BIS is 200 mg/l. Thus, all the samples are well within the permissible limit. Table 1: Physico-chemical analysis of water samples. Sample pH No
Odor
Color
Taste
1
6.91
Odorless
Colorless
2
6.0
Odorless
3
6.84
Odorless
Alka linity Mg/l
Total Hardness Mg/l
Turbid- TDSMg/l ity (NTU)
Tasteless 74
130
0.0-0.5 180
Colorless
Tasteless 112
128
0.0-0.5 130
Colorless
Tasteless 30
64
0.0-0.5 260
1052
4
6.76
Odorless
Colorless
Tasteless 96
118
0.0-0.5 140
5
7.5
Odorless
Colorless
Tasteless 80
92
0.0-0.5 150
6
7.45
Odorless
Colorless
Tasteless 102
70
0.0-0.5 200
7
6.0
Odorless
Colorless
Tasteless 66
128
0.0-0.5 140
8
7.0
Odorless
Colorless
Tasteless 20
84
0.0-0.5 165
9
6.95
Odorless
Colorless
Tasteless 90
72
0.0-0.5 180
10
6.84
Odorless
Colorless
Tasteless 74
98
0.0-0.5 200
Table 2: Analyses of anion and cation of water samples. Sample Chloride Calcium Magnes- Nitrate No Mg/l Mg/l ium Mg/l Mg/l
Sodium Potassi- Bicarbo- Sulphate Mg/l um Mg/l nate Mg/l Mg/l
1
51.62
14.4
42.23
10
12.1
1.18
44.16
3.19
2
71.46
8.8
22.56
10
7.2
2.52
44.32
3.64
3
53.6
10.4
43.77
0
9.1
0.66
61.37
1.38
4
26.8
14.4
19.68
0
9.3
1.49
25.39
2.17
5
15.89
14.4
13.44
10
5.9
2.11
33.57
1.42
6
84.37
12
9.6
0
4.5
0.76
25.41
3.06
7
53.6
10.4
24.48
10
4.6
1.78
41.31
1.02
8
14.89
16
10.56
10
5.2
2.12
36.31
1.16
9
57.57
16.8
7.2
10
8.6
0.21
43.45
1.15
10
53.6
15.2
14.4
10
11.4
0.36
42.18
1.14
Fig 6. Variation of calcium, magnesium and total hardness.
1053
Fig 7. Variation of Chloride and Alkalinity.
Fig 8. pH chart.
Conclusion From the above overall results obtained from the physico-chemical studies, it is concluded that water of the study areas are good for domestic use such as for cleaning, bathing and washing, but not for drinking purposes without boiling. As Mg Â30mg/l is present in few samples collected, it is found that it is also suitable for drinking purposes. In fact, consumption of drinking water even moderately high in Magnesium (at least 10ppm and up to more than 40ppm) can be expected to reduce cardiovascular mortality. References APHA, AWWA. (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water analysis, 20th edn. American Public Health Association, Washington DC. Bureau of Indian Standard (B.I.S). (2012) Indian standard drinking water specification (2 nd Revision). Blick, J. (2016) Quality assessment and characterization of potable water sources in SW Lawngtlai District in Mizoram, India. PhD thesis (unpub), Mizoram University. Blick, J., Kumar, S., Bharat B.K. and Kumar S. (2016). Status of Arsenic contamination in potable water in Chawngte, Lawngtlai, Mizoram, Science vision, 116 (2):7481. BIS IS 10500 (1983) Bureau of Indian Standards, Indian standards specification for drinking water.
1054 Davis, S.N., De Wiest, R.J.M. (1966) Hydrogeology. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York. Domenico, P.A., Schwartz, F.W. (1998) Physical and chemical hydrogeology. Wiley, New York. Karanth, K.R. (2001) Ground water assessment development and management. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi. Hem, J.D. (1991) Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural waters, Book 2254, 3rd edn. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur. Kumar, S., Singh, K.B. and Bharati, V.K. (2009) Assessment of spring water quality in Aizawl city, Mizoram. Journal of Applied Hydrology, 22 (3, 4): 6-11. Kumar, S., Bharti, V.K., Singh, K.B. and Singh, T.N. (2009) Quality assessment of potable water in the town of Kolasib, Mizoram (India). Environmental Earth Science. 61:115-121. Kumar, S., Baier, K., Jha, R. and Arab, J. (2013) Status of arsenic contamination in potable water of Northern areas of Mizoram state and its adjoining areas of Southern Assam, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 6(2): 383-393. Santhi, D. (2012) Assessment of water quality parameters in Kodumudiaru dam at Nanguneri Taluk of Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, India. Pollution Research, 31(1):83-86 Todd, D.K. (1980) Groundwater Hydrogeology. Wiley, New York. US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils, US Department of Agricultural soils. US Department of Agricultural Hand Book 60, Washington. Ward, A.D. and Elliot, W.J. (1995) Environmental Hydrology. Boca Raton, New York. World Health Organization (WHO) (1996) Health criteria and other supporting information. In: (2nd ed.), Guidelines for drinking-water quality 2, WHO, Geneva, pp. 940– 949. WHO. (2003) Hardness in drinking-water. Background document for preparation of WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality, Geneva. WHO. (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 4th ed. Geneva.
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 1055-1071, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
80 Contamination of Potable Water Sources of Lawngtlai Town, Mizoram John Blick and Shiva Kumar Department of Geology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004, Mizoram E-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract The area under study belongs to southern part of the state of Mizoram constituting north-east India. The region as a whole is in lime light because of its higher arsenic contamination in ground water sources including neighbouring states of Assam, Manipur, Tripura and also Bangladesh. The present study focused to establish the current status of physico-chemical characteristics along with toxic metals in order to determine its suitability for drinking and other domestic purposes in accordance to the Standards. Therefore, Tuikhurs and Hand pumps samples at different location were collected in the area and analyzed as per standard methods. The concentrations of heavy metals were determined by using Microwave Plasma- Atomic Emission Spectroscopy. Total E-coli was tested on Multiple-Tube Method. For anion and cation, piper and ternary diagrams are plotted in order to classify the facies and water belongs to Ca-Na-HCO3 type. The results revealed that most of the water samples are within the recommended values of water quality standards prescribed by World Health Organisation and Bureau of Indian Standards. However, Most Probable Number, Iron and Lead contents at some locations are found more than the permissible limits of 10/100 ml, 0.3 mg/I and 0.05 mg/I respectively. Keywords: Physico-chemical Parameters “Coliform” “Toxic Metals” Tri-linear and “Ternary Diagrams” Standard Levels.
1056 Introduction The quality of potable water depends on the physical as well as socio-economic development of the area. Deterioration of drinking water quality arises from introduction of chemical compounds into the water supply system through leaks and cross connection. Since it is a dynamic system, its quality is likely to change day by day and from source to source. Any alteration in the natural quality may disturb the equilibrium system and would become unfit for designated uses (Sanjay 2014). The problems of drinking water viz. scarcity, processing before use probable contaminations etc. in local and in regional water sources are also common in the study area. However, sometimes some toxic contents are being receipt by water in the form of heavy metals such as viz. Arsenic, Cadmium, Nickel, Mercury etc. Therefore the need for safe and sufficient water has to be ensured from its sources and through Public Health Engineering Department (PHED). The main source of potable water in the township is the Kaladan River, tuikhurs and hand pumps. Since the supply of water by PHED is insufficient and does not meet their daily needs, majority of the people in the study area are totally depended on seepage water (Tuikhurs) and ground water (Hand pumps) without any proper treatment. Most of the tuikhurs and hand pumps water become insufficient and are not available; this is in fact a tremendous problem they are facing especially during the dry period. Contamination of the water sources may result in poor drinking water quality, potential health problems, erroneous conclusions regarding the impact of contamination on the society and environment and the amount of effort required to improve the water sources (Balachandar et al. 2010). Since people of the study area directly consume water for their drinking and domestic purposes without any treatment, a township at remote area in Mizoram has been selected for the present study in order to ascertain the current status of the physico-chemical characteristics including toxic metal/ trace elements and most probable number (MPN). Mizoram is a tiny state in northeastern India which is bounded by international border with Myanmar in the east and Bangladesh in the west, and sharing domestic borders with Manipur in the east, Assam in the north and Tripura in the west. It is located between 22°19’N and 24°19’N latitude and 92°16’E and 93°26’E longitude covering a wide geographical area of 21,081 km2. The state has a length (N-S) measured 277 km and a width (EW) measured 121 km. Lawngtlai district is one of the administrative districts of Mizoram state. In the southern part of Mizoram, the administrative
1057 headquarters of the district– Lawngtlai is located (Fig. 1) having international boundaries with Bangladesh in the west and Myanmar in the east. The district is bounded by Lunglei district in the north and Saiha districts in the south. It location is between 92° 51’40" E to 92° 56’12" E longitudes and 22° 28’ 20" N to 22° 34’58" N latitudes covering an area of 2258 sq km. It is linked by National Highway 54 with Aizawl, the state capital of Mizoram at a distance of 296 km. It can be easily approachable from Aizawl via Lunglei, Guwhati and Shillong. The ‘Lai’ people are the native inhabitants and some other tribes— Chakma, Lushai, Bru and Mara live in the area.
Fig. 1 Location map of the study area.
Sample Collection and Method of Analysis Water samples were collected in clean polythene bottles from different sources viz. tuikhurs and hand pumps by using standard techniques (APHA and AWWA 1998) following the grab sampling method. Sample bottles (Tarson wide mouth bottle) were thoroughly washed with acidic water and rinsed with representative water samples. 26 samples were collected during pre-monsoon, 2017. Out of 26 samples, 8 samples are
1058 from hand pumps and 18 samples are from tuikhurs (sub-surface water). The sample bottles were capped it tightly to avoid any spillage during transportation. Two bottles of 250ml each for each location, one acidified with 2-4 ml of diluted.HN03 and non-acidified were collected. In situ testing of the water samples was measured immediately at the site to find out the physico-chemical properties like pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Turbidity and Iron (Fe). Digital Nephelo Turbidity Meter-132 (systronics) was used to measure the values of turbidity (using formazine as standard). Total iron content was measured by using the Water Testing Kit made by ‘Transchem Agritech Limited’. And for pH, Total Dissolved Solids and electrical conductivity values, digital instruments made by ‘Eutech Instruments’ were used. The determination of Nitrate concentration was done by uv-spectrophotometric method. Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Total Chloride, Total Alkalinity and Sulphate were analyzed by titrimetric method. Bicarbonate (HCO3-) determination was carried out using acid titration, with methyl orange as indicator. Total coliform (MPN) was determined by the multiple tube method. The concentration of elements like Sodium, Potassium, Arsenic, Silver, Aluminium, Barium, Cadmium, Cobalt, Chromium, Copper, Gallium, Lithium, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Lead, Strontium and Zinc were determined by using Microwave Plasma- Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (MPAES). Result and Discussion The results of various physical and chemical along with bacteriological and toxic metals/ trace elements analyses have been presented in the Table 1a, 1b, 2a and 2b respectively. It has been observed that the pH varies from 6.7 to 7.5, which are found to be well within the acceptance limit for drinking water (6.5—8.5) as specified by the BIS (2012) and WHO (2011). All of the pH values are constant whereas total alkalinity is found highest in SW-12, SW13 and SW-13. The high alkalinity in these samples may be due to addition of sodium which can increase the alkalinity value. The value of alkalinity in water provides an idea of natural salts present in water (Reeta 2012). The electrical conductivity values of all the samples are much lower as compared to standards, values range from 65 µmhos/cm to 136 µmhos/cm. The lower values of EC may be due to the presence of lesser amounts of dissolved salts indicative of less solubility of minerals and ions from the host rock and has insignificant rock-water intercalation. Further, it characterizes dominance of more silica content in the host rock. Higher value of EC is
1059 obtained in GW-06, GW-09, SW-05 and GW-16; this may be due to the presence of more ions. The more ions that are present, the higher the conductivity of water. The value of TDS has been observed ranging from a minimum of 43 mg/I to a maximum of 107 mg/I. Here the decrease in TDS value is in agreement with the EC results. However, relatively higher value of TDS for GW-16 and SW-23 may be due to colloidal or finely divided suspended solid matter, which does not readily settle. Rajurkar (2003) has reported that this colloidal and finely divided suspended matter may be present due to the direct discharge of solid waste and to construction activities in the area. According to WHO (2011), the standard permissible limit for TDS is 2000 mg/l. Therefore, the values of TDS are found to be well within the prescribed limits. For turbidity, it is observed that majority of the values are slightly higher than the desirable limit but still within the permissible limit of 5 NTU. In the samples analyzed, total alkalinity has been observed with having a value of 25.24 mg/I to 67.34 mg/I. The values of total alkalinity having less than 200 mg/I are desirable for drinking and domestic purposes. The hardness of water is mainly due to dissolved calcium and magnesium salt. The hardness measured in all the water samples were rather low, ranging between minimum of 32.53 mg/I to maximum of 65.27 mg/I. The concentration of iron in groundwater (hand pumps) samples is much more than the sub-surface water (Tuikhur). The standard level of iron prescribed by WHO (2011) is 0.3 mg/I. All of the hand pumps samples have exceeded the standard level. The Environmental Protection Agency considers iron as a secondary contamination; declare that it does not have a direct impact on human health. Table 1a: Results of physico-chemical parameters of potable water . Samples Location
pH
EC
TDS
TURB TA
TH
TCl
Fe
GW-03
Tuivamit (AOC) L-IV
7.4
100
86
2.6
44.11 44.25 8.36
0.82
GW-06
BCM Salem L-III 7.1
135
96
2.3
44.27 48.44 7.28
1.21
GW-07
S.P Road (Vengpui)
7.0
89
64
1.3
61.34 42.47 6.28
0.83
GW-08
Bangla (Council veng)
7.2
98
77
1.7
25.47 36.59 9.64
2.11
GW-09
LIKBK (Electric veng)
7.3
132
97
2.3
33.48 44.14 9.12
0.52
GW-15
College veng
7.1
109
75
2.5
25.24 58.62 12.42 0.34
GW-16
Forest Off. (College veng)
7.5
136
107
3.1
41.27 41.31 11.26 2.32
1060
GW-17
ML Home (College veng)
7.4
105
64
2.6
36.22 44.27 10.44 0.62
SW-01
Lui hnai L-III
7.3
66
58
1.5
43.46 32.53 7.39
0.02
SW-02
Luizaute L-III
7.1
72
43
0.9
42.14 47.27 6.44
0.03
SW-04
Tuivamit (AOC) L-IV
7.1
108
92
0.5
62.37 35.64 8.44
0.02
SW-05
V.S Workshop (Opp.) L-III
7.3
132
83
2.6
57.42 46.41 6.54
0.04
SW-10
Kanaan veng L-IV 7.1
81
65
1.9
64.21 48.19 11.24 0.02
SW-11
Matu veng L-IV
6.8
99
64
1.1
40.12 57.74 10.26 0.02
SW-12
Khurmawi Chanmari L-IV
6.9
94
80
1.5
67.24 45.68 9.27
0.01
SW-13
KM-I (Kanaan veng)
6.8
101
62
2.5
65.45 46.84 8.75
0.02
SW-14
Km-II ( Kanaan veng)
7.4
117
92
2.3
60.52 63.29 8.55
0.01
SW-18
Buk-I (Chawnhu) 6.9
98
68
1.2
33.16 48.87 13.04 0.01
SW-19
Buk-II (Chawnhu) 6.9
100
71
1.1
55.52 42.21 9.21
SW-20
Siaha road-I
7.1
94
70
2.5
38.21 39.66 10.47 0.01
SW-21
Siaha road-II
7.2
90
70
2.3
44.14 41.27 9.14
SW-22
Vaizuala (College 7.3 veng)
112
97
1.9
35.12 61.25 19.37 0.01
SW-23
Land hnuai L-IV
6.9
122
104
2.7
46.29 65.27 18.54 0.02
SW-24
Luizaupui L-III
7.1
65
47
1.7
44.34 44.36 13.45 0.02
SW-25
Khuruih tui L-I
7.4
88
43
1.5
33.24 35.48 9.22
SW-26
Pioneer tui (College veng)
6.7
68
50
2.2
37.54 46.57 16.35 0.01
GW= Ground Water
0.02
0.01
0.01
SW= Surface Water
Table 1b: Physico-chemical analysis of potable water samples. Samples Location
Na
K
Ca
Mg
NO 3
SO 4
HCO3 MPN
GW-03
Tuivamit (AOC) L-IV
12.1
1.18
5.11
4.28
0.34
3.17
44.11 22
GW-06
BCM Salem L-III 7.2
2.47
5.18
4.24
0.20
3.67
44.27 21
GW-07
S.P Road (Vengpui)
0.64
3.19
3.17
0.21
1.32
61.34 12
9.3
1061
GW-08
Bangla (Council veng)
9.1
1.47
5.44
5.29
0.31
2.12
25.47 10
GW-09
LIKBK (Electric veng)
5.7
2.15
4.28
4.10
0.27
1.44
33.48 9
GW-15
College veng
4.8
0.79
6.29
5.57
0.17
3.02
25.24 12
GW-16
Forest Off. (College veng)
4.3
1.71
4.14
3.49
0.17
1.08
41.27 10
GW-17
ML Home (College veng)
5.5
2.01
4.03
3.26
0.11
1.15
36.22 12
SW-01
Lui hnai L-III
8.3
0.25
4.34
4.24
0.62
1.12
43.46 14
SW-02
Luizaute L-III
11.3
0.33
6.24
3.13
0.43
1.14
42.14 14
GW-03
Tuivamit (AOC) L-IV
14
1.18
5.11
4.28
0.34
3.17
62.37 22
SW-04
Tuivamit (AOC) L-IV
9.4
1.34
5.32
6.11
0.21
3.14
57.42 24
SW-05
V.S Workshop (Opp.) L-III
5.1
1.48
6.37
4.43
0.79
5.14
64.21 26
SW-11
Matu veng L-IV
4.8
0.54
6.17
3.18
0.12
3.01
40.12 26
SW-12
Khurmawi Chanmari L-IV
5.2
1.47
9.11
4.56
0.57
2.15
67.24 18
SW-13
KM-I (Kanaan veng)
5.8
1.08
4.16
3.34
0.16
2.47
65.45 12
SW-14
Km-II (Kanaan veng)
5.3
1.21
4.11
3.52
0.12
2.49
60.52 18
SW-18
Buk-I (Chawnhu) 4.2
0.41
3.47
3.12
0.12
1.06
33.16 14
SW-19
Buk-II (Chawnhu) 5
0.61
5.08
3.46
0.11
1.05
55.52 18
SW-20
Siaha road-I
6.5
1.34
5.18
5.25
0.14
4.05
38.21 21
SW-21
Siaha road-II
6.1
1.42
5.32
5.30
0.16
3.07
44.14 25
SW-22
Vaizuala (College 5.4 veng)
0.23
8.32
6.74
0.57
2.04
35.12 28
SW-23
Land hnuai L-IV
7.5
0.82
7.54
5.53
0.54
3.17
46.29 14
SW-24
Luizaupui L-III
5.4
0.55
6.38
4.38
0.49
2.56
44.34 16
SW-25
Khuruih tui L-I
6.5
1.03
7.11
5.02
0.26
2.00
33.24 24
SW-26
Pioneer tui (College veng)
4.3
1.12
8.06
4.78
0.11
2.06
37.54 17
1062 The concentration of total chloride (TCl) in all the stations are much lower (6.28—19.37 mg/I) than the desirable limits value of 250 mg/ l prescribed by BIS (2012) as well as WHO (2011). There is a good correlation of chloride with sodium as compared to magnesium and potassium in all the samples. Most of the Chloride concentration in GW and SW samples is found exceeding sodium level but in SW-01, SW-02, SW-04, SW-05, GW-03, GW-06 and GW-07 samples concentration of sodium is found higher than chloride concentration (Fig. 2). In SW-22 and SW-23 samples, concentration of chlorides are slightly higher compared to other samples due to anthropogenic activity, and natural processes such as the passage of water through natural salt formations in the earth or it may be an indication of pollution from industrial or domestic use (Reeta 2012). The concentration of nitrate in all the samples is quite low ranged from 0.11mg/I to 0.79 mg/I as compare to the standard level of 45 mg/I. The reasons for low content of nitrate in all water samples in the study area may be attributed to denitrification, plant assimilation of nitrate before entering the streams and less use of fertilizers (Chimwanza et al. 2006; Basu et al. 2007; Akoto and Adiyiah 2007). Sivasankaran (2004) has also reported that accumulation of nitrate in groundwater is not significant where the area is less intense use of irrigation. The values of Sulphate in water sources were generally low ranging between 1.05 mg/I to 5.14 mg/I. The values sulphate contents are far below the permissible limits of 200 mg/I prescribed WHO. Sodium concentration is generally higher than sulphate concentration having a minimum range of 4.21 mg/I to a maximum of 14.05 mg/I. The values obtained are found below the permissible limits of 20 mg/I. Potassium content is much lower as compared to sodium in all water samples in the study area. Potassium content in sub-surface and groundwater samples ranges from 0.23 mg/I to 2.47 mg/I. Although the availability of potassium may be controlled by biological factors; the concentrations are low because of the high degree of stability of potassiumbearing alumino-silicate mineral. Concentrations of calcium and magnesium are found to be in ranged of 3.19 mg/I to 9.11 mg/I and 3.12 mg/I to 6.74 mg/I respectively. In all the samples, it can be seen that all the values of these cations (Ca, Mg) are much lower than the standard value, but are well within the desirable limits. The plots for calcium and magnesium with total hardness are presented in Fig. 3, 4. It can be observed that the contribution of both calcium and magnesium contents for hardness of water are almost constant. No remarkable variation has been observed for these cations in all the samples. Absence of sewerage system, improper treatment of water, inadequate and unhygienic handling of solid- wastes, and use of pit latrines, piggeries and poultries (which is predominant in
1063 the study area) may increase the number of MPN (Ghimire et al. 2007; Adekunle et al. 2007; Shar et al. 2010; Rajurkar et al. 2003). According to BIS (2012), more than 10 MPN/100ml coliform organisms should not be present in any sample, but it has been observed that 88% of the samples have exceeded this limit.
Fig. 2 Plot of chemical data (sodium versus total chlorides).
Fig. 3 Plot of chemical data (total hardness versus calcium).
Fig. 4 Plot of chemical data (total hardness versus magnesium).
1064 Aluminium concentration in water sample ranges from 0.00 (BLD) to 0.02 mg/I. It concentration in all the water sources are well within the acceptance limits of 0.03 mg/I prescribed by BIS (2012). Barium concentration in the samples in the study area is below the permissible limits of 0.7 mg/I. It concentration ranges from 0.00 (BLD) to 0.02 mg/I. Gallium does not occur as a free element in nature, but as gallium (III) compounds in trace amounts in zinc ores and in bauxite. The concentration of gallium in water samples ranges from 0.00 (BLD) to 0.02 mg/I. Lithium concentration in water sample ranges from 0.00 (BLD) to 0.01 mg/I. No water sources from GW and SW has been found exceeding the desirable limits of 0.07 mg/I (BIS 2012). Strontium concentration in water sample ranges from 0.00 (BLD) to 0.03 mg/I. The permissible limit of strontium in potable water is 1.5 mg/I. The concentration of Lead (Pb) in water sample ranges from 0.01 mg/I to 0.09 mg/I. The 15% of water samples have been found exceeding the permissible limits of 0.05 mg/I. High concentration of lead has been recorded in SW-05, SW-13, SW-14, SW-20 and SW-21 samples (Fig. 5). The high concentration of Pb in these water samples may be attributed to gasoline coming out of vehicles as most of the tuikhurs are situated on or near the highway. The concentration of zinc present in the samples has been recorded low as compared to the desirable limits of 5.0 mg/I. All the samples of GW and SW are found below the desirable limits, ranging between 0.01 mg/I to 0.07 mg/I (Fig. 5). Low concentration of Zinc in surface water is due to its restricted mobility from the place of rock weathering or from the natural sources (Rajappa et al. 2010). In all water samples, concentration of Arsenic (As), Gold (Ag), Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt (Co), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo) and Nickel (Ni) is below limit of detection (BLD). Such a low concentration of these metals may be due to the phenomena of pronounced adsorptions in the area under study as the area is primarily dominated by shale which consists of clay minerals having phyllosilicate structure providing enormous space as structural voids, where metals ions of large ionic size can be accommodated by replacing hydroxide (OH-), Potassium (K+ ) ions. Table 2a Toxic metals/ trace elements concentration (mg/I) in potable water samples. Samples Location
Ga
Li
Mn
Mo
Ni
Pb
Sr
Zn
GW-03
Tuivamit (AOC) L-IV
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
0.08
0.02
0.04
GW-06
BCM Salem L-III 0.00
0.01
-
-
-
0.05
0.01
0.02
GW-07
S.P Road (Vengpui)
0.00
-
-
-
0.04
0.00
0.01
0.00
1065
GW-08
Bangla (Council veng)
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.02
0.00
0.03
GW-09
LIKBK (Electric veng)
0.01
0.01
-
-
-
0.02
0.01
0.02
GW-15
College veng
0.01
0.01
-
-
-
0.03
0.01
0.03
GW-16
Forest Off. (College veng)
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
0.02
0.00
0.02
GW-17
ML Home (College veng)
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.02
0.00
0.012
SW-01
Lui hnai L-III
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.02
0.01
0.02
SW-02
Luizaute L-III
0.01
0.00
-
-
-
0.01
0.00
0.031
SW-04
Tuivamit (AOC) L-IV
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.07
0.01
0.05
SW-05
V.S Workshop (Opp.) L-III
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
0.11
0.03
0.03
SW-10
Kanaan veng L-IV 0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.01
0.00
0.02
SW-11
Matu veng L-IV
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.07
0.00
0.02
SW-12
Khurmawi Chanmari L-IV
0.02
0.00
-
-
-
0.06
0.02
0.032
SW-13
KM-I (Kanaan veng)
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.12
0.02
0.02
SW-14
Km-II ( Kanaan veng)
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
0.11
0.02
0.02
SW-18
Buk-I (Chawnhu) 0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.00
0.01
0.01
SW-19
Buk-II (Chawnhu) 0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.00
0.01
0.02
SW-20
Siaha road-I
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
0.14
0.02
0.05
SW-21
Siaha road-II
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
0.16
0.03
0.051
SW-22
Vaizuala (College 0.02 veng)
0.00
-
-
-
0.01
0.01
0.03
SW-23
Land hnuai L-IV
0.01
0.01
-
-
-
0.02
0.02
0.03
SW-24
Luizaupui L-III
0.01
0.00
-
-
-
0.01
0.02
0.02
SW-25
Khuruih tui L-I
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.01
0.01
0.01
SW-26
Pioneer tui (College veng)
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
0.01
0.01
0.02
1066 Table 2b Toxic metals/ trace elements concentration (mg/I) in potable water samples. Samples Location
As
Ag
Al
Ba
Cd
Co
Cr
Cu
GW-03
Tuivamit (AOC) L-IV
-
-
0.01
0.00
-
-
-
-
GW-06
BCM Salem L-III -
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
GW-07
S.P Road (Vengpui)
-
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
GW-08
Bangla (Council veng)
-
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
GW-09
LIKBK (Electric veng)
-
-
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
-
GW-15
College veng
-
-
0.01
0.02
-
-
-
-
GW-16
Forest Off. (College veng)
-
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
GW-17
ML Home (College veng)
-
-
0.01
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-01
Lui hnai L-III
-
-
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
-
SW-02
Luizaute L-III
-
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-04
Tuivamit (AOC) L-IV
-
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-05
V.S Workshop (Opp.) L-III
-
-
0.02
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-10
Kanaan veng L-IV -
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-11
Matu veng L-IV
-
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-12
Khurmawi Chanmari L-IV
-
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-13
KM-I (Kanaan veng)
-
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-14
Km-II (Kanaan veng)
-
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-18
Buk-I (Chawnhu) -
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-19
Buk-II (Chawnhu) -
-
0.00
0.00
-
-
-
-
SW-20
Siaha road-I
-
-
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
-
SW-21
Siaha road-II
-
-
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
-
SW-22
Vaizuala (College veng)
-
0.02
0.02
-
-
-
-
1067
SW-23
Land hnuai L-IV
-
-
0.01
0.02
-
-
-
-
SW-24
Luizaupui L-III
-
-
0.01
0.01
-
-
-
-
SW-25
Khuruih tui L-I
-
-
0.01
0.02
-
-
-
-
SW-26
Pioneer tui (College veng)
-
-
0.00
0.01
-
-
-
-
Fig. 5 Plot of toxic metal/heavy metals (Al, Ba, Ga, Li, Pb, Sr and Zn).
A ternary cation diagram of s sub-surface water and groundwater are mainly dominated by the sum of potassium and sodium. It can be observed that clustering for calcium and magnesium has been found to fall between 20% to 55% and 18% to 35% respectively whereas sodium and potassium together contribute 25% to 60% to the total cations (Fig. 6). Bicarbonate ion is the main dominant anion in both sub-surface and groundwater contributing over 90% to the total anions (Fig. 7). In the present study, both sub-surface (GW) water and groundwater (GW) are dominated by Na>Ca>Mg>K except in some samples where Na is replaced by Ca in cationic abundance. The order of abundance in anionic chemistry is HCO3>Cl>SO4>NO3. The plots of chemical data on trilinear diagram reveal that majority sub-surface and groundwater samples fall in the field of 1 suggesting that alkaline earths exceed alkalies, and weak acids exceed strong acids respectively. Thus, the total hydrochemistry of sub- surface water in the area under study is dominated by alkaline earths and weak acids. Chloride and sulphate do not exceed bicarbonate in any of the samples. Most of sub- surface waters and groundwater in the study area occur as Ca-Na-HCO3 facies while in some samples sodium is sometimes replaced by magnesium giving rise to Ca-Mg-HCO3 facies (Fig. 8).
1068
Fig. 6 Ternary diagram for cation compositions.
Fig. 7 Ternary diagram for anion compositions.
.
Fig. 8 Piper tri-linear diagram.
Conclusion The analysis of the water quality parameters of sub-surface (Tuikhurs) and groundwater (Hand pumps) from 26 water samples shows that all the physical and chemical parameters are well within the permissible limits prescribed by WHO (2011) and BIS (2012). However higher values of coliforms (MPN) in water samples may be attributed to the use of pit latrines, piggeries and poultries. It is suggested that moving pit latrines, waste disposal from the piggeries and poultry farms away from locations upstream of the tuikhurs and proper sanitation will greatly reduce the contamination of coliforms. Most of the toxic metals or trace elements (As, Ag, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mo, Mn and Ni) are found below limit of detection (BLD). However,
1069 concentration of iron (Fe) and lead (Pb) in some stations has exceeded the permissible limits of 0.3 mg/I and 0.05 mg/I respectively. Iron is considered as the secondary contamination which means that it does not have a direct impact on human health. Though all the tuikhurs and hand pumps are fit and suitable to serve as water source for human consumptions and household purposes need treatment to minimize the contamination especially the Lead (Pb). The drinking water of the area should be filtered by the quality control agencies. Water sample should be treated chemically or physically for toxic metals treatment. Ternary diagram of cation and anion shows that most of the samples are dominated by bicarbonate, sodium and calcium. Piper tri-linear diagram shows that most of the sub-surface and groundwater samples in the study area can be classified as Ca-Na-HCO3 facies while in some samples sodium is replaced by magnesium giving rise to Ca-Mg-HCO3 type of water. Reference Adekunle, I.M., Adetunji, M.T., Gbadebo, A.M. and Banjoko, O.B. (2007) Assessment of ground water quality in a typical rural settlement in Southwest Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Research Public Health, 4(4): 307-318. Akoto, O. and Adiyiah, J. (2007) Chemical analysis of drinking water from some communities in the Brong Ahafo region. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 4(2): 211-214. APHA., AWWA. and WEF. (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water analysis. 20th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. Balachandar, D., Sundararaj, P., Rutharvel, M.K. and Kumaraswamy, K. (2010) An investigation of groundwater quality and its suitability to irrigated agriculture in Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, India-A GIS approach. International Journal of Environmental Science, 1(2): 176-190. Barati, A.H., Maleki, A. and Alasvand, M. (2010) Multitrace elements level in drinking water and the prevalence of multi-chronic arsenical poisoning in residents in the west area of Iran. Science of the Total Environment, 408(7): 1523-1529. Basu, K.N., Padmalal, D., Maya, K., Sareeja, R. and Aurn, P.R. (2007) Quality of surface and groundwater around tile and brick clay mines in Chalakudy river basin, southwestern India. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 69: 279-284. Bhardwaj, V., Singh, D.S. and Singh, A.K. (2010) Hydro-geochemistry of ground water and anthropogenic control over dolomitization reactions in alluvial sediments of the Deoria district: Ganga plain, India. Environmental Earth Science, 59: 10991109. BIS. (IS: 10500: 2012) Specification for Drinking water. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
1070 Carpenter, S.R., Karaco, N.F., Corell, D.L., Howarth, R.W., Sharpley, A.N. and Smith, V.H. (1998) Non-point pollution of surface water with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Application, 8: 559-568. Chen, J., Wang, F., Xia, X. and Zhang, L. (2002) Major element chemistry of the Changjiang (Yangtze River). Chemical Geology, 187: 231-255. Chimwanza, B., Mumba, P.P., Moyo, B.H.Z. and Kadewa, W. (2006) The impact of farming on river banks on water quality of the rivers. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 2(4): 353-358. Delpla, I., Jung, A.V. and Baures, E. (2009) Impacts of climate change on surface water quality in relation to drinking water production. Environment International, 35: 225-1233. Ghimire, G., Pant, J., Rai, S.K., Choudhary, D.R. and Adhikari, N. (2007) Bacteriological analysis of water of Kathmandu valley. Journal of Nepal Association for Medical Laboratory Science, 8: 45-47. Gyamfi, E.T., Ackah, M., Anim, A.K., Hanson, J.K., Pattah, L.K., Enti-Brown, S., Adjei, K.Y. and Nyarko, E.S. (2012) Chemical analysis of potable water samples from selected suburbs of Accra, Ghana. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Science, 2(2): 118-127. Jain, C.K., Kumar, S. and Bhatia, K.K.S. (1996) Ground water quality in western Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of Environmental Health, 38(2): 105-112. Kumar, S., Baier, K., Jha, R. and Arab, J. (2013) Status of arsenic contamination in potable water of Northern areas of Mizoram state and its adjoining areas of Southern Assam, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 6(2): 383-393. Kumar, S., Bharti, V.K., Singh, K.B., Singh, T.N. (2010) Quality assessment of potable water in the town of Kolasib, Mizoram (India). Environmental Earth Science, 61:115-121. Kumar, S., Singh, K.B. and Bharati, V.K. (2007) Potable water status in Aizawl city, Mizoram state, India. Journal of Geography Association of Mizoram, Geographic, 2: 85-108. Kumar, S., Singh, K.B. and Bharati, V.K. (2009) Assessment of spring water quality in Aizawl city, Mizoram. Journal of Applied Hydrology, 22 (3, 4): 6-11. Napacho, Z.A. and Manyele, S.V. (2010) Quality assessment of drinking water in Temeke district (Part II): Characterization of chemical parameters. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 4(11): 775-789. Nkona, N.A. and Asubiojo, O.I. (1997) Trace elements in bottled and soft drinks in NigeriaA preliminary study. Science of the Total Environment, 208(3): 161-163. Piper, A.M. (1944) A Graphic Procedure in the Geochemical Interpretation of water analysis. American Geophysical Union, Trans, 25. Rajurkar, N.S., Nongbri, B. and Patwardhan, A.M. (2003) Physico-chemical and biological investigations of river Umshyrpi at Shillong, Meghalaya. Indian Journal of Environmental Health, 45 (1): 83-92. Reeta, B. (2012) Comparative analysis of physicochemical parameters of Hasdeo river
1071 barrage and Arpa river water samples of Bilaspur region. International Journal of Scientific and Research, 2 (9): 1-5. Sanjay, G.C. (2014) Physico-chemical parameters of the drinking water of some villages of Yavatmal, district Maharashtra (India). Journal of Engineering Research and Studies, 5(1): 1-4. Shar, A.H., Kazi, Y.F., Kanhar, N.A., Soomro, I.H., Zia, S.M. and Ghumro, P.B. (2010) Drinking water quality in Rohri City, Sindh, Pakistan. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9(42): 7102-7107. Sivasankaran, M.A., Reddy, S.S. and Ramesh, R. (2004) Nutrient concentration in groundwater of Pondicherry region. Environmental Science and Engineering, 46(3): 210-216. WHO. (2003) Hardness in drinking-water. Background document for preparation of WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality, Geneva. WHO. (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 4th ed. Geneva.
1072
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 1073-1078, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
81 Zonation of Landslide Susceptibility and Risk Assessment in and Around Serchhip Town, Mizoram Lalramdina Department of Geology, Mizoram University, Mizoram Remote Sensing Application Centre. Email:
[email protected] Abstract A landslide is the downward-slope movement of soil, rock or organic material under the influence of gravity. It can be caused by a variety of reasons like intense or prolonged rainfall, earthquakes, geomorphology, slope variations and human activities. Landslides includes debris flow, slide, toppling or falling movements, and many landslides exhibit a combination of two or more types of movements. Mizoram is one of the most landslide disastrous prone in India. The State experienced landslides yearly during monsoon season. The extent of damage caused varies considerably from place to place, mainly caused by human activities, geological processes assisted by environmental processes. The study area lies in the southern part of the Aizawl district. Remote Sensing and GIS techniques are used. Satellite data are utilized for mapping and preparing landslide hazard zones. Risk assessment is the final goal. The main objectives are to assess the risk, vulnerability of landslides, mapping and classify the zones of landslide hazards and suggest preventive and remedial measures, methods involves extensive fieldworks and data collections, creation of thematic layers and data analysis. From the present study, it is observed that human activities paired with natural factors have made many parts of Serchhip highly prone to landslides. Keywords : Mizoram, Serchhip ,Landslide, Remote Sensing, GIS.
1074 Introduction Landslides are a natural disaster. Though landslide occurs naturally, one of the main factor contributing to landslide in city and township can be credited to human interference. The topography of Mizoram is being relatively young, landslide can be a very major economic setbacks. There are N-S trending mostly anticline strike ridges with steep slopes and narrow intervening synclinal valleys with series of parallel ridges or topographic highs. The other landforms of the state are dissected ridges with deep gorges, spurs, keels, etc. Faulting has produced steep fault scarps. Thus, Mizoram, being a hilly terrain is extremely prone to landslides. Early reports on geology of Mizoram are few due to its isolation and hilly topography. Studies on Landslide in Serchhip town is very few as well as the whole state of Mizoram despite their annual occurrences and problems it causes to the region. On the basis of sub ranges of Total Estimated Hazard (TEH), the study area has been divided into Low Hazard Zone, Moderate Hazard Zone, High Hazard Zone and Very High Hazard Zone. The advent of Satellite Remote Sensing Technology and Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques has provided us a more in depth approach to study landslide phenomena. In the present study, high resolution satellite data such as Quickbird,IRS and Carosat-I data were utilised to map the different landslide hazard zones of Serchhip town for undertaking mitigation measures and to identify potential zones of occurrences. An in-depth study of slope stability within Serchhip township was also carried out and it was found that this locality of the town has been severely affected by subsidence and landslides, endangering the lives and property of the people. It was also found that the area comprises very soft shale and interceded, weathered sandstone and siltstone which belongs to the Middle Bhuban Formation of Surma Group of Tertiary age. Landslide risk assessment determines the expected degree of loss to landslide and its disruption of economic activities. The correlation of landslide susceptibility with major assets in the region helps to determine the risk assessment. Study Area: Serchhip is one of the eight districts of Mizoram in NorthEast India. The district occupies an area of 1421.60 km² and Serchhip town is the administrative headquarters of the district.The elevation is 888m.The population of the district is 64,932 as per the 2011 censusand it is a hilly terrain sandwiched by Mat river and Tuikum river with alluvial benches being utilised for agriculture .Serchhip lies in the southern part of the Aizawl district and about 80 kilometres south of Aizawl and is covered by the
1075 Survey of India Toposheet No.84A/15 and falls within the coordinates of latitudes N 23°.18’ - 23°.20’ and and longitudes E 92°.51’ -92°.52’. The present study is conducted within Serchhip town. The study area is strategically important as it connect to the southern part of the Mizoram. Several locations along the road sections are vulnerable as highly weathered rocks dip towards road side. Methodology Thematic layers prepared such as Geomorphology, slope, lithology, Landuse/land cover and geological structure were prepared and field work were utilized for this study.A zonation map based on the integration of the data acquired from the above various geo-environmental thematic databases is prepared. The following geo-environmental factors like slope morphometry, land use/land cover, lithology, geomorphology and geological structure are found to be playing significant roles in causing landslides in the study area. These five themes form the major parameters for Landslide susceptibility zonation and their susceptibility and are individually divided into appropriate classes which are then carefully analysed so as to establishtheir relation to landslide susceptibility and risk assessment within the study area. Accordingly, weightagevalue is assigned for each class based on their susceptibility to landslides in such a manner that less weightage represents the least influence towards landslide occurrence, and more weightage, the highest.The National Remote Sensing Agency Scheme of weightage is used which comprises a scale of 1-10. Parameter
Category
Weight
Lithology
Sandstone
4
Siltstone & Shale
8
Shale & Siltstone
9
Crumpled Shale
10
Heavy Vegetation
3
Light Vegetation
5
Scrubland
6
Barren
7
Built-up
8
0 - 15
1
15-25
3
Land Use / Land Cover
Slope Morphometry (in degrees)
1076
25-30
4
30-35
5
35-40
6
40-45
7
45-60
8
> 60
5
Structure (Faults and Lineaments)
Length of Buffer distance
9
Geomorphology
High Structural Hill
4
Medium Structural Hill
3
Low Structural Hill
2
Valley Fill
0
The risk assessment is calculated using the cross correlations of building footprints in which buildings are categorized into three types according to their build types,namely reinforced concrete, Semi-Concrete and assam types,the congestity of each area, population density,slope stability,commute and other landslide causing factors and evacuation plans. Results and Discussion By giving all the parameters different weightage values and considering the risk assessment.The study area is classified into High Susceptibility, Moderate susceptibility and low susceptibility. The output map is generated on a scale of 1: 5,000.Human activities coupled with natural factors like lithology, slope, geological structure, rainfall, etc. have made many parts of Serchhip town highly prone to landslides. Acknowledge The author is thankful to Dr. K. Srinivasa Rao, Dr. R. K. Lallianthanga, Mr. Z.D. Laltanpuia (MIRSAC) and Mr. F. Lalbiakmawia (PHE) Aizawl for their support during the study.
1077
References Verma, R., (2013). Landslide hazard in Aizawltownship, Mizoram. In: Landslide and Environmental degradation. GnanodayaPrakasan Publ. pp. 11-21. Lal Duhawma, K..SrinivasaRao, K., and Udayabhaskara Rao, Ch., (2015).Morphometry and Tectonic Geomorphology of Tut watershed, Mizoram. Lap. Lambordt Academic Publ., Germany. 109p.
1078 Lallianthanga RK and Laltanpuia ZD (2007). Landslide Hazard Zonation of Aizawl city using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques- A qualitative approach. Bull. of National Natural Resources Management System. NNRMS (B)-32, February 2008. Pub. P&PR Unit, ISRO Hqrs. p. 47-55. Anon (2007). Micro-level Landslide Hazard Zonation of Aizawl City using Remote Sensing and GIS, A project report. Mizoram State Remote Sensing Centre, S&T, Planning Dept. Mizoram, p. 24. Anon (2009).Natural Resources Atlas of Mizoram.Mizoram Remote Sensing Application Centre, Aizawl, Mizoram. p. 90-91 Tiwari RP& Shiva Kumar (1996). Geology of the Area Around Bawngkawn, Aizawl District, Mizoram, India Misc. Publ. No. 3, The Geological & Research Centre, Balaghat, M.P., p. 1 – 10. La Touche THD (1891). Records of the Geological Survey of India.Geological Survey of India, 24(2). Lalnuntluanga F (1999). Geo-Data Based Total Estimated Landslide Hazard Zonation, A case study of North Tawipui-Thingfal road section, Lunglei district, Mizoram. Proc. Symposium on Sc. & Tech. for Mizoram in the 21st Century, June 1999. p. 147-154. Anon (2012).Meteorological Data of Mizoram.Mizoram Remote Sensing Application Centre, Aizawl, Mizoram. p. 43-45 Joyce EB & Evans RS (1976).Some areas of landslide activity in Victoria, Australia. Proc. Royal Soc. Victoria, 88 (1 & 2): p. 95 – 108. MIRSAC (2011) Atlas of Landslide Hazard Zonation ofMizoram (Unpbl.Report). MIRSAC (2012) Hazard Risk & Vulnerability Analysis of Aizawl District (Unpbl.Report).
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 1079-1084, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
82 Comparative Study of Physico-Chemical Properties of Soil Under Three Different Bamboo Stands Imokokla Imsong, Angom Sarjubala Devi and Lalnuntluanga Department of Environmental Science, Mizoram University; E-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract Bamboo forests cover a large extent in Mizoram. Around 57% of the geographical area of Mizoram is under bamboo cover found at heights ranging from 500 m-1500 m. There are 35 species of bamboo known to be found in Mizoram. Melocanna baccifera is distributed throughout the state and comprised of more than 98 percent of the growing stock of bamboo and the remaining 2 percent are different clump forming bamboo species. Therefore, the present study has been taken up to study the difference in the soil properties specially soil moisture content, soil pH, bulk density, total organic carbon and available phosphorus under Melocanna baccifera, Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa balcooa stands. During the study, it was found that soil moisture content was highest under Melocanna baccifera stand(35.81%) and least in Bambusa balcooa stand(25.42%). Soil pH was found to be highest under Melocanna baccifera stand(4.8) and the least in Dendrocalamus strictus(4.4) and under Dendrocalamus strictus stand highest bulk density(1.12g/cm 3) was observed while Melocanna baccifera had the least (0.93g/cm3).Total organic carbon content was found to be the highest in Bambusa balcooa(3.27%) and least in Dendrocalamus strictus (3.03%). In the case of available phosphorus, the highest was observed in Melocanna baccifera(19.8%) and the least in Bambusa balcooa(17.37%). The results showed that
1080 growth of Melocanna baccifera stands can lead to more enhancements in soil fertility. Keywords: bulk density, organic carbon, pH, phosphorus, soil moisture.
Introduction India is second to China in bamboo production with 3.23 million tonnes per year. In India, bamboos account for around 12.8% of the total forest area cover and is one of the largest bamboo resources in the world (Bahadur and Jain, 1981). The North-East Himalayan region harbours more than 66% of the Indian bamboo genetic resources (Sarmah et al., 2000) having very dense bamboo forests. Out of the 128 bamboo species found in India, 84 taxa are in the North-Eastern region. Bamboo area of Mizoram state is the highest in India (49.1 percent of the total forest cover of the state). Out of which, 98 percent is contributed by the non-clump forming species (Melocanna baccifera), and the remaining 2 percent are different clump forming bamboo species. Bamboo forms an indispensable resource base for the rural population of north eastern states in general and Mizoram in Particular. Over exploitation of bamboo resources and the destruction of natural habitat due to shifting cultivation, have resulted in a decrease of growing stock, especially the clump forming species in Mizoram (Anon, 1997). The present study was undertaken to determine the physico-chemical properties of soil namely moisture content, pH, bulk density, total organic C and available P under three types of bamboo stands namely Bambusa balcooa, Dendrocalamus strictus and Melocanna baccifera within Mizoram University Campus. Materials and Methods Study site The exact location of the three study sites with different bamboo stands are: Bambusa balcooa (latitude:230442 363 N, longitude:920392 673 E and altitude:705 m), Dendrocalamus strictus (latitude:230442 353 N, longitude: 920392 683 E and altitude:690m) and Melocanna baccifera (latitude:230442 253 N, longitude: 920392 833 E and altitude:821 m) within Mizoram University campus towards Tanhril village. The study area is confined within a subtropical semi evergreen forest. The temperature ranges from 150C to 320C and the rainfall is about 240 cm per annum. Soil analysis Soil samples were collected from 5 random places from each stand
1081 and were mixed and three replicates were taken. The soil samples were analysed for moisture content by using the oven dry method, bulk density determined with a soil corer, pH by digital pH meter, total organic C by using Walkley and Black’s method and available P with the help of spectrophotometer outlined in Anderson and Ingram (1993). Soil samples were collected every month for seven months starting from August, 2016 to March, 2017. Sampling could not be done for the month of January, 2017. Results and Discussion By comparing within the seven months, soil moisture was found to be highest in the month of October, 2016 and least in the month of February, 2017 (Fig.1). The average soil moisture content in the different months within the three types of bamboo stands was found to be highest under Melocanna baccifera stand (35.81%) and least under Bambusa balcooa (25.42%) (Table 1).
