Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics of a Dielectric Elastomer - MIT

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International Journal of Applied Mechanics Vol. 3, No. 2 (2011) 203–217 c Imperial College Press DOI: 10.1142/S1758825111000944

NONEQUILIBRIUM THERMODYNAMICS OF DIELECTRIC ELASTOMERS

XUANHE ZHAO∗,†, SOO JIN ADRIAN KOH∗,‡ and ZHIGANG SUO∗,§ ∗School of Engineering and Applied Sciences Kavli Institute for Nanobio Science and Technology Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138 †Soft

Active Materials Laboratory Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science Duke University, Durham, NC 27708 ‡Institute

of High Performance Computing 1 Fusionopolis Way, #16-16 Connexis Singapore 138632, Singapore §[email protected] Received 9 October 2010 Accepted 27 October 2010

This paper describes an approach to construct models of dielectric elastomers undergoing dissipative processes, such as viscoelastic, dielectric and conductive relaxation. This approach is guided by nonequilibrium thermodynamics, characterizing the state of a dielectric elastomer with kinematic variables through which external loads do work, as well as internal variables that describe the dissipative processes. Within this approach, a method is developed to calculate the critical condition for electromechