New Frontiers of Enterpreneurship in Academic Theory and Practice *
GIOVANNI BATTISTA DAGNINO ROSARIO FARACI
**
Abstract In this introductory essay to the Special Issue of Sinergie, our aim is first to portray the main features of the Strategic Management Society Special Conference entitled “New Frontiers of Entrepreneurship: Strategy Governance and Evolution” that was hosted on May 23-25, 2007 by the School of Economics and Business at the University of Catania. Second, we feature multiple roles of “agents of change” that management researchers and professors are increasingly called to assume in the current university landscape and will be even more often called to undertake as part of their general tasks in the future; i.e., the ones respectively of scientific entrepreneurs, knowledge brokers and managers of cultural events. Third, we eventually marshal some conclusions on the budding complexities in the responsibility range of management researchers and professor and how it is possible to deal with them. Key words: SMS special conference, scientific entrepreneur, knowledge broker, manager of cultural events
1. Introduction Attracting over 160 business strategists joining together from all over the world, the Strategic Management Society Special Conference “New Frontiers of Entrepreneurship: Strategy Governance and Evolution” took place, from Wednesday May 23 to Friday May 25, 2007, in the premises of Palazzo Fortuna, part of the School of Economics and Business at the University of Catania, Italy. The conference featured an array of distinctive and relevant sessions where entrepreneurship and governance were the central themes. The Catania venue fostered opportunity for dialogue between scholars and business practitioners (consultants, entrepreneurs and executives or the SMS’s ABCs) from throughout the world (e.g., the US, the EU, Australia, Canada, China, Croatia, India, Japan, South Africa, etc.). As the first Strategic Management Society sponsored event in Italy (jointly sponsored by both the Corporate Strategy and Governance and the Entrepreneurship and Strategy Interest Groups) and the University of Catania, the conference was convened by David Audretsch from the University of Indiana and *
Full Professor of Business Management, University of Catania e-mail:
[email protected] ** Full Professor of Business Management, University of Catania e-mail:
[email protected] sinergie n. 75/08
6
NEW FRONTIERS OF ENTERPRENEURSHIP IN ACADEMIC THEORY AND PRACTICE
Max Planck Institute in Jena, Giovanni Battista Dagnino and Rosario Faraci from the University of Catania and Robert Hoskisson from Arizona State University. Indeed, the timing of the conference seemed extremely well taken as the Strategic Management Society has recently issued (end of 2007) a new journal that is expected to become a top journal, the Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, as a mean of specific attention devoted to the topic of entrepreneurship, conventionally covered by other management journals, such as Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Journal of Business Venturing, Journal of International Entrepreneurship and, as small firms concern, Small Business Economics, Journal of Small Business Management, Journal of Small Business Strategy, and others. The conference adopted an innovative format that admitted two kinds of presentations: (a) full papers and (b) business cases. In the pre-conference stage, the format met with unexpected success because the co-organizers received over 150 submissions from all over the world. The conference program was organized into thirty-two sessions; i.e., five plenary sessions and twenty-seven parallel sessions with roughly 140 presenters. The inaugural session had its kick off Wednesday May 23 at 4.30pm, with the welcome addresses of Antonino Recca, President of the University of Catania, Carmelo Buttà, Dean of the School of Economics and Business at the University of Catania, Joan Enric Ricart, President-Elect of the Strategic Management Society, Francesco Favotto from the Italian Academy of Management and the Italian University Council, Pietro Genco from CUEIMSinergie (the Italian Society for Management Development), and Thomas Delare, Minister-Counselor for Economic Affairs of the US Embassy to Italy in Rome. Immediately following the opening session, a second plenary session was designed to discuss new perspectives in entrepreneurship, an issue that got remarkable attention among strategy scholars (Hitt et al., 2001; Venkataraman and Saravavathy, 2001; Zahra and George, 2002; Dess et al., 2003; Davidson, 2004). This roundtable was intended to expose participants to new and creative ideas that might guide the “social and collaborative nature of entrepreneurship scholarship” (Reader and Watkins, 2006). Topics included different technological platforms and paces, diverse business models, fast-paced competition regimes, novel governance issues and mechanisms. As expected, the four panelists (Bob Hoskisson, Arizona State University, Rich D’Aveni, Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth, Alfonso Gambardella, Bocconi University and Joan Enric Ricart, IESE Business School in Barcelona) provided ideas to develop the frontiers of the entrepreneurial field of study and assessed their potential to revolutionize our way of thinking. The initial day reached an end with an enjoyable social get-together, a Sicilian wine tasting presented by one of the conference sponsors, Planeta Wines. On May 24 the second conference day began at 8.30 am with a third plenary session on high-tech perspectives in entrepreneurship (Wright et al., 2007), where Yves Doz from INSEAD, Andrea Cuomo Chief Strategic Officer of STMicroelectronics, and Andrea Facchini Marketing Manager of Nokia Italy, had panel discussion about high-tech approaches in entrepreneurship to foster a dialogue between academia and the business world. Later in the day, Joan Enric Ricart also
GIOVANNI BATTISTA DAGNINO - ROSARIO FARACI
7
chaired parallel session on “Venture Capital and Entrepreneurship”, in which the four presenters advanced their ideas on the topic. At 2.30pm, a fourth plenary session involved attendees on facets of social entrepreneurship. Panelists include Francesco Perrini from Bocconi University, Tina Dacin from Queen’s University, Shaker Zahra from the University Minnesota and Serena Porcari from the Milanbased Dynamo Foundation of Venture Philanthropy. The conference participants ready for an evening out attend the Conference Gala Dinner. The wonderful Dinner was held at the scenic Grand Hotel Baia Verde erected on the black volcanic sea rocks of the coastal seashore just outside the city of Catania. The menu contained a rich variety of Sicilian dishes and gourmet food and a short program provided the opportunity to award the authors of the three best papers awards: Too many masters? How governance mechanisms promote the wrong behaviors by agents in IPOs, by Robert White (Arizona State University), Tom Dalziel (University of Cincinnati) and Jonathan Arthurs (Washington State University); Imprinting-deprinting-reimprinting: A process theory of intergenerational learning and spin-off entry, by Simone Ferriani (University of Cambridge), Elizabeth Garnsey (University of Cambridge) and Gianni Lorenzoni (University of Bologna); and Knowledge strategy in a transitional economy: utilization of foreign knowledge by entrepreneurial Chinese firms, James Robins and Kathleen Low, both of Singapore Management University. On Friday May 25, the final day of the conference, four parallel sessions were followed by an intriguing plenary session on the governance of private equity, seen as a relevant tool for fostering the development of new ventures. In this plenary gathering, Mike Wright from the University of Nottingham, Arturo Capasso from the University of Sannio, Igor Filatotchev (London’s King’s College) and Mario Sorrentino (Second University of Naples) advanced their viewpoints, while a practicing entrepreneur, Ivan Lo Bello President of Confindustria Sicilia represented a business perspective. After three full days of intense presentation and discussion, at 5: 15pm the conference finished with all saying their goodbyes. The complete conference program and the supporting information on papers can be downloaded from the conference dedicated web site: www.smscataniaconference2007.it. For the purpose of broader exposure to conference content, we have decided to leave it active until the end of the Fall 2007. The conference could not have been a success without the commitment and energetic work of the organizers, who have greatly benefited the support of a variety of local and international sponsors: Nokia Italy, Condorelli, Credito Siciliano, Dacca, Planeta Wines, Dimsi, the University of Catania, the President of the Sicilian Parliament, GMC Logistic Group, Sielte, Excelsior Palace Terme of Acireale, Piante Faro, New Basic, Monte dei Paschi di Siena, Interporti Riuniti, Società Interporti Siciliani, Azienda Provinciale del Turismo di Catania and Parco Scientifico e Tecnologico della Sicilia. The cheerful attendees seemed grateful for the opportunity to attend, and provided feedback indicating that they benefited from their involvement in the conference and enjoyed Catania and their SMS Sicilian experience.
8
NEW FRONTIERS OF ENTERPRENEURSHIP IN ACADEMIC THEORY AND PRACTICE
In the sections that follows, we feature in short the multiple roles that management professors can take on, are increasingly called to assume in the current economic landscape and will be allegedly called to undertake as part of their general tasks in the future; i.e., the ones respectively of scientific entrepreneurs, knowledge brokers and managers of cultural events. We consider such three relevant roles as important complementary tasks that basically require professors a great and valuable deal of supplementary and enlarged responsibility, in addition to the traditional role of the professor as a scientific consumer (Shi, 2002), widening their professional span, this means that professors are increasingly having a broader variety of important roles in the economy and society that eventually require the development of a bunch of eclectic capabilities so as to qualify them as “agents of change”. 2. Enriching the Vocation: The Professor as a Scientific Entrepreneur In this section, we define in brief what a scientific entrepreneur is and underscore how a management researcher or professor can take on his/her shoulders the role of scientific entrepreneur intended as a twin necessary complement to the lifescience, physics, engineering researcher/professor. Scientific Entrepreneurship Scientific entrepreneurs usually start out doing university-based research at different stages of their career (Seashore Louis et al., 1989). In engineering, physics and life sciences, realizing that their product might have commercial potential, they set up new ventures and companies to develop science as a business (Pisano, 2006). The scientists who spin out companies almost always have PhDs (or are PhD students) and started their work life either as academic scientists, postdoctoral researchers, or lecturers and professors. Research groups behave as “quasi-firms”, leading professors and academics towards an idea of “entrepreneurial university” (Etzkowitz, 2003). Somewhat at odds with traditional academics, they talk about themselves as having a highly developed entrepreneurial spirit. They enjoy being their own boss and conversely are often frustrated when they are not in charge. The spinout scientists love doing science, not just discovering things, but also they like seeing their science applied in the real world. They are often quick to spot the commercial potential in their science research. Although money is not always their prime or sole motivator, many have the feeling that university scientists are underpaid and see developing their own company as a way of making additional money or cashing out their scientific discoveries. A key aspect of these people is that they are prepared to take risks - financial and career-wise. Notably this is at odds with university professors and researchers who have traditionally been risk averse. In fact, conventionally university professors, especially once they have got the tenure, are seen as individuals looking for a safe and protected job presumably lasting for their lifetime.
GIOVANNI BATTISTA DAGNINO - ROSARIO FARACI
9
The most successful spinout scientists are good to communicate their ideas to different kinds of people and agents (somewhat like venture capitalists, bankers and in providers of funds in general) and keen on developing business skills, like marketing, finance, contracts and other legal issues. Some scientists leave academia to set up spinouts, whilst others keep their university jobs and run their spinouts on the side. Either way particularly in the early days these scientists work extremely hard, often six or seven days per week, with little immediate financial or career return. This means that other aspects of their life often have inevitably to take a back seat. The Professor as a Scientific Entrepreneur The “Triple Helix” of University-Industry-Government relationships has encouraged many academics to behave with an entrepreneurial spirit while doing research and starting projects that are viable for commercial utilization. These professors can be mentioned as “entrepreneurial academics” and they may be not necessarily interested in setting up fast-growing companies but looking for other avenues in which they can pursue their research interests (Meyer, 2003). Academic entrepreneurship, however, is a different field (Vesper, 1988) and it has received remarkable attention from scholars who discussed several issues from different angles, i.e. conditions prompting university-employed academics to become entrepreneurs (Stuart and Ding, 2006), universities policies to develop new technology-based start-ups (Franklin et al., 2001), different typologies of companies originating in universities (Druilhe and Garnsey, 2004) and the generation of successful business ideas (Grandi and Grimaldi, 2005), the status of individuals involved in the new business venturing process and the nature of the knowledge transferred from university to the new venture (Pirnay et al., 2003), the dynamics of entrepreneurial teams as they evolve through the different stages of a spin-out process (Vanaelst et al., 2006) and the orthodox, hybrid and technology nature of university spinouts (Nicolau and Birley, 2003). Since he/she is the creator of the product idea and possibly prototype, researchers and professors are natural candidates to take over the role of scientific entrepreneurs. To be sure, the researchers and professors that customarily feed scientific entrepreneurship are researchers and professors of life sciences, engineering, physics and medicine. Nonetheless, in setting off spinout companies we are increasingly assisting to the need to access managerial competencies that are good complements to valuable scientific capabilities. The managerial role becomes in fact a necessary supplement in practically all universities start-ups and newly founded firms since executives are able to provide the new technology-based firm and entrepreneurs with the unsubstitutable managerial abilities and relational linkages needed to run firms and access funds. Accordingly, in our understanding when starting a new high-tech university firms a good mix may be blending the competences of professors in management and related disciplines with the ideas and discoveries of professors and researchers in life sciences, engineering or physics inaugurating de facto
10
NEW FRONTIERS OF ENTERPRENEURSHIP IN ACADEMIC THEORY AND PRACTICE
multidisciplinary contexts of interaction and, possibly in a few years time, profit making and sharing by value creation to the advantage of the community at large. This role, our understanding, is truly a vocation enrichment. 3. Inspiring Volitions and Cognitions: The Professor as a Knowledge Broker In this section, we define in brief what a knowledge broker is and highlight how a management researcher or professor can valuably take on his/her shoulders the role of knowledge broker in the university and (possibly) the broader societal context. Knowledge Brokerage In this article, a knowledge broker is and individual (or a team of individuals) who is/are able to create and share a vision for fostering managing knowledge and innovation inside an organization. The vision is the long term strategy that will drive the knowledge and innovation management inside the firm and provide the scope within which the knowledge and innovation management effort and the organization will grow. The vision should also encompass the core beliefs, cognitions and values of the organization. The creation of the vision can be done in two ways. Top management can either appoint a chief knowledge and innovation officer (sometimes called infomediaries, Verona et al., 2006), who will create the vision, or they can create a vision and entrust to carry it out. It is extremely important that the participants in the organization activities are allowed to share in the making of the organizational vision. This will create a sense of belonging for the participants, inspire volitions and allow them to participate in the change process directly and lively. It will also make them accept (and possibly drive) the change process more readily than if they were not allowed to participate in it. As Hargadon (1998: 210) puts it: Knowledge brokers are modern invention factories: their output consists solely of innovative solutions to novel problems. Few resources are dedicated to sales and marketing, fewer still to manufacturing. To study knowledge brokers is to study an innovation process and an organizational design stripped for speed and creativity. In short, these firms seek strategic advantage by gaining access to a wide variety of industries. They exploit this position to learn about and link a wide range of existing problems and solutions, creating innovative solutions in the form of new combinations of these existing ideas.
Whereas according to Hargadon knowledge brokers are essentially firms, in this article knowledge brokers are also individuals (and team of individuals) operating in the marketplaces of the knowledge (Kafenztzis et al., 2004). They are able to develop abilities and volitions to continuously innovate and to continuously adapt to changing environments. They also play an important role in creating and improving industry science links (Debackere and Veugelers, 2005).
GIOVANNI BATTISTA DAGNINO - ROSARIO FARACI
11
When markets and technologies are changing rapidly, organizing to exploit one great innovation is not as effective as organizing to innovate recurrently. Knowledge brokers can exploit the value of existing knowledge by providing innovative solutions to customers that were unaware of the potential of that knowledge. As the uncertainty of today’s markets and technologies increases, the same situation occurs as concerns the threats of new technologies and competitors coming from outside traditional boundaries. Knowledge brokers have the potential to bridge these boundaries and provide an increasing advantage to those seeking innovation. The Professor as a Knowledge Broker Management professor can, in our opinion, advantageously serve as crucial information gateways or knowledge brokers in the context of universities and business schools since they customarily possess the competences needed to motivate collaborators and to create and share a vision for fostering managing knowledge and innovation inside their relevant organizations (Siegel et al., 2004). In today’s fast changing environments, they are called to cultivate within and between universities the abilities required to continuously innovate and to continuously adapt to changing environments. In addition, they are also almost natural bridge builders between boundaries since they perform a variety of tasks by: (a) bringing researchers together to exchange information and work together, (b) forming research teams and helping them communicate and understand each other’s needs and skills, (c) helping researchers establish their priorities as both individuals and team members, (d) sustaining and maintaining knowledge exchange between researchers, (e) monitoring and evaluating knowledge brokering practices to identify successes or needed changes, (f) navigating and guiding researchers through the most important research sources, and (g) creating knowledge networks of researchers and communities of practice who have common interests. 4. Expanding Boundaries: The Professor as Manager of Cultural Events In this section, we have chosen turn our sight to a third crucial role that management professor and researchers are today increasingly asked to play: the role of the manager of cultural events. We shall first depict what managing cultural event means and second examine in brief how the management professor can helpfully fill the task related to the cultural events manager. Managing Cultural Events Generally speaking, the manager of cultural events at the university level is an individual who is able to manage, coordinate and support client utilization of event facilities. This kind of individual will create, direct and coordinate multiple and various high-profile university - and community-based public events of broad scope and significance to the institution.
12
NEW FRONTIERS OF ENTERPRENEURSHIP IN ACADEMIC THEORY AND PRACTICE
Establishing goals and objectives, developing program budget and operational parameters are among his/her main strategic tasks. The cultural events manager plan and coordinate activities that enhance student learning and campus life, extend the institutional outreach to surrounding research and practice communities and contribute to a collegial university and campus culture. The central goal of this manager is to work hand in hand with other university constituencies to facilitate programming and effectively utilize all performance space. The manager’s mission is also providing a space and the appropriate support functions for external events commissioned by various outside sources. This individual direct, negotiate and facilitate contractual outside events and is responsible for the development of policies necessary to ensure successful optimal use of room spaces and other performance spaces. The cultural event manager is responsible for bringing important events to the university campus that will draw community members and the public thereby enhancing institutional legitimization and global reach. Since these events may be the first or only contact with the university for some constituents, it is extremely critical for the cultural events managers to create a positive face for the university, enhance reputation and ensure an excellent customer experience. The Professor as Manager of Cultural Events When the management professor has to perform the role of the manager of cultural events in his/her elective environment, he/she is truly asked to do in practice something that he/she is accustomed to teach: what is required to manage one or more specific projects in running academic venues and university-industry intersections. Creating, directing and coordinating high-profile university and community based public events of broad scope and significance to the institution is expected to be something that the management professor or researcher likes the most and therefore is eager to do. In fact, in order to run university- and campus-related cultural events a significant array of abilities are required that management professors normally require to, try to instil in or extract in a Socratic fashion from their students, like thorough analytical, critical thinking and decision making skills, the ability to use or learn to use equipment related to events or event planning, the ability to define problems quickly and solve them, the ability to work well with quickly changing priorities and/or situations, strong attention to detail and organizational skills with the ability to multi-task with little or no supervision. The proper application of this unique range of skills will facilitate the attraction and management of research events on-site, ensuring that event operations are cost effective and in accordance with goals and objectives, solving or managing the resolution of major problems and issues as they arise and ensuring excellent event services. Finally, a fundamental ability that is expected from a professor-master of cultural events is connected to the demonstration of accountability in work responsibilities and budget preparation, and to the exercise of sound and ethical judgment, especially about trade-offs of events.