Fig. 1.: Soil moisture content under the three bamboo stands (±standard error).
Fig.2: Soil pH under the three bamboo stands(±standard error).
1082
Fig. 3.: Total organic C under the three bamboo stands (±standard error).
Fig.4: Soil available P under the three bamboo stands (± standard error).
The soil pH was highest in the month of September, 2016 (5.62) and minimum in October (4.02) (Fig.2). It was found that the average soil pH was highest under Melocanna baccifera stand (4.8) and the least in Dendrocalamus strictus (4.4). This indicates that the soil within the study sites were acidic. Soil under Dendrocalamus strictus stand was observed to have the highest bulk density (1.12g/cm3) while Melocanna baccifera stand had the least (0.93g/cm3); soil under Bambusa balcooa. had 1.07g/ cm3. The result signifies that the more the soil moisture the less is bulk density. The total organic C was found to be highest in the month of October,16 and least in the month of March,17(Fig.3). Average total organic C was found to be highest in Bambusa balcooa stand (3.27%) and least in Dendrocalamus strictus stand (3.03%). The available P was also found to be highest in the month of October,16 and least in the month of February,17 (Fig.4). The maximum average was observed under Melocanna baccifera stand (19.8mg/kg) and the least in Bambusa balcooa stand (17.37mg/kg).
1083 Table 1 : Physico-chemical properties of soil under three bamboo stands (±Standard error). Bamboo stands
Soil Moisture (%)
pH
C (%)
P (mg/kg)
Bambusa balcooa
25.42
4.57
3.27
17.37
±0.61
±0.03
±0.16
±2.27
25.94
4.44
3.03
17.46
±1.03
±0.04
±0.12
±1.63
35.81
4.80
3.24
19.80
±1.11
±0.06
±0.17
±1.73
Dendrocalamus strictus
Melocanna baccifera
Correlation analysis were done within the different physicochemical soil parameters. The results are given in Table 2. Positive and significant correlations were observed between soil moisture and total organic C and available P. Significant correlation was also observed between total organic C and available P. These results showed that availability of soil moisture, organic C and available P were interdependent. Since highest amount of soil moisture and available P were found under the Melocanna baccifera stands the soil under these bamboo stand can be considered more stable and better quality in terms of nutrient availability although the organic C content was slightly lesser than Bambusa balcooa stand. By comparing within the three sites under the Dendrocalamus strictus stand the soil was having lesser quality.It is the most common bamboo species widely distributed in dry hills, and often termed as bushland. This is the hardiest of all Indian bamboos (Banik, 2015). Therefore the soil under this type of bamboo can have comparatively lower nutrient status compared to the other two bamboo stands. Bambusa balcooa is a thick-walled and huge bamboo which are mainly cultivated for construction purposes. The dead organic debris takes more time for decomposition. Whereas Melocanna baccifera ia a thinwalled bamboo and since it does not form clumps they have more advantage in multiplication over a wider area thereby influence the soil on a wider range. Table 2: Correlation coefficient (r) between different soil parameters (**) reflected significance at p 2000 mg/kg b. wt.), which was termed as the lowest toxicity class (OECD, 1998). Phytochemical analysis and TLC profiling of various extracts of Croton caudatusrevealed that it contains alkaloids, phytosterols, saponins, phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, phenolics and terpenoids and the medicinal activity of this plant may be due to the presence of one or more of these phytochemicals or also due to the concerted action of all these pharmacophores. The acute toxicity studies have revealed that toxicity profile of C. caudatus is low and may not have toxic imlications. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the University Grants Commission for financial support vide Grant Nos. F.4-3/2007(BSR)/11-116/2008(BSR), and F.4-10/2010(BSR) and Department of Biotechnology vide Grant No. BT/60/NE/TBP/2011), Government ofIndia, New Delhi to carry out this study. References Cushnie, T.P. and Lamb, A.J. (2005) Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids.Intertional Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 26, 343-356. Cushnie, T.P. and Lamb, A.J. (2011) Recent advances in understanding the antibacterial properties of flavonoids. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 38, 99107. Doughari, J.H. (2012) Phytochemicals: extraction methods, basic structures and mode of action as potential chemotherapeutic agents, phytochemicals - A global perspective of their role in nutrition and health.Dr. VenketeshwerRao (Ed.), InTech, Rijeka, Croatia. Eisenberg, D. M., Davis, R. B., Ettner, S. L., Appel, S., Wilkey, S., Van Rompay, M. and Kessler, R. C. (1998) Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990– 1997. Journal of American Medical Association, 280, 1569–1575. Ghosh, M.N. (1984) Fundamentals of Experimental Pharmacology.Scientific book Agency, Kolkata India. Harborne, J.B. (1998) Phytochemical Methods A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant Analysis. London. Chapman and Hall, Ltd: 1-129 Hill, A.F. (1952) Economic Botany. A textbook of useful plants and plant products.2ndedn. McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc, New York
1125 Jagetia, G.C. and Reddy, T.K (2005) Modulation of radiation-induced alteration in the antioxidant status of mice by naringin. Life Sciences, 77, 780-794. Jagetia, G.C. and Reddy, T.K. (2002) The grapefruit flavanonenaringin protects against the radiation-induced genomic instability in the mice bone marrow: a micronucleus study. Mutation Research, 519, 37-48. Jagetia, G.C. and Venkatesha, V.A. (2005) Effect of mangiferin on radiation induced micronucleus formation in cultured human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis. 46, 12-21. Jagetia, G.C., Venkatesha, V.A. and Reddy, T.K. (2003) Naringin, a citrus flavonone, protects against radiation-induced chromosome damage in mouse bone marrow. Mutagenesis,18,337-343. Jiangsu New Medical College Dictionary of Traditional Chinese Medicine,Shanghai Science and Technology Press: Shanghai, China, (1975); 447. Khan, A.A.M.M., Naqvi, T.S. and Naqvi, M.S. (2012) Identification of Phytosaponins as Novel Biodynamic Agents: An Updated Overview. AsianJournal ofExperimental Biological Sciences, 3(3), 459-467. Khatuntseva, E.A., Men’shov, V.M., Shashkov, A.S., et al (2012) Triterpenoidsaponins from the roots of Acanthophyllumgypsophiloides Regel. Beilstein.Journal of Organic Chemistry, 8, 763–77. Lin, Y., Yi, Z. and Zhao, Y. (2003) Chinese Dai Medicine Colorful Illustrations. Yunnan Nationality Press, Kunming. Medicine; Shanghai Science and Technology Press: Shanghai, China: 447 Man, S., Gao W., Zhang, Y., et al (2010) Chemical study and medical application of saponins as anti-cancer agents. Fitoterapia, 81(7),703-714. Menger, L., Vacchelli, E., Adjemian, S., et al (2012) Cardiac glycosides exert anticancer effects by inducing immunogenic cell death. Science Translational Medicine,18 (4), 143. Moudi, M., Go, R., Yien, C., et al (2013) Vinca alkaloids. Intertional Journal of Preventive Medicine,4, 1231-1235. Nicolaou, K.C., Yang, Z., Liu, J.J., et al (1994) Total synthesis of taxol. Nature, 367, 630634 Nijveldt, R.J., van Nood, E., van Hoorn, D.E.C., et al (2001) Flavonoids: a review of probable mechanisms of action and potential applications. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 74, 418–25. OECD(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (1998) Harmonized Integrated Hazard Classification System For Human Health and Environmental Effects of Chemical Substances. OECD, Paris. Okwu, D.E. (2001) Evaluation of the chemical composition of indigenous spices and flavouring agents. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 7(3), 455-459. Pharmacopoeia Commission of People’s Republic of China. Pharmacopoeia of the Peoples Republic of China; Chemical Industry Press: Beijing, China, (2005); 1:306.
1126 Prassas, I.andDiamandis, E.P (2008) Novel therapeutic applications of cardiac glycosides.NauretReiewsv Drug Discovery, 7(11),926-935. Prieur, D.J., Young, D.M., Davis, R.D., et al (1972) Procedures for preclinical toxicologic evaluation of cancer chemotherapeutic agents protocols of the laboratory of toxicology. Cancer Chemotherapy Report, 4, 1-28. Richardson, M.A., Sanders, T., Palmer, J. L., Greisinger, A. and Singletary, S. E. (2000) Complementary/alternative medicine use in a comprehensive cancer center and the implications for oncology. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 18, 2505–2514. Sawmliana, M. (2003) The Book of Mizoram plants First ed. Lois Bet, Chandmari, Aizawl Schuier, M., Sies, H., Illek, B., et al (2005) Cocoa-related flavonoids inhibit CFTR-mediated chloride transport across T84 human colon epithelia. Journal of Nutrition,135, 2320-2325. Sim, K.S., Nurestri, A.M., Sinniah, S.K., et al (2010) Acute oral toxicity of Pereskiableo and Pereskiaglandifolia in mice. Pharmacognosy magazine, pp. 67-70. Singh, A.P.(2006) Short Review Distribution of Steroid like Compounds in Plant Flora. Pharmacognosy Magazine, 2, 87-89. Sofowara, A.(1993) Medicinal plants and Traditional medicine in Africa. Spectrum Books Ltd, Ibadan, Nigeria.289. Suffness ,M. and Douros, J. (1979) Drugs of plant origin. In Methods in cancer Research. ED, De Vita VT. Vol: 16, New York, USA 73-94. Trease, G.E. and Evans, W.C. (1989) Pharmacognsy. 11th edBrailliarTiridel Can. McMillian publishers. Tyler, V.E. (1993) The Honest Herbal. 3rd edition. Binghamton, NY:Pharmaceutical Products Press. Tyler, V.E. (1994) Herbs of Choice: The Therapeutic Use of Phytomedicinals. Binghamton, NY:Pharmaceutical Products Press. Wills, R.B., Bone, K. and Morgan,M. (2000)Herbal products Active constituent, mode of action and quality control.Nutrition Research Reviews, 13, 47-57. Zou, G.A., Su, Z.H., Zhang, H.W., et al (2010) Flavonoids from the stems of Croton caudatusGeisel. var. tomentosus Hook. Molecules, 15, 1097-1102.
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 1127-1137, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
86 Efficacy of L- Carnitine Supplementation on the Tuibur (Tobacco Smoke Infused Water) Induced Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Status in Testis of mice. Maibam Sunita Devi*, Sanasam Sanjeev and Guruswami Gurusubramanian Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004, Mizoram, India * Corresponding Author: Mrs. Maibam Sunita Devi, Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004, Mizoram, India. E-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract A unique smokeless tobacco products (liquid preparation), made by passing tobacco smoke through water till the preparation turns cognac in colour and has a pungent smell is used in Mizoram locally known as tuibur (tobacco smoke infused water). The major alkaloid component of Tuibur is nicotin, a pharmacologically active and addictive alkaloid component of most of the smokeless tobacco products causing oxidative stress in reproductive organ leading infertility. L-Carnitine is a quaternary ammonium compound biosynthesized from the amino acids lysine and methionine and exert a substantial antioxidant action, thereby providing a protective effect against oxidative stress. The aim of the present study was to determine the ameliorative effects LCarnitine supplementation against Tuibur induced oxidative stress and antioxidant status of testis. Two different dozes of L-Carnitine (100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg) were supplemented against Tuibur (260 mg/
1128 kg) and Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg) orally treated animals for 90 days. The oxidative stress (lipid peroxidation) and antioxidant status (superoxide dismutase, Glutathione reduced and Glutathione S- Transferase) were determined. The results showed significant increased in antioxidant enzyme levels and decreased in lipid peroxidation in L- Carnitine supplemented groups in compared to tuibur and nicotine treated groups. Keywords: Tuibur, L- carnitine, Testis, Antioxidant, oxidative stress.
Introduction A number of smoking and smokeless tobacco products are in use all over the world. But unlike other smokeless tobacco products, unique tobacco smoke–infused water is used in Mizoram and Manipur which is locally known as tuibur and hidakphu, respectively. The consumption of tuibur has been the part of the culture of Mizoram and Manipur for a long time. These communities also have a very high incidence of tobacco use (Sinha et al., 2003). Tuibur is made by passing the tobacco smoke, generated by smoldering tobacco, through water until the preparation turns cognac in color and has a pungent ammoniacal nicotine smell. Users take about 5 to 10 ml of tuibur orally and keep it in the buccal space of mouth for about 10 – 15 minutes and then spit it out and take it again as and when needed (Sinha et al., 2004). The major alkaloid component of Tuibur is nicotine. It is a pharmacologically active and addictive alkaloid component of most of the smokeless tobacco products, and its effects on male reproductive system and fertility have been reported previously (Aydos et al., 2001). Wide body of literature has indicated that nicotine decreases the level of testosterone (Sarasin et al., 2003) through the inhibition in the multiple steps of testosterone biosynthesis in the rats and the mouse (Patterson et al., 1990). L-Carnitine is a quaternary ammonium compound biosynthesized from the amino acids lysine and methionine. It is a trimethylated amino acid roughly similar in structure to choline, facilitates the transfer of activated long-chain fatty acids from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria, where they are processed by oxidation to produce ATP (Steiber et al., 2004). The carnitines exert a substantial antioxidant action, thereby providing a protective effect against lipid peroxidation of phospholipid membranes and against oxidative stress induced at the myocardial and endothelial cell level (Cavazza, 2002). L-carnitine also acts as an antioxidant to prevent the oxidative damage of sperms, improving sperm quality (Lenzi et al., 2003) and shown to have beneficial effects in the treatment of varicocele, a major cause of male infertility (Seo et al., 2003). Also, supplemental doses of L-carnitine effectively counteracts the toxic effects of chronic
1129 nicotine administration on thyroid, liver, heart, bone, muscle, urinary bladder, and kidney functions and attenuates the oxidative damage possibly by its antioxidant action (Huang et al., 1999; Zadeh et al., 2008). The present study was carried out to ascertain the testicular toxicity in mice subjected to chronic Tuibur and nicotine treatment and the role of Lcarnitine supplementation to ameliorate the testicular toxicity. Materials and Method Animals Ninety adult male Swiss albino adult mice (3 months old) weighing 25-30 g were obtained from the Animal Care Facility at the Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India. The animals were accommodated in stainless steel wire-mesh cages under environmentally controlled conditions (temperature: 25 ± 2°C; 12/12 h light/dark cycle) in the Animal Care Facility at the Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India. The animals were provided with pelleted food (standard pellet diet; Pranav Agro Industries, Maharashtra, India) and drinking water ad libitum. This study was carried out in strict accordance with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institute of Health. The protocol was approved by the Committee on the Ethics of Animal Experiments of the Mizoram University Animal Ethical Committee (MZUAEC), Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India (Permit Number: MZU/IAEC/14-15/08). Experimental groups Animals were randomly divided into nine groups (n= 10 each) and treated for 90 days by oral feeding as follows : I) Control (distilled water); II) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg); III) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/kg); IV) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); V) LCarnitine (200 mg/kg); VI) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/ kg) ; VII) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); VIII) TSIW (260 mg/kg); IX) Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg). All the groups were allowed ad libitum access to standard food and water until the day of the experiment. Animal surgical procedure After exposure to individual and combined Tuibur and L- carnitine for 90 days, the rats of all groups were anesthetized with light ether anesthesia and were sacrificed by decapitation, the reproductive organs were removed by laparotomy and testes were decapsulated rapidly and stored in -80 °C until used for all assays.
1130 Processing of Testes Tissues, Lipid Peroxidation, and Antioxidant Enzyme Assays The testis were harvested from each treatment group, and homogenized with ice-cold Tris-EDTA suspension buffer in a glass homogenizer to produce 10% (w/v) homogenate. The homogenates were filtered and centrifuged for 30 minutes at ×10,000 g at 4ºC and the supernatants were frozen at -80ºC in aliquots until used for biochemical assays. The protein content of the supernatant was determined using the Lowry method (Lowry et al., 1951). The lipid peroxidation product (LPP) formation in the testes tissues were estimated by measuring the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and quantified as malondialdehyde (MDA) formed (nmol/mg protein) by using 1,1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane as the standard following the spectrophotometric method of Ohkawa et al. (1979). Testes tissue homogenates (10%) were prepared in potassium chloride (1.5%). The testes tissue protein contents were precipitated by adding 2.5 mL of trichloroacetic acid (TCA) to 1 mL of the homogenate. The precipitated proteins were centrifuged at ×2500 g for 10 min at 4°C. The resultant pellet was suspended in 2.5 mL of 0.05 M sulphuric acid and to this, 3 mL of 2 M thiobarbituric acid (TBA) was also added. The whole suspension was incubated with TBA for 30 min in boiling water bath (100°C). The contents were cooled to room temperature, and pink color was extracted into 4 ml of n-butanol. The color obtained was read at 530 nm using a spectrophotometer (Eppendorf UV-9200) against the blank. Testicular SOD was assayed by the method of Asada et al. (1974) which involves the inhibition of photochemical reduction of nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT) at pH 8.0. SOD activity was defined as the quantity of superoxide dismutase required to produce 50% inhibition of photochemical reduction of NBT. Briefly, the reaction mixture containing 100 µL of phenazene methosulfate (PMS, 0.06 mg/mL), 300 µL of nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT, 2.5 mg/mL) and 200 µL of NADH (0.6 mg/mL of nButanol) were incubated at 30ºC for 90 sec. Reaction was stopped by adding 1 mL of acetic acid and after that 4 mL of n-Butanol was added. The absorbance was read at 560 nm against a blank using UV–Vis spectrophotometer. The activity was expressed as µmol/mg protein. Activity of catalase (CAT) in the reproductive organs was measured at 37ºC by following the rate of disappearance of H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) at 240 nm (Aebi, 1984). One unit of CAT activity is defined as the amount of enzyme catalyzing the degradation of 1 µmol of H2O2 min-1 mg-1 at 37 ºC.
1131 Reduced form of glutathione content (nmol GSH mg-1 protein) was estimated by interaction with DTNB (5,5-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid, Sigma–Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and the absorbance was read at 412 nm (Rahman et al., 2007). Glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity was quantified by checking formation of a thioether bond between GSH and 1-chloro-2,4dinitrobenzene (CDNB as a substrate, (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) using a spectrophotometer (Warholm et al., 1985). The formation of the product of 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, S-2,4-dinitro-phenyl glutathione, was monitored by measuring the net increase in absorbance at 340 nm against the blank. The enzyme activity was calculated using the molar extinction coefficient of = 9.6 M/cm and expressed as nmol/mg of protein. Results Lipid Peroxidation The testis MDA content (a product of lipid peroxidation of the polyunsaturated fatty acid present in cell membrane) was significantly (p < 0.0001) increased after chronic Tuibur administration (13.15 nmol MDA/ mg protein) to mice with respect to the controls (2.98 nmol MDA/mg protein), indicating the testicular ROS generations and induction of oxidative stress. L- carnitine cotreatment with Tuibur (6.77– 7.37 nmol MDA/mg protein) and L- carnitine alone treatment (2.47 – 2.81 nmol MDA/ mg protein) significantly restored these parameters toward the level of control, though a significant higher value was also noted in these parameters (Fig.1).
Fig.1: MDA levels in different treatment groups. I – Control; II – L- carnitine 100 mg/kg, III - L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/ kg) ; IV) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg) ; V) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) ; VI) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/kg) ; VII) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); VIII) TSIW (260 mg/kg) ; IX) Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg).
1132 Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) A severe inhibitory response on the testicular antioxidant status was observed, followed by chronic Tuibur exposure to mice (Fig. 2). The testicular activities of SOD (4.82 µmol/mg protein) and were significantly (p < 0.0001) decreased in tuibur-exposed mice than the controls (SOD: 25.51 µmol/mg protein) signifying the suppressed testicular antioxidant defense against ROS, which assisted the generation of oxidative stress. Lcarnitine supplemented with Tuibur and nicotine ranges (8.38 – 11.67µmol/ mg protein) and L- carnitine alone treatment (16.88 – 20.26 µmol/mg protein) (Fig.2).
Fig.2: Superoxide dismutase levels in treatment groups. I – Control; II – L- carnitine 100 mg/kg, III - L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/ kg) ; IV) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg) ; V) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) ; VI) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/kg) ; VII) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); VIII) TSIW (260 mg/kg) ; IX) Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg).
Catalase The activity of catalase in testis and were significantly (p < 0.0001) decreased in tuibur-treated mice (58.11 µmol/mg protein) than the controls (SOD: 202.16 µmol/mg protein), which also signifying it assisted the generation of oxidative stress. L- carnitine supplemented groups ranges 96.57-145.45 µmol/mg protein) and L- carnitine alone treatment (160.73199.97 µmol/mg protein) which were more or less similar with control (Fig.3).
1133
Fig.3: Catalase levels in treatment groups. I – Control; II – L- carnitine 100 mg/kg; III - L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/ kg) ; IV) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg) ; V) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) ; VI) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/kg) ; VII) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); VIII) TSIW (260 mg/kg) ; IX) Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg).
Glutathione reduced (GSH) The activity of glutathione reduced were also reduced in tuibur exposed mice from untreated control and L- carnitine alone groups. There was again increased in GSH activity when supplemented with L- carnitine (Fig.4).
Fig.3: Glutathione reduced levels in treatment groups. I – Control; II – L- carnitine 100 mg/kg, III - L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/ kg) ; IV) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg) ; V) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) ; VI) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/kg) ; VII) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); VIII) TSIW (260 mg/kg) ; IX) Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg).
1134 Glutathione S Transferase (GST) The GST is one of the major antioxidant enzymes in testis tissue, which defend sperm cells by scavenging ROS generated through the exposure of environmental toxicants and pollutants. GST (5.46 µmol/mg protein) was found in Tuibur treated mice which was significantly reduced from control (22.61 µmol/mg) and L- carnitine alone treated groups (19.75 - 20.69 µmol/ mg protein). Ameliorative effects of L- carnitine were shown in carnitine supplemented groups that ranges GST value (10.46 - 15.06 µmol/mg of protein).
Fig.5: Glutathione S transferase levels in treatment groups. I – Control; II – L- carnitine 100 mg/kg, III - L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/ kg); IV) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); V) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg); VI) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/kg); VII) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); VIII) TSIW (260 mg/kg) ; IX) Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg).
Discussion Male infertility and abnormal progeny outcome are some of the consequences resulting from the exposure of germ cells to stressors such as environmental chemicals and drugs (Hales and Robaire, 1997). Testicular cancer is a disease in which cells become malignant in one or both testicles. Testicles produce and store sperm and are also the body’s main source of male hormones. These hormones control the development of reproductive organs and male characteristics. During the male germ cell development, cells have different abilities to cope with diverse types of stress such as oxidative stress and protein and DNA damage. Tuibur and nicotine treated mice showed an elevation in MDA
1135 level when compared with the control group. An increased MDA concentration might be a consequence of decreased production of antioxidants in the tuibur and nicotine treated mice tissues thereby shifting the delicate balance in favor of ROS thus leading to a plethora of pathologic damage to sperm cells and concomitant loss of function. Lipid peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids is a frequently used indicator of increased oxidative stress and subsequent oxidative damage (Das et al., 2012). The present data showed that tuibur administration produced marked oxidative impact on the testis as evident by the significant increase in testicular lipid peroxidation as well as a significant decrease in antioxidants including SOD, Catalase, GSH and GST activities. This might suggest an inhibitory action of tuibur on enzymatic antioxidants in testes. This study also suggests that the activity of SOD which catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide (O2+) radical to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (McCord et al., 1971) was down-regulated in the testis in both the tuibur and nicotine treated group. However it was again elevated when supplemented with L- carnitine indicating that the effect of tuibur and nicotine on SOD could be ameliorated by L- carnitine. The observed decrease in the testicular SOD level may be a consequence of decreased de novo synthesis of enzyme proteins or oxidative inactivation of enzyme protein. The inhibition of testicular SOD activity might also be attributed to either hyperglycemia as reported by Sharpe et al. who found that glucose induced oxidative stress in different tissues and/or due to loss of enzyme cofactors namely copper and zinc (Sharpe et al., 1998). In addition, previous studies have also indicated an increase in glucose level with nicotine administration (Alada, 2001). Administration of tuibur significantly decreased Catalase activity in the testes. The primary role of Catalase is to scavenge H2O2 that has been generated by free radicals (Ribiere et al., 1992). The recovery groups showed that the effect of tuibur on catalase could be ameliorated by L- carnitine treatment. The reduced level of SOD and Catalase activity might generate excessive H2O2 , which could give rise to other ROS such as hydroxyl radicals. This finding corresponds with earlier studies when the rats were exposed to cigarette smoke for 45 (Rajpurkar et al., 2000) and 60 days (Ozyurt et al., 2006). This study further shows that down-regulation of antioxidant enzyme levels in the treated mice is a mechanism by which tuibur induces infertility in male. This study also confirmed that oxidative stress might be
1136 a mechanism by which tuibur causes infertility in male mice. On the other hand when tuibur treated mice were supplemented with L- carnitine it showed its ameliorative effects against tuibur caused testicular toxicity indicating up-regulation of antioxidant capacity. Reference Aebi H. (1984). Catalase. In: Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, Bergmeyer, H. (Ed.) Verlag Chemical, Weinheim. 3:273. Alada AR. Effects of calcium channel blockers on nicotine-induced hyperglycemia in the rat. Afr J Med Med Sci. 2001;30:57–9. [PubMed] Aydos K., Guven M.C., Can B. and Ergun A. (2001). Nicotine toxicity to the ultrastructure of the testis in rats. Br. J. Urol. Int. 88:622–626. Cavazza L. (2002). Composition for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis due to manupause syndrome. US Patent 6,335,038, column 3 Das S, Chakraborty SP, Roy S, Roy S. Nicotine induced pro-oxidant and antioxidant imbalance in rat lymphocytes: In vivo dose and time dependent approaches. Toxicol Mech Methods. 2012;22:711–20.[PubMed] Lenzi A., Lombardo F., Sgro P., Salacone P., Caponecchia L., Dondero F. and Gandini L. (2003). Use of carnitine therapy in selected cases of male factor infertility: a doubleblind crossover trial. Fertil. and Steril. 79 (2): 292–300. Lowry, O.H., Rosebrough, N.J., Farr, A.L., & Randall, R.J. (1951).Protein measurement with the folin phenol reagent.Journal of Biological Chemistry, 193, 265-275. McCord JM, Keele BB, Jr, Fridovich I. An enzyme-based theory of obligate anaerobiosis: The physiological function of superoxide dismutase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1971;68:1024–7.[PMC free article] [PubMed] Ozyurt H, Pekmez H, Parlaktas BS, Kus I, Ozyurt B, Sarsilmaz M. Oxidative stress in testicular tissues of rats exposed to cigarette smoke and protective effects of caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Asian J Androl. 2006;8:189–93. [PubMed] Patterson T.R., Stringham J.D. and Meikle A.W. (1990). Nicotine and cotinine inhibit steroidogenesis in mouse Leydig cells. Life Sci. 46: 265–272. Phukan R.P., Zomawia E., Kanwar N., Hazarika N.C. and Mahanta J. (2005). Tobacco Use and Stomach Cancer in Mizoram, India. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 14: 1892-1896 Rajpurkar A, Dhabuwala CB, Jiang Y, Li H. Chronic cigarette smoking induces an oxidantantioxidant imbalance in the testis. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 2000;19:369–73. [PubMed] Ribière C, Hininger I, Rouach H, Nordmann R. Effects of chronic ethanol administration on free radical defence in rat myocardium. Biochem Pharmacol. 1992;44:1495– 500. [PubMed] Sarasin A., Schlumpf M., Muller M., Fleischmann L., Lauber M.E. and Lichtensteiger W.
1137 (2003). Adrenal mediated rather than direct effects of nicotine as a basis of altered sex steroid synthesis in fetal and neonatal rat. Reprod. Toxicol. 17:153–162. Seo J.T., Kim K.T., Moon M.H. and Kim W.T. (2010). The significance of microsurgical varicocelectomy in the treatment of subclinical varicocele. Fertil. Steril. 93 (6): 1907–1910 Sharpe PC, Liu WH, Yue KK, McMaster D, Catherwood MA, McGinty AM, et al. Glucoseinduced oxidative stress in vascular contractile cells: Comparison of aortic smooth muscle cells and retinal pericytes. Diabetes. 1998;47:801–9. [PubMed] Sinha D.N, Pednekar M. and Gupta P.C. (2004). Tobacco water: A special form of tobacco use in the Mizoram and Manipur states of India. National Medi. J. India . 243244. Sinha D.N., Gupta P.C. and Pednekar M. (2003). Tobacco use among students in the eight northeastern states of India. Indian J. Cancer 40: 43–59. Steiber A., Kerner J. and Hoppel C. (2004). Carnitine: A nutritional, biosynthetic, and functional perspective. Mol. Aspects Med. 25(5–6): 455–458. Zadeh K.K., Ha M.P., Anker S.D., Horwich T.B. and Fonarow G.C. (2008). Nutritional and anti-Inflammatory interventions in chronic heart failure. American J. Cardiol. 101 (11): S89–S103.
1138
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 1139-1151, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
87 Refocusing the Correlates of Carbon Sequestration through Maintaining the Carbon Stock in Home Gardens of West Bengal, India Mohit Subba, Nazir A. Pala, Gopal Shukla, Kausik Pradhan* and Sumit Chakravarty Department of Forestry, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, (W B), India *Department of Ag. Extension, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar (W. B), India, E-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract We conducted a study to explore and refocus the correlates of carbon stock in home gardens of Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts of West Bengal. Purposive, multi-stage and random sampling procedures are followed in the present study. From the exhaustive list of the home gardeners in these three districts 100 respondents were selected for the study. The total carbon stock was considered as the dependent variable for the study and fifteen attributes of the homegradeners were considered as the independent variables for the study after operationalising the variables. The data were collected with the help of pre-structured interview schedule. The data were processed into correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis to draw a definite conclusion. The result depicted that the variable educational aspiration was positively and significantly associated with the total carbon stock in the Terai regional homegardens of West Bengal. The variable age was also significantly and positively contributing towards characterising the total carbon. The fifteen predictor variables
1140 altogether had explained only 25.60% variations embedded with the predicted one that is the total carbon stock in the Terai regional homegardens of West Bengal. Key words Carbon sequestration, Climate change, Home garden, Seasonal whims.
Introduction In the challenging climate change scenario, our seasons are becoming confused and increasingly unpredictable. The farmers and homegradeners have to depend on the whims and fences of season for maintaining their enterprises. The home gardener will regularly observe the effects of unseasonal and extreme weather on plants and wildlife. They help control urban temperatures, mitigating the effects of extreme heat and cold. They prevent flooding by absorbing rainwater that would otherwise overload drainage systems. They have effectively become some of the best nature reserves, supporting a range of wildlife including birds, mammals and invertebrates. They support human health by easing stress and providing physical exercise. Now the environment is particularly prone to heating due to the replacement of vegetated areas with dark and impervious surfaces, with very different thermal and radiative properties (ie pavements and roads absorb considerably more heat and reflect considerably less than planted surfaces – this makes them warmer than planted surfaces). This results in urban air and surface temperature being significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas, the extent of which varies depending on the time of year and specifics of the location (Grimmond, 2007). Heat waves have the potential to increase fatalities due to heat stress (Hajat et al., 2007) and can increase the hazards arising from fires that occur. Vegetation has the ability to provide aerial cooling by shading (primarily trees and climbing plants) but also through the plant-specific process of evapo-transpiration (water loss through leaf pores). Current models predict that a 10 percent increase in vegetated surfaces in areas would help control the rise in summertime air temperatures due to climate change (Gill, 2007) Geographical location, building design and the prevalence and orientation of trees will all affect the extent of savings, but on average summer-cooling energy savings have been estimated to be around 30 percent; such savings also help reduce CO2 emissions (Akbari, 1997). Home gardens are a common small holder agro-forestry system in India. Due to their high biomass these systems simultaneously offer potential for carbon storage due to their high woody biomass. These species rich, tree based systems usually occupy lands immediately surrounding the household and are used to produce a diverse array of food and other
1141 products (Roshetko et al., 2002). The home gardeners are usually the prime movers of carbon sequestration process through developing the carbon stock for mitigating the climate change. Consequently the socio-personal, economic and other attributes of the home gardeners can pave the way to develop and maintain the carbon stock in their own home garden. Keeping all these in view the present study was carried out to refocus the correlates of total carbon stock development and management in the Terai Home gardens of West Bengal. Method and Materials The study was conducted in Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts of West Bengal. Purposive, multi-stage and random sampling procedures are followed in the present study. The districts Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling were purposively selected due to the availability of diversified ecosystem related to the theme of the present study wherein the Terai ecosystem was prevailing with a vast agricultural field and forest area coverage. From the fifty nine selected villages of the three districts an exhaustive list of home gardeners was prepared and from the exhaustive list forty home gardeners from Cooch Behar district, forty home gardeners from Jalpaiguri district and twenty home gardeners from the Darjeeling district were finalized as respondents for the present study. Thus, a total of 100 diversified home gardeners from Terai region of west Bengal were selected for final data collection (Annexure I). The total carbon stock was considered as the dependent variable for the study and fifteen attributes of the homegradeners were considered as the independent variables for the study after operationalising the variables. The data were collected with the help of pre-structured interview schedule through personal interview method. The data were processed into correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis to draw a definite conclusion Results and Discussion Descriptive distribution of the selected predicted variable total carbon stock and 15 predictor variables is presented for terai region of West Bengal comprising the districts of Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri and Siliguri sub-division of Darjeeling district in table 1. The analysis of mean standard deviation and coefficient of variation indicates higher consistency of all the variables. Majority of the respondent belongs to medium utilization of resources category and in age category of 30-50 years with low education, medium level of family education, high educational aspiration, small family and small land holding with small house type, low economic status, low farm power status, low household materials and low of annual income.