GIOVANNI BATTISTA DAGNINO - ROSARIO FARACI
13
5. Conclusion In this article we highlighted the main features of the 2007 SMS special conference on new frontiers in entrepreneurship held in Catania, as the pioneering SMS event ever organized on the Italian soil, and we have also illustrated how the role of professors and researchers are, slowly but significantly, changing inside academia. Accordingly, we have depicted a host of three crucial roles that management researchers and professor are called to perform at the gateway of academia and practice: the entrepreneur, the broker of knowledge and the manager of cultural events. In this final section, starting from the premises above, we proceed to wrap up the budding complexities that appear today in the responsibility reach of management researchers and professor. First, leveraging and managing internal and external (private and institutional) connections the management professor can be able to subsume, at the same time and place, the three roles of entrepreneur, broker and manager. In particular, as concerns internal and external relationships, we make reference to the supporting academic community (both the one internal to his/her school and university and the one external to them) and the wider community connections (e.g., industry and government) the management professor is customarily able to activate and move forwards. Second, by cultivating in an entrepreneurial fashion the appropriate seeds for advancing nascent knowledge (i.e., nurturing creativity and innovation), the professor is becoming able to play a strategic role in activating a variety of dynamic processes aimed at achieving and executing knowledge production and mobilization. Definitely, professors can take on the basic knowledge brokers’ tasks in order to bridge knowledge boundaries and to provide escalating innovation advantage. Third and finally, management professor’s ability to run a variety of university- and campus-related cultural events may become crucial since it allows them to help generate new applicable ideas and properly drive institutional change. Whereas we recognize that dealing with multiple key roles that are commonly seen as exorbitant vis-à-vis the traditional professorial task is far from being straightforward and effortless for management researchers and professors, we also purport that today it is nonetheless something that appears possible and doable. In fact, as it is occurring in various other professions, we recognize that professorial responsibilities have lately entered a “Weberian enriched pathway” that, more than ever before, requires increased ethical and moral devotion (Weber, 1919/1946) in conjunction with the capacity to bridge and balance theoretical and practical abilities. Therefore, the “ivory tower model” of the university, which was deeply rooted in the long-standing traditional idea of the university as the exclusive producer of idiosyncratic knowledge in splendid isolation, is increasingly debated not only in the US but also in the European context and is under fire particularly in economic and social disciplines. The current debate favors conversely an entrepreneurial model of the university that allows instead opening up its boundaries and enriching its functions and the ones of the agents that operate inside its precints. Consequently, academics are no more expected to be research scholars and lecturers, solely
14
NEW FRONTIERS OF ENTERPRENEURSHIP IN ACADEMIC THEORY AND PRACTICE
involved in investigation and teaching activities, and scientific consumers (which nonetheless keep on being the inner social functions of the institution), but expanding their span and scope - they can become significant “agents of change” in their community. The role of agent of change can be performed by profitably playing the complementary roles of entrepreneurs, knowledge brokers and managers of cultural event. Unlike other working categories, professors and researcher are able to bring their personal and professional networks, their expertise, the way of connecting with other stakeholders, the precious and unique background coming from the “triple helix” university-government-industry relationships. Accordingly, the “Entrepreneurial University” model is heading its way to becoming a standard in many countries, regional clusters and dynamic territories throughout the world. References DAVIDSSON P., “The Domain of Entrepreneurship Research: Some Suggestions”, in Katz J., and Shepherd S. (eds), Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, vol.6: 315-372. Elsevier: JAI Press, 2004. DEBACKERE K., VEUGELERS R., “The Role of Academic Technology Transfer Organizations in Improving Industry Science Links”, Research Policy, 34: (3) 321342, 2005. DESS G.G., IRELAND R.D., ZAHRA S.A., FLOYD S.W., JANNEY J.J., LANE P.J., “Emerging Issues in Corporate Entrepreneurship”, Journal of Management, 29(3): 351-378, 2003. DRUILHE C., GARNSEY E., “Do Academic Spin-Outs Differ and Does it Matter?”, Journal of Technology Transfer, 29 (3-4): 269-285, 2004. ETZOKOWITZ H., “Research Groups as “Quasi Firms”: the Invention of the Entrepreneurial University”, Research Policy, 32 (1): 109-121, 2003. FRANKLIN S.J., WRIGHT M., LOCKETT A., “Academic and Surrogate Entrepreneurs in University Spin-Out Companies”, Journal of Technology Transfer, 26 (1-2): 127-141, 2001. GRANDI A., GRIMALDI R., “Academics’ Organizational Characteristics and the Generation of Successful Business Ideas”, Journal of Business Venturing. 20 (6): 821-845, 2005. HARGADON A.B., “Firms as Knowledge Brokers: Lessons in Pursuing Continuous Innovation”, California Management Review, 40 (3): 209-227, 1998. HITT M.A., IRELAND R.D., CAMP S.M., SEXTON D.L., “Strategic Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial Strategies for Wealth Creation”, Strategic Management Journal, 22 (6-7): 479-491, 2001. KAFENTZIS K., MENTZAS G., APOSTOLOU D., GEORGOLIS P., “Knowledge Marketplaces: Strategic Issues and Business Models”, Journal of Knowledge Management. 8(1): 130-146, 2004. MEYER M., “Academics entrepreneurs or entrepreneurial academics? Research-based ventures and public support mechanisms”, R&D Management, 33(2): 107-115, 2003. NICOLAU N., BIRLEY S., “Academic Networks in a Trichotomous Categorisation of University Spinouts”, Journal of Business Venturing, 18 (3): 333-359, 2003.