1142 Moreover, the majority of the respondents represented medium risk orientation category with medium scientific orientation and low level of innovation proneness. Finally the total C stock was distributed with mean of 101.27, standard deviation of 143.02 and coefficient of variation 141.22 indicating high consistency level of distribution with majority of homegardens had low level of total carbon stock. The majority group of respondents are the most important stake holder in case of adopting strategies of climate change through managing home garden land use system. Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation among the total carbon stock with fifteen causal variables in the terai region clearly shows that educational aspiration is positively and significantly associated with the total carbon stock at 5 % level of significance in Table 2. Table 1. Descriptive distribution of the respondents with respect to their attributes and total carbon stock in Terai region of West Bengal Variables
Range
Mean
Standard Deviation
Coefficient of Variation
Age
30 - 90
51.3
12.1
23.6
Education
0-6
2.99
1.9
64.5
Family Education status
0.6-5.3
2.69
1.0
36.8
Family size
3.0-13.0
5.7
1.7
29.7
Educational aspiration
5.0-12.0
9.4
15
17.5
Annual income
11.1-691.5
140
128.1
91.2
Land holding
0.06-2.7
0.1
0.5
94.3
Economic status
0-3
1.4
0.5
37.3
House type
1-5
2.0
0.8
39.8
Farm power
0-8
1.3
1.5
111.2
Material possession
1-25
7.8
4.1
52.6
Risk orientation
21-37
28.4
3.7
12.9
Scientific orientation
6-40
28.5
5.1
17.8
Innovation proneness
3-19
9.45
4.0
42.4
Utilization of sources of information
12-37
23.3
4.8
20.6
Total carbon stock
45-1503.8
101.0
143
141.2
1143 Table 2. Correlation co-efficient of total carbon pull or stock with fifteen causal variables in Terai region of West Bengal Sr. No
Variables
Coefficient of correlation
1
Age
0.121
2
Education
0.114
3
Family Education status
0.162
4
Family size
-0.144
5
Educational aspiration
0.179*
6
Annual income
0.109
7
Land holding
0.011
8
Land status
0.002
9
House type
0.164
10
Farm power
-0.047
11
Material possession
0.026
12
Risk orientation
0.062
13
Scientific orientation
0.158
14
Innovation provenances
0.138
15
Utilization of sources of information
0.149
*Significant at 5% level of significance Table 3. Multiple regression analysis of total carbon stock with fifteen predictor variables in Terai region of West Bengal Variables
Β
b
S.E of ‘b’
t-value
Age
0.271
3.19
1.41
2.262*
Education
-0.080
-5.91
12.53
-0.472
Family Education status
0.015
2.17
21.33
0.102
Family size
-0.186
-15.74
9.6
-1.639
Educational aspiration
0.222
19.22
11.64
1.65
Annual income
-0.037
-0.041
0.152
-0.272
Land holding
-0.111
-33.08
44.8
-0.739
Land status
0.017
4.46
41.19
0.108
House type
0.198
35.01
26.64
1.314
1144
Farm power
-0.092
-8.84
12.03
-0.735
Material possession
-0.125
-4.36
4.86
-0.898
Risk orientation
-0.068
-2.64
4.64
-0.569
Scientific orientation
0.183
5.15
4.2
1.22
Innovation provenances
0.161
5.73
4.48
1.27
Utilization of sources of information
0.091
2.71
4.08
0.667
R2 = 0.256 *Significant at 5% level of significance
Educational aspiration reflects the aspiration of an individual for achieving the educational perspective through their children. It also helps to build the attitude towards the attainment of educational degree and develop analytical mindset of an individual to seek information and utilize that information in their own situation with the help of their available resources. Such type of analytical mind leads the respondent to seek the information on adaptation strategy of recent climate change through carbon sequestration or enhancement of the carbon stock in their home garden. Multiple regression analysis of total carbon stock with fifteen predictor variables indicates that age of the respondents is positively and significantly contributing towards characterizing the total carbon stock in the home gardens of terai region presented by table 3. Age is the indicator of experience gathering of an individual. Age increases the individual’s information level cosmopolitans, knowledge, and wisdom level. It also helps individuals to keep him updated with the latest knowledge. The advance age increases the knowledge about the adaptation strategy of climate change. Age is directly contributing 27.0 % in case of characterizing the total carbon stock in the home garden. One unit change of the age is delineating the 3.89 unit positive change in the total carbon stock. The fifteen predictor variables all together can explain the 25.6% variations embedded with the dependent variable, total carbon stock in terai regional home garden of West Bengal. Socio-psychological factors such as farmer’s economic and educational status, demography, social connections, culture, and resource availability are important to understand why and how farmers select certain management practices (Seabrook et al., 2008). Agricultural decisions made by individuals (or farmers) are often influenced by their economic opportunities (Lambin et al., 2006). Similarly, the positive effects of education on adoption of desirable land management practices have been reported (Anjichi et al., 2007; Matata, 2008).
1145 Conclusion Natural resources managed in home gardens could be targets for improving conditions of human life and for maintaining ecosystem services. So, in the changing climate situation there is a need to develop and maintain the home gardens in a better way to increase the carbon storage for mitigating climate change and to increase the earning of the family as it may be viewed as the species rich, tree based agro-forestry system. In case of increasing the carbon storage and stock in home garden the policy should be made on the basis of the needs, demands, age and educational aspiration of the home gardeners. The journey towards the identification of correlates of carbon storage in home gardens holds good for previous research propositions and strategies. References Akbari H, Kurn DM, Bretz SE, Hanford JW (1997) Peak power and cooling energy savings of shade trees. Energy and Buildings 25: 139–148 Anjichi VE, Mauyo LW, Kipsat MJ (2007) The effect of socioeconomic factors on a farmer’s decision to adopt farm soil conservation measures: an application of multivariate logistic analysis in Butere/Mumias district Kenya. In: Advances in integrated soil fertility management in Sub-Saharan Africa: challenges and opportunities, (eds.), Bationo, A.; Waswa, B.; Kihara, J. and Kimetu, J. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 915920. Gill SE, Handley JF, Ennos AR, Pauleit S (2007) Adapting cities for climate change: the role of green infrastructure. Built Environment 33: 115–13. Grimmond S (2007) Urbanization and global environmental change: local effects of urban warming. Geographical Journal 173: 83–88. Hajat S, Kovats RS, Lachowycz K (2007) Heat-related and cold-related deaths in England and Wales: who is at risk? Occupational and Environmental Medicine 64: 93-100. Lambin EF, Turner BL, Geist HJ, Agbola SB, Angelson A, Bruce JW, Coomes OT, Dirzo R, Fischer G, Folke C, George PS, Homewood K, Imbernon J, Leemans R, Li X, Moran EF, Mortimer M, Ramakrishnan PS, Richards JF, Skanes H, Steffen W, Stone GD, Svedin U, Veldkamp TA, Vogel C, Xu J (2001) The causes of land- use and land- cover change: moving beyond the myths. Global Environment Change 11: 261-269. Matata PZ, Ajayil OC, Oduol PA, Agumya A (2008) Socio-economic factors influencing adoption of improved fallow practices among smallholder farmers in western Tanzania. International NGO Journal 3: 68-73. Roshetko MJ, Delaney M, Hairiah K, Purnomosidhi P (2002) Carbon stocks in Indonesian home garden systems: Can small holder systems be targeted for increased carbon storage. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 17: 138-147. Seabrook L, McAlpine C, Fensham RJ (2008) What influences farmers to keep trees? A case study from the Brigalow Belt Queensland Australia. Landscape and Urban Planning 84: 266-281
1
Khagrabari
Dharbhar kotie
Kumarpara
Banchukamari
Uttar Sonapur
Uttar Khagrabari
Dakshin Chowakathi
Saheb Pota
Dakshin Chowakathi
Sonapur
SP Ghoramara
SP Ghoramara
Dakshin Chowakathi
Saheb Pota
Dakshin Kalarai kotie
Dakshin Kalarai kotie
Sr. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
0.46
0.06
0.46
0.33
0.2
0.73
0.46
0.4
0.33
0.06
0.66
0.46
0.93
0.4
0.8
0.06
2
24
41
42
31
19
19
18
25
28
26
29
26
23
24
15
19
3
150
276
142
330
61
133
174
99
168
62
245
255
340
229
33
69
4
Annexure I. Basic information of sampled home gardens
Areca nut, Banana, Bamboo
Areca nut, Sugarcane, Brinjal
Ginger, Areca nut, Jackfruit
Bamboo, Areca nut, Teak
Areca nut, Cauliflower, Teak
Areca nut, Bamboo, Jackfruit
Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana
Areca nut, Banana, Pineapple
Areca nut, Chilly, Ghora neem
Bamboo, Banana, Areca nut
Areca nut, Bamboo, Banana
Areca nut, Chilly, Seemul
Areca nut, Lemon ,Gamer
Areca nut, Bamboo, Banana
Areca nut, Mango, Latka
Banana, Brinjal, Chilly
5
2C
3C
3C, 2G
1C, 2G
2C, 6G
-
12C
-
-
-
-
2C, 6G
-
-
4C
3C, 8G
6
Scrap Collector
Labour
Business
Labour
Self-employed
Labour
Labour
Service
LIC Agent
Carpenter
Service
Labour
Shopkeeper
Labour
Farmer
Service
7
1146
Bagmara sukandighi
Bagmara sukandighi
Bagmara sukandighi
Chhata rangrash
Chhata rangrash
Uttar Angarkata
Dhangdinguri
Kumarpara
Kumarpara
Mathura
Khurmai Busty
Khurmai Busty
Khurmai Busty
Khurmai Busty
Chanand chaurai
Chanand chaurai
Angarkata
Jhojko narayan kotie
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
0.6
0.6
1.66
1.06
0.8
0.4
0.66
0.133
0.133
0.33
0.33
2.66
0.26
0.73
1.33
0.2
0.133
0.53
22
24
29
24
21
13
16
14
21
18
17
21
21
14
22
21
15
27
94
272
688
162
458
150
139
134
63
111
90
64
83
56
103
133
146
307
Areca nut, Teak, Pineapple,
Bamboo, Areca nut, Marigold
Bamboo, Areca nut, Papaya
Areca nut, Mahogany, Tulsi
Areca nut, Dhania, Chilly
Areca nut, Gamar, Latka
Areca nut, Lemon, Ghora neem
Areca nut, Turmeric, Kadam
Areca nut, Tulsi, Mango
Areca nut, Ganjaa, Papaya
Areca nut, Gamer, Banana
Areca nut, Marigold, Banana
Bamboo, Areca nut, Mahogany
Areca nut, Marigold, Teak
Areca nut, Tulsi, Banana
Bamboo, Areca nut, Kadam
Bamboo, Turmeric, Banana
Turmeric, Brinjal, Bamboo
-
2C
F
1C
1C, 3H, 1P
2P, 12H
1C, 3G, 4H, 1P
4P
-
-
2C, 1G
2C, 1G, 22 H
-
1C, 2G, F
1C
1C
-
2G
Service
Labour
Salesman
Service
Contractor
Forest Guard
Forest Guard
Labour
labour
Labour
Baker
Shopkeeper
Fruit seller
Driver
Service
Labour
Labour
Service
1147
Konamalick
Angarkata
Gandhipalley
Uttar kalirair kotie
Uttar kalirair kotie
Madhari Road 2 Mile
Lothapota
Rabina Nagar
Chuaa Khola
Khusier bari
Jagna narayan kotie
Raichainga
Kalipur Balurghat
Kalipur Balurghat
Kochu Banbaram
Jog narayan kotie
Kochu Banbaram
Jog narayan kotie
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
0.4
1.2
0.33
0.46
0.8
0.46
0.133
1.26
0.133
0.73
0.06
1.86
0.46
1.4
0.06
0.6
0.06
0.2
23
16
16
26
20
19
27
20
20
28
19
24
14
20
12
15
24
21
143
65
15
212
264
63
449
447
101
246
819
402
28
108
232
44
180
237
Areca nut, Gamer, Mango
Areca nut, Pineapple, Chilly
Areca nut, Papaya, Kadam
Bamboo, Banana, Areca nut
Bamboo, Areca nut, Jackfruit
Areca nut, Gamer, Ghora neem
Areca nut, Ginger, Banana
Areca nut, Chilly, Tulsi
Bamboo, Areca nut, Jackfruit
Areca nut, Marigold, Mango
Areca nut, Carrot, Teak
Areca nut, Bamboo, Coconut
Areca nut, Marigold, Papaya
Areca nut, Ginger, Mango
Bamboo, Areca nut, Kadam,
Areca nut, Papaya, Kadam
Bamboo, Areca nut, Kadam
Bamboo, Areca nut, Teak
2C, 6H, F
4C, F
2C
F
3C
4C
4C, 9G
2C
2C,4G
-
-
4C, 5G, 20 Pg, F
1C
2C, 5D, 5H, F
-
-
2C, 1G
1C, 2G
Farmer
Labour
Driver
Carpenter
Decorator
Labour
Labour
Farmer
Shopkeeper
Driver
Engineer
Farmer
Panchayat Pradhan
Farmer
Labour
Driver
Labour
Labour
1148
Harpur
Chamta bashikpara
Chamta bashikpara
Baneashwar
Boraibari
Boraibari
Dhurbo Khutia
Chaporar Phab
Balauk Bhabrie
Phurbo Chokchoka
Phurbo Chokchoka
Kumar Gram
Kumar Gram
Pashim Chokchoka
Pashim Chokchoka
Mechpara T.G
Pashim Chokchoka
Pashim Chokchoka
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
1
0.6
0.06
0.66
0.133
0.06
0.133
0.06
0.2
1.8
0.46
0.06
0.06
0.46
0.06
0.06
0.73
0.8
16
12
14
12
17
9
16
15
17
16
19
22
19
16
13
9
13
18
39
65
76
74
97
39
141
191
260
108
255
162
373
113
42
25
236
264
Areca nut, Teak, Mango
Bamboo, Areca nut, Guava
Areca nut, Teak, Guava
Bamboo, Areca nut, Marigold
Areca nut, Banana, Jackfruit
Areca nut, Jackfruit, Chilly
Areca nut, Teak, Mango
Bamboo, Areca nut, Gamer
Bamboo, Marigold, Jackfruit
Areca nut, Mahogany, Mango
Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana
Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana
Bamboo, Banana, Mango
Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana
Katchu, Areca nut, Mango
Areca nut, Litchi, Jackfruit
Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana
Bamboo, Areca nut, Marigold
2C
-
20H
2C, 7H
-
-
4C
-
-
3C, 11H
7G, 12H, F
18H, 2G, F
1C, 2G
2C
2C
-
2C, 1G
2C
Farmer
Farmer
Labour
Labour
Panipuri Seller
Security Guard
Tailor
Scrap Collector
Electrician
Farmer
Labour
Labour
Labour
Labour
Bidi Maker
Shopkeeper
Labour
Farmer
1149
0.93 1.6 1.46 0.33 0.53 0.8
Chandan chowra
Jalpaiguri Town
Jalpaiguri Town
Jalpaiguri Town
Jalpaiguri Town
Jalpaiguri Town
Khurmai Busty
Khurmai Busty
Salbari Hat
Salbari Hat
Salbari Hat
Salbari Hat
Salbari T.G
Salbari T.G
Dagapur
Dagapur
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
0.2
0.4
0.26
0.66
0.53
0.06
0.26
0.06
0.86
0.93
0.53
Dharbharar kotie
72
0.133
Phurbo Chokchoka
71
17
17
16
10
12
9
13
14
21
21
15
20
13
16
21
11
19
19
125
46
43
48
38
26
25
23
49
180
152
121
83
63
49
19
406
46
Bamboo, Areca nut, Pineapple
Brinjal, Marigold, Coconut
Pineapple, Banana, Ghora neem
Banana, Areca nut, Papaya
Areca nut, Banana, Mango
Lemon, Mango, Guava
Mango, White Siris, Marigold
Coconut, Chilly, Marigold
Chilly, Mango, Coconut
Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana
Areca nut, Kadam, Teak
Bamboo, Areca nut, Marigold
Areca nut, Chilly, Guava
Areca nut, Banana, Jackfruit
Areca nut, Jackfruit, Banana
Ghora neem, Jackfruit, Coconut
Areca nut, Siris, Seemul
Areca nut, Brinjal, Chilly
-
2C
1C, 3G
-
-
-
-
-
-
4C,6G
8G
-
2C
-
-
-
5H, 8D
-
Labour
Service
Service
Service
Shopkeeper
Cobbler
Service
Service
Service
Labour
Labour
Driver
Farmer
Cyber Café
Service
Panipuri seller
Shopkeeper
Labour
1150
Salbari Hat
Sukna
Gurung Busty
Gurung Busty
Gulmar T. G.
Sukna T. G.
Khapral
Hakim Para
Gurung Busty
Gurung Busty
Khaprel
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
1.2
0.06
0.2
0.4
0.133
0.06
0.06
0.133
0.06
0.133
0.4
0.06
16
20
18
17
19
16
8
21
20
19
10
22
88
67
55
50
74
48
11
75
210
179
34
160
Bamboo, Areca nut, Chilly
Teak, Areca nut, Marigold
Pineapple, Papaya, Marigold
Bamboo, Areca nut, Teak
Banana, Areca nut, Ghora neem
Tomato, Tulsi, Ghora neem
Mango, White Siris, China rose
Bamboo, Coconut, Kadam
Areca nut, Bamboo, Banana
Bamboo, Areca nut, Coconut
Areca nut, Mango, Lemon
Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana
3C, 2G
-
-
-
-
-
3C,6G
2P
2C, 2P, 7H
6C,2P
13H
Driver
Business
Service
Shopkeeper
Shopkeeper
Wood Collector
Labour
Shopkeeper
Carpenter
Service
Business
Service
1-place; 2- area (ha), 3- species richness; 4- number of individuals; 5- dominant species; 6- other component (C- cow, D- duck, F- fish, G- goat, H- hen, P- pig, Pg- pigeon); 7- occupation of the respondent
Dagapur
89
1151
1152
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 1153-1164, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
88 A Comparative Study of Gestural Communication on Three Species of Macaques (Assamese Macaque, Rhesus Macaque and Pigtailed macaque) in Mizoram Phoebe Lalremruati*, Vansawmkimi and G.S. Solanki Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004 Address for Correspondence:
[email protected]
Abstract Communication by facial expressions and body postures play an important role in the social context of macaques. Macaques use gestures to mediate both competitive and cooperative interactions within their group. Comparison of communication patterns across different animal species can provide evidence of the adaptive significance of signals and their phylogenetic history. Variation in social organization between rhesus, assamese and pigtailed macaques should be accompanied by differences in social communication. Previous studies investigating the use of nonvocal signals in each of these three species and comparing the size of their gestural repertoire suggested that this is indeed the case. The present study expands the previous comparative investigation of gestural communication on these three species by investigating the frequency of occurrence of nonvocal signals and their use in relation to possible adaptive significance. A comparative study of gestural communication was carried out in three species of macaques, namely, assamese macaque (Macacaassamensis), rhesus macaque (Macacamulatta) and northern pigtailed macaque (Macacaleonina).
1154 The study was conducted at Aizawl Zoological Park where each group of species was housed in an open enclosure of 840m2. The group of Assamese macaque, rhesus macaque and pigtailed macaque consists of 14 individuals, 16 individuals and 9 individuals respectively. Observations were recorded by the Focal Sampling and sampling all occurrence method (Altmann, 1974) for all activities associated with gestural signals. To determine the variation levels of gestural signals for different activities among three species of macaques, Kruskal-Wallis test was employed (SPSS ver. 16.0). The significant differing levels of gestural signals as indicated by Kruskal-Wallis test were subjected to pairwise comparison between species by Wilcoxon Mann-Whitney test. The type of gestural communication observed on assamese macaque includes lip-smack, bared-teeth, eyebrows, touch face, touch genitals, present, mock bite and embrace. The type of gestures observed on rhesus macaque includes lip-smack, pucker, teeth chatter, baredteeth, present and mock bite. The study group of pigtailed macaque showed gestures such as lip-smack, pucker, teeth chatter, bared-teeth, eyebrows, present and mock bite. The observation on the three group of macaques showed no significant variation in the number of lip smack (χ2=1.837; p>0.05), bared-teeth (χ2=2.762; p>0.05), present (χ2=1.441; p>0.05) and mock bite (χ2=0.262; p>0.05). Significant variation was shown by the species in eyebrows (χ 2=13.464; p 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
Survival
1366
Aqueous
F
M
2 30.7 31.2 27.8 26.3 28.8 29.4 30.2 26 25.9
34.5 29.7 28.8 30.5 31.6 33.6 28.7 29.6
30.5
32.8
33.6
33.7
35.4
32.5
30.6
35.3
28.7
32.4
26.9
28.7
30.7
25.2
27.5
31.3
26.8
29.7
33.1
30.6
32
3.7
2.7
3.4
2.2
1.7
2.5
1.9
3.3
2.9
2.8
2.3
1.7
1.8
2
1.8
1.8
2.3
2.9
1.4
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
> 14 days
1367
1368 and used to compare the toxicities of compounds relative to their therapeutic doses. It is now realized that high precision may not be necessary to compare toxicities. Different extracts of Colocasia gigantea administered with a single oral dose showed no signs of any toxicity at 2 g/kg b. wt. in Swiss albino mice. However, the intraperitoneal mode of administration revealed significant toxicity for all the extracts i.e aqueous, chloroform and ethanol, where the toxicity was higher than 0.1 g/kg body weight. Based on the toxicity study, the chloroform and aqueous extracts showed highest toxicity as compared to ethanol extract with LD50 of 0.625 g/kg b. wt. for chloroform extract, 0.710 g/kg b. wt for aqueous extract and 0.823 g/kg b. wt. for ethanol extract, respectively after intraperitoneal administration. References Kay DE. (revised by Gooding EGB). Crop and product digest No. 2-root crops. 2nd ed. London: Tropical Development and Research Institute; 1987. Manner HI. Farm and forestry production and marketing profile for giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza). In: Elevitch CR, editor. Specialty crops for pacific island agroforestry [Internet]. Holualoa, Hawaii: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR); 2011. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (1998) Harmonized Integrated Hazard Classification System For Human Health and Environmental Effects of Chemical Substances. OECD, Paris. Owolabi J., Omogbai I., and Obasuyi O.,(2007). African Journal of Biotec. 6 (14):16771680. Ramawat K.G., Dass S., Mathur M. (2009): The chemical diversity of bioactive molecules and therapeutic potential of medicinal plants. In: Ramawat KG. Herbal drugs. Ethnomedicine to modern medicine. Berlin: Springer. 420. Thillaivanan S and Samraj K (2014). Challenges, constraints and opportunities in herbal medicines-a review. International Journal of Herbal Medicine, 2(1):21-4.Kim, 2005. Sim KS, Nurestri AM, Sinniah SK, et al (2010) Acute oral toxicity of Pereskia bleo and Pereskia glandifolia in mice. Pharmacognosy magazine. pp. 67-70. Wills RB, Bone K, Morgan M (2000) Herbal products Active constituent, mode of action and quality control. Nutr Res Rev 13: 47-57
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 1369-1379, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
106 Comparison of Rainfall Records of Mizoram, India by means of Isohyetal Maps Generated using GIS Technique F. Lalbiakmawia, Assistant Hydrogeologist PHE Department, Aizawl 796001, Mizoram, India Email:
[email protected]
Abstract Climate is one of the most important factors which controls human’s activities like agriculture, forestry, supply of water, industries, etc. The elements of climate that control the economic development of a region are mainly rainfall and temperature. Mizoram is blessed with abundant rainfall and the amount of annual rainfall varies from place to place due to variation in elevation and topography. Rainfall data of Mizoram has been recorded by different agencies. Since, rainfall data is highly crucial for planning different kinds of developmental schemes, well-organized rainfall record and reliable isohyetal map is highly essential. The objective of the study is to compare rainfall data recorded by different agencies using a GIS technology in order to establish trustworthy isohyetal map of the state. All the rain gauge stations were plotted in a GIS environment with the amount of average annual rainfall as their attribute. Then, Isohyetal maps were prepared for the entire state from each of the records separately. Spatial interpolation technique through Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) approach has been used in the present study for generating spatial distribution of rainfall.
1370 The resulting maps prepared based on different records show different isohyetal maps for the state. These diverse maps indicate the dissimilarity of records of different agencies for the same environmental factor. However, these maps may be fine-tuned to composed dependable maps showing the average amount of rainfall in order to carry out different developmental activities for the entire state. Keywords: GIS; Interpolation; Isohyetal map; Mizoram; Rain gauge.
Introduction There is increasing recognition that climate has a central role in global economic and social sectors. One of the most important elements of the climate that control the economic development of a region is rainfall. The climate of Mizoram is controlled by its location, physiography, pressure regime in the North West India and Bay of Bengal, warm and moist maritime tropical air masses from the Bay of Bengal, local mountains or hills and valley winds. In addition, the Chin Hills, Arakan Yoma Hill Tracts and Chittagong Hill Tracts also play an important role in shaping the climatic condition of the state (Pachuau, 1994; Tiwari, 2006). Mizoram enjoys a moderate climate owing to its tropical location. It is neither very hot nor too cold throughout the year. The state falls under the direct influence of the south west monsoon. As such the area receives an adequate amount of rainfall which is responsible for a humid tropical climate characterized by short winter and long summer with heavy rainfall.
1371 Advent of geospatial technology like Geographical Information System (GIS) allows fast and cost effective survey and management for natural resources (Ramakrishna et. al., 2013). This technology has been applied quite extensively by many researchers in analyzing rainfall (Bhargava et al, 2013; Rathod and Aruchamy, 2010; Gurugnanam et al, 2010; Taher and Alshaikh, 1998; Gad and Tsanis, 2003; Mahalingam et al, 2014). The technique can also be utilized not only to draw isohyets but also to measure the area between isohyets lines (Abkar et al, 2006). The same technique has been proved to be of immense value for the development of surface water resources as well. (Sharma and Kujur, 2012). Mizoram lies in the southernmost part of northeast India. The state is bounded by Myanmar in the east and south and Bangladesh in the west. The northern side and north eastern side are bounded by Assam and Manipur respectively. The state has geographical area of 21,081 sq. km (0.64% of the country’s geographical area) and it lies between the coordinates of 21° 58 & 24° 35 N Latitude, and 92° 15 & 93° 20 E Longitude, with the tropic of cancer passing through the state at 23° 30 N latitude. Mizoram has the most variegated hilly terrain in the eastern part of India. The hills are steep and are separated by rivers that flow either to the north or the south creating deep gorges between the hill ranges. The location map of Mizoram is given is Figure 1. Mizoram has the most variegated hilly terrain in the eastern part of India. The hills are steep and are separated by rivers that flow either to the north or the south creating deep gorges between the hill ranges. Hence, the physiography of the study area can be broadly divided into hills and valleys. All the hills within the state are structural hills and as the as the name implies, they are of structural origin, associated with folding, faulting and other tectonic processes. The average height of the hills is about 900 meters. The lowest point within the state is Bairabi (40m above msl) on the bank of Tlawng river in Kolasib district while the highest peak is Phawngpui (Blue Mountain) in Lawngtlai distict with an elevation of 2157 meters above msl. The rainfall varies place to place in Mizoram due to variation in elevation and topography within the state. There is good rainfall all over the state; hence the entire area receives an adequate amount of rainfall during the monsoon season. The study of the available rainfall data reveals that the heavy rainfall starts from the second part of May and ended in the first part of October. Precipitation is heavy during summer. The coincidence of the occurrence of south west monsoon and the summer makes the climate
1372 favourable for inhabitants of the state since the temperature is kept down to a considerable extent by the usual rains. Normally July and August are the rainiest months while December and January are the driest months (IMD, 2013). The monsoon wind is the most important wind that prevails in Mizoram. The winds are generally light with some slight strengthening in force during latter part of summer and southwest monsoon season. Sometimes winds become strong due to dominant convective motion over hilly terrains. Winds are mainly easterly in the mornings while they are westerly in the evenings throughout the year. Westerly and southwesterly components are seen during the pre-monsoon season and early monsoon season in the mornings, whereas, in the monsoon season a southwesterly component is also seen in the evenings. As the pressure becomes low over plain areas and high over hilly terrains during pre-monsoon and southwest monsoon seasons so that winds become moderate to strong. The summer monsoon is characterized by highly variable weather with frequent spells of drought and heavy rains. Besides this, the winter monsoon also prevails which is a gentle drift of air in which the winds generally blow from the north east. This retreating monsoon cause sporadic rainfall especially in Mizoram and other north eastern states producing sometimes heavy cyclonic rains (IMD, 2013). As evidence from the earlier records, Mizoram state is vulnerable to impact of tropical cyclone which develops in North Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal). Cyclones are associated with strong winds, torrential rains and storms. Though the impact has not yet been devastating, it has often led to loss of properties and even lives. The impact of cyclone has often led to damages to houses, power line cut-off, blockage of road, damages to crops and plantations, loss of live stocks, etc. Generally these winds come from the north western part of the state as the winds originate from the Bay of Bengal. Methodology Base map of the study area was generated from thematic maps extracted from Natural Resources Atlas of Mizoram prepared by MIRSAC. Isohyetal map from Dynamic Ground Water Resources of Mizoram, rainfall data collected from Science and Technology Department of Mizoram, rainfall data published by Indian Meteorological Department and Agriculture Department of Mizoram, Survey of India topographical maps and various ancillary data were also referred in the study.