GIOVANNI BATTISTA DAGNINO - ROSARIO FARACI
15
PIRNAY F., SURLEMONT B., NLEMVO F., “Toward a Typology of University Spin-offs”, Small Business Economics, 21 (4): 355-369, 2003. PISANO G.P., “Can Science Be a Business? Lessons from Biotech”, Harvard Business Review, 84 (10): 114-125, 2006. READER D., WATKINS D., “The Social and Collaborative Nature of Entrepreneurship Scholarship: A Co-Citation and Perceptual Analysis”, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30 (3): 417-441, 2006. SEASHORE LOUIS, K., BLUMENTHAL D., GLUCK M.E., STOTO M.A., “Entrepreneurs in Academe: An Exploration of Behaviors among Life Scientists”, Administrative Science Quarterly, 34 (1): 110-131, 1989. SHI Y., Economics of Scientific Knowledge. A Rational Choice Neo-Institutionalist Theory of Science, Edward Elgar, 2002. SIEGEL D.S., WALDMAN D.A., ATWATER L.E., LINK A.N., “Toward a Model of the Effective Transfer of Scientific Knowledge from Academicians to Practitioners: Qualitative Evidence From the Commercialization of University Technologies”, Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 21 (1-2): 115-142, 2004. STUART T.E., DING W.W., “When Do Scientists Become Entrepreneurs? The Social Structural Antecedents of Commercial Activity in the Academic Life Sciences”, American Journal of Sociology, 112 (1): 97-144, 2006. VANAELST I., CLARYSSE B., WRIGHT M., LOCKETT A., MORAY N., S’JEGERS R., “Entrepreneurial Team Development in Academic Spinouts: An Examination of Team Heterogeneity”, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice. 30 (2): 249-271, 2006. VENKATARAMAN S., SARAVAVATHY S., “Strategy and Entrepreneurship: Outlines of an Untold Story”, in Hitt, M.A., Freeman, R.E., and Harrison, J.S. (eds), Handbook of Strategic Management, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers, 2005. VERONA G., PRANDELLI E. SAWNEY M., “Innovation and Virtual Environments: Towards Virtual Knowledge Brokers”, Organization Science, 27 (6): 765-788, 2006. VESPER K.H., “Entrepreneurial Academics - How Can We Tell When the Field is Getting Somewhere?”, Journal of Business Venturing, 3 (1): 1-10, 1988. WEBER M., “Science as a Vocation”, in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed./trans./intro. H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1919/1946. WRIGHT M., HMIELESKI K.M., SIEGEL D.S., ENSLEY M.D., “The Role of Human Capital in Technological Entrepreneurship”, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31 (6): 791-806, 2007. ZAHRA S.A., GEORGE G., “International Entrepreneurship: The Current Status of the Field and Future Research Agenda”, working paper, available at the website htpp://instruction.bus.wisc.edu/ggeorge/research/IE.pdf, 2002.
16
NEW FRONTIERS OF ENTERPRENEURSHIP IN ACADEMIC THEORY AND PRACTICE