1373 Prominent GIS softwares like Quantum GIS and ArcInfo 10.1 version were used for analysis and mapping. Hand held GPS device was also utilized in the field for locating rain gauge stations and for ground verification. The base map was geo-referenced and digitized by using QGIS software and exported to ArcInfo 10.1. Isohyetal map acquired from Dynamic Ground Water Resources of Mizoram, 2014 prepared by PHE Department of Mizoram and Central Ground Water Board was first scanned, georeferenced and then digitized in GIS environment. This formed one of the different parameters for comparing various rainfall records of Mizoram. Location of rain gauges utilized by Science & Technology of Mizoram, Indian Meteorological Department and Agriculture Department were first identified and plotted as point features in a GIS environment. The average annual rainfall record of each point features were incorporated as attributes. Using the point locations and their respective rainfall attributes, isohyetal map of the study area is generated. Different isohyetal maps based on different rainfall records are then compared for selecting the final rainfall map of Mizoram. Result and Discussion The rain gauge stations measure rainfall only in their locations, and so it is necessary to adopt some mathematic model to calibrate rainfall for the entire region. The rain gauge stations imported as point features with their respective rainfall attributes were then analyses using spatial interpolation technique using ArcGIS software. There three common interpolation methods, namely Inverse Distance weighted, Krigging and Spline. In the present study, Inverse Distance weighted (IDW) from Arc GIS Spatial Analysis extension was used. Inverse Distance Weighted method is one of the most commonly used techniques for interpolation of scatter points. The results of the IDW are highly acceptable to the scientific community (Mahalingam et al, 2014). Station Aizawl Champhai Kolasib Lawngtlai Lunglei Mamit Saiha Serchhip
Jan 11.00 10.94 9.02 10.25 6.68 9.84 11.70 5.90
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
27.64 99.54 191.39 373.65 449.54 519.64 557.57 20.15 71.65 126.91 252.18 357.17 372.95 389.73 36.65 101.44 215.50 342.05 431.05 463.65 514.71 18.12 47.15 116.66 327.59 474.26 482.78 390.54 15.69 65.24 107.54 307.55 466.02 478.40 465.24 14.62 86.09 235.19 443.41 429.69 396.35 527.65 24.15 51.88 103.83 371.35 457.10 434.39 450.13 20.93 81.60 116.05 330.12 426.29 405.63 395.00
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total
529.54 401.12 444.93 353.42 419.00 485.65 398.13 330.08
295.48 234.72 218.43 205.32 226.35 311.25 230.26 184.79
67.31 62.38 36.74 54.64 47.74 25.97 71.44 62.79
29.24 19.98 19.86 5.80 13.12 9.22 12.21 21.56
3155.33 2319.87 2834.02 2510.26 2618.56 2974.94 2616.57 2380.74
Table 1:Mizoram Rainfall data recorded by Mizoram Meteorological Centre, Directorate of Science&Technology
1374 Therefore, the present study has used the IDW technique to measure the spatial variations in rainfall within the state using the rainfall data from different rain gauge stations. IDW method is based on the assumption that the interpolating surface should be influenced most by the nearby points and less by the more distant points. The interpolating surface is a weighted average of the scatter points and the weight assigned to each scatter point diminishes as the distance from the interpolation point to the scatter point increases. Several options are available for inverse distance weighted interpolation. The options are selected using the Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation Options dialog. The value of the inverse-distance weighting power controls the region of influence of each sampled location as its value increase the region of influence decreases until it becomes the area which is closer to the target location than to any other location, a null value causes the method of interpolation to be equivalent to averaging the sample values. (NRSC, 2011). Station Aizawl Aizawl (Obsy) Neihbawih Farm Sairang Sialsuk Aizawl Dist Champhai Chhimtuipui Bilkhawthlir Kolasib Kolasib Dist Lawngtlai Mamit Tlabung Hnahthial Lunglei Hydro Lunglei Serkawn Lunglei Dist Serchhip
Jan 12.70 8.90 15.20 14.80 15.60 13.40 13.90
Feb 40.90 30.50 47.30 17.10 31.90 33.50 23.00
Mar 141.60 94.40 141.90 87.00 116.30 116.20 86.40
Apr 183.90 162.60 216.30 172.80 195.60 186.20 124.70
May 381.70 286.50 390.50 320.60 409.00 357.70 254.10
Jun 346.30 363.00 430.40 356.80 725.80 444.50 351.50
Jul 356.50 322.50 500.60 298.10 699.80 431.10 372.40
Aug 433.00 303.60 512.90 397.60 686.30 470.50 341.30
Sept 309.20 211.80 447.00 322.10 490.80 376.50 306.70
Oct 176.70 51.90 267.40 224.10 322.20 240.40 277.70
Nov 53.10 13.50 78.40 46.80 82.50 62.50 66.40
10.10 16.70 13.40 8.40
38.90 106.70 189.60 283.80 401.70 44.50 149.30 178.60 353.50 471.80 41.70 128.00 184.10 318.60 436.70 27.40 66.50 123.30 319.70 437.70
401.50 468.90 435.20 493.80
438.90 469.60 454.20 408.50
343.50 398.10 370.80 365.80
208.10 236.00 222.10 231.30
52.60 14.80 39.90 11.30 46.20 13.10 65.90 9.10
6.50 4.50 2.80
21.60 78.30 109.00 294.10 512.90 524.30 513.50 357.80 20.70 79.70 108.20 293.90 270.60 343.90 338.80 338.20 25.40 100.60 107.10 263.60 444.50 565.20 470.20 469.90
255.00 33.90 3.60 212.10 71.70 6.50 220.10 122.80 11.70
8.00 5.50
19.60 21.83
305.40 65.10 12.40 248.15 73.38 8.55
90.60 138.70 387.60 601.90 622.80 604.60 477.10 87.30 115.80 309.80 457.48 514.00 481.80 410.75
Dec 18.20 214.9 31.60 7.00 12.80 16.60 23.70
Total 2453.80 2149.80 3079.50 2274.80 3788.60 2749.10 2191.80 2700.00 2490.20 2838.20 2664.10 2557.40 2500.00 2710.50 2058.80 2803.90 3333.80 2726.75 3000.00
Table 2:Mizoram Rainfall data recorded by Indian Meteorological Department
Based on the spatial distribution of rainfall, isohyetal maps were prepared using GIS spatial analyst. Results and discussion are as follows: The isohyetal map shown by CGWB may be derived from a regional rainfall map. The amount of rainfall in this map is low as compare to the maps generated from other sources. From this isohyetal map, it is evident that the western part of the study area received more rainfall than the eastern part. The isohyetal map generated from IMD data shows that the amount of rainfall is higher in the western part of the study area than the eastern part. The rainfall amount is evidently higher around Sialsuk and Serchhip area. Area around Serkawn (Lunglei) and Neihbawih (Aizawl) also has prominently higher rainfall.
1375
1376 The map generated from Agriculture Department’s record shows that rainfall is higher in the north western part of the state. Area in and around Neihbawih and Sialsuk has a very high rainfall amount as shown by the isohyetal map.
Figure 2: Isohyetal map based on report of CGWB
Figure 3: Isohyetal map based on IMD data
1377
Figure 4: Isohyetal map based on Agriculture Dept. data
Figure 5: Isohyetal map based on MMC, Sc & Tech dept., data
The map generated from Mizoram Meteorological Centre (Directorate Science & Technology) has shown that the amount of rainfall is higher in the northern part of the state than the rest of the study area. The rainfall amount is comparatively higher around Aizawl city. Except the isohyetal map extracted from the report of Central
1378 Ground Water Board, Bull’s eye effect is observed in all the maps generated base on the data from other agencies. This effect leads to the occurrence of isohyets which are closed around the meteorological station that is not acceptable in analysis of the pluviometric regime in the real relief. Conclusion All the isohyetal maps show higher amount of rainfall in the western and northern part of the study area. Hence, eastern part of the state received relatively less amount of rainfall. Bull’s eye effect observed in the map is considered as unrealistic result given by IDW method. However, it may be remembered that the weather forecasts and records used to comprise ‘heavy rainfall at isolated places’. Heavy rainfall at isolated places may have effect on the isohyetal map. It can be concluded that GIS spatial interpolation method can be used to prepared reliable isohyetal map of an area. Besides the present spatial interpolation technique (ie Inverse Distance Weight), another spatial interpolation technique called Krigging can also be utilized for preparing isohyetal map of an area. Acknowledgements The author is thankful to Mizoram Meteorological Centre, Directorate of Science & Technology and Agriculture Department of Mizoram. References Abkar, A., Habibnejad, M., Solaimani, K., Baniasadi, M. and Ahmadi, M. Z. (2006) Analysis of Depth-Area-Duration Curves of Rainfall in Semi-Arid and Arid Regions using Geostatistical Methods: Sirjan Kafeh Namak Watershed, Iran, Journal of Environmental Hydrololgy,Vol.14 (2):1-8. Bhargava, N. , Bhargava, R., Tanwar, P.S. and Sharma, A. (2013) Rainfall Spatial Analysis using GIS, International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer and Communication, Vol. 2(5): 2197-2200. Gad, M.A. and Tsanis, I.K. (2003) A GIS methodology for the analysis of weather radar precipitation data, Journal of Hydroinformatics, Vol. 5(2): 113-126 Gurugnanam, B., Suresh, M., Vinoth, M. and Kumaravel, S. (2010) High/low rainfall domain mapping using GIS at Salem district, Tamil Nadu, India, Indian Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 3(5): 542-545. Indian Meteorological Department (I.M.D) (2013) Climatological Summaries of States Series - No. 19: 403-444.
1379 Mahalingam, B., Ramu, B. and Jayashree (2014) Rainfall Variability in Space and Time, A Case of Mysore District, Karnataka, India. Current Trends in Technology and Science, Vol.3 (3): 205-209. National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) (2011) Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) Project, Methodology Manual P. 56. Pachuau, Rintluanga (1994) Geography of Mizoram. R.T. Enterprise Publication, Aizawl, Mizoram P. 1. Ramakrishna, Nagaraju, D., Mohammad Suban Lone, Siddalingamurthy, S. & Sumithra, S. (2013) Ground water prospectus studies of Tattekere watershed, Mysore district, Karnataka, India using Remote Sensing and GIS. International Journal of Remote Sensing and Geoscience, Vol 3: 6-10. Tiwari, R.C. (2006) Analytical study on variation of climatic parameters at Aizawl, Mizoram (India). Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Research,Vol. 22 (1&2): 33-39. Rathod, I.M. and Aruchamy, S. (2010) Spatial Analysis of Rainfall Variation in Coimbatore District Tamil Nadu using GIS. International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, Vol. 1(2): 106-118 Sharma, M.P. and Kujur, A. (2012) Application of Remote Sensing and GIS for ground water recharge zone in and around Gola block, Ramgarh district, Jharkhand, India. International Journal of Science Research Publication, Vol. 2: 1-6. Taher and Abdulmohsin Alshaikh (1998) Spatial Analysis of Rainfall in Southwest of Saudi Arabia using GIS. Nordic Hydrololy, Vol. 29 (2): 91-104
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Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods Vol. 3 (2017) : 1381-1387, ISBN:81-7019-584-1 Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
107 Dynamics of Organic Wastes Treatment on Soil Characteristics and Growth of Brassica oleracea Angom Sarjubala Devi*1, Yaiphabi Akoijam1 and Elangbam Jadu Singh2 1 2
Department of Environmental Science, Mizoram University,
Department of Botany, D.M. College (P.G.) of Science, Imphal, Manipur. e-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract Wastes materials of organic in origin is been considered as a resource for agricultural fields inspite of discarding away as wastes. In the present study four different types of organic wastes namely sugarcane bagasse, fish scales, wastes flowers and pineapple peels were collected, air dried till constant weight and shredded into small pieces. They were treated with soil and put in earthen pots. Saplings of Brassica oleracea(cabbage) having same growth stage were planted in the pots. Three pots without treatment of the wastes were maintained as control pots and same saplings were planted in these pots. The change in soil properties and growth pattern of the saplings were observed. It was found that, maximum increase in soil organic C (0.53kg/ha) was found in the pots treated with flower wastes and minimum (0.16kg/ha) in sugarcane bagasse treated pots. Maximum increase in total N was found in fish scales treated pots(261.67kg/ha) and least in sugarcane bagasse treated pots(52.34kg/ha). Maximum increase in height of Brassica oleraceawas found in the pots treated with fish scales(31.0cm) and least in sugarcane bagasse treated pots (19.6cm). The results obtained indicates that fish scales and flower wastes can be used in crop fields of Brassicaoleracea.
1382 Keywords: fish scales, organic C, pineapple peels, sugarcane bagasse, wastes flowers.
Introduction Organic waste is a product of human existence, some are available in plenty and are just simply thrown away. With the present global shift towards green energy production and utilization, there is need for emphasis on the economic, health and environmental benefits of proper utilization of market decomposable waste as a resource that can be utilized (Egun, 2009). Organic waste materials mainly of animal and plant origin are potential sources of organic matter and plant nutrients. Traditionally, the waste materials are used as a source of nutritional elements and/ or soil conditioner directly or indirectly in the field. The benefits derived from utilisation of organic materials for improvement of soil fertility and crop production have been well discussed by many authors(Tandon,1992;Tianet al.,1992;Maftounetal.,2006; Bastidaet al., 2008;Chaturvediet al., 2009). Supplementing the nutrient requirement of crops through organic fertilizers such as crop residues, manures and composts plays a key role in sustaining soil fertility and crop productivity. The present study focus on the impact of treatment of four types of organic wastes on the growth pattern of cabbage (Brassica oleraceaL.) as well on soil properties. Materials and Methods Experimental site Earthen pot experiment was carried out in Dhanamanjuri College of Science, Imphal West. The Imphal West district has an area of 558 sq. kms. at an elevation of 790m above the mean sea level. It lies between 24030'N to 25000'N latitudes and 93045' E to 94015' E longitudes. The annual rainfall ranges from 108.5 cm to 143.4 cm. The average temperature is 20.40 C. Experimental design Sugarcanebagasse (sugarcane b.), fish scales (fish s.), flowerswastes (flower w.) andpineapple peels(pineapple p.) were collected and air dried till constant weight and shredded into small pieces. Sixteen earthen pots were filled up with the wastes and dried soil at a ratio of 50g of each type of dried and shredded wastes with one kg of dried soil making four pots for each types of wastes treatment. Another four potswere filled up with soil without any wastes treatment in order to make control pots. All the twenty pots were kept for one month in order to let the wastes
1383 decompose as well as to stabilise the soil in the control pots. Crop plantation Saplings of Brassica oleracea having same growthstage were collected and planted in the pots in the month of December, 2015. They werewatered regularly and the growth pattern based upon the increase in height and number of leaves were recorded twice in a month for four months and productivity(dry biomass) was determined after harvesting the crop. Soil analysis The soil samples from the different pots were collected at the end of the experiment and determined for pH by using pH meter, moisture content by using oven dry method,organic carbon(C) by following Walkley and Black’s method,total nitrogen (N) by Kjeldahl’s Digestion Method, available phosphorus (P) by using Olsen’s method given in Anderson and Ingram (1993) and exchangeable potassium (K) by using Flame Photometer. The data obtained were statistically analysed for finding significance of variation and correlation between the plant and soil characteristics due to treatment of wastes materials. Results and Discussion By comparing between the control and treated pots it was observed that soil moisture was more in the wastestreated pots (Table 1). There was maximum increaseof soil moisture in sugarcane b.treated pots (16.8% ) (Table 2) followed by flower w. (11.5%), pineapple p. (11.0%) and least was observed in fish s. treated pots (1.65%). Soil pH in sugarcane b. and pineapple p. treated pots were slightly basic whereas the control pots, fish s. and flower w. treated pots were acidic showing an increase in of pH from control in the sugarcane b. and pineapple p. treated pots. The fish s. and flower w. treated pots provides the optimum pH level of crop and soil i.e., slightly acidic soil for crop feilds. Organic C was found to increase in all the treatments compared to the control pots. Maximumincrease was observed in flower w. treated pots (0.53 kg/ha) followed by pineapple p.(0.23kg/ha) and fish s.(0.23kg/ha) and leastincrease was observed in sugarcane b. treated pots (0.16kg/ha). Total N also increased in all the treatments except in sugarcane b. There was an increase of 261.67kg/ha of total N in fish s. treated pots which was the maximum followed by flower w. treated pots with 52.67kg/ ha and pineapple p withwith an increase of 52.34 kg/ha. Available P and exchangeable K were also found to increase in all the treatments compared
Control
Sugarc. b.
Fish s.
Flower w.
Pineapple p.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
28.05±1.42
28.56±1.95
18.72±3.79
33.36±1.89
17.07±2.28
Moisture (%)
7.14±0.26
6.66±0.10
5.24±0.80
7.26±0.16
6.76±0.07
pH
0.63±0.05
0.93±0.50
0.63±0.05
0.56±0.05
0.40±0.16
Organic C (%)
Treatments
Sugarcane b.
Fish s.
Flower w.
Pineapple p.
Sl. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
10.98
11.49
1.65
16.29
Moisture(%)
0.38
-0.10
-1.52
0.50
pH
0.23
0.53
0.23
0.16
Organic C(%)
Table 2.: Change in soil physico-chemical properties due to treatment of wastes.
Treatments
Sl. No.
Table 1.: Soil physico-chemical properties (± standard error).
52.34
52.67
261.67
-10.33
Total N (kg/ha)
209.00±29.7
209.33±15.0
418.33±78.1
146.33±15.0
156.66±25.7
Total N (kg/ha)
1.23
7.76
98.00
1.16
Available P (kg/ha)
4.93±0.73
11.46±1.85
101.70±2.3
4.86±0.67
3.70±0.30
Available P(kg/ha)
447.0
379.0
25.0
92.0
Excha.K (kg/ha)
517.33±61.1
449.33±56.1
95.33±19.32
162.33±25.4
70.33±1.70
Excha. K (kg/ha)
1384
1385 to the control pots. A drastic change was observed in the fish s. treated pots where an average increase of 98.0 kg/ha of available P was observed which was followed by flower w. with 7.76kg/ha, pineapple p. with 1.23 kg/ha and least was observed in sugarcane b. with 1.16 kg/ha.Maximum increase in exchangeable K was observed in pineapple p. treated pots with 447.0 kg/ha followed by flower w. with 379.0 kg/ha, sugarcane b. with 92.0 kg/ha and least was observed in fish s. treated pots with 25.0 kg/ha. Analysis of variance shows significant variation of soil moisture =17.68), pH (F 4,10=43.06), total N (F 4,10=15.02), available P (F 4,10 =1824.38) and exchangeable K (F 4,10=55.44) among all pots at the 4,10 significance level of p
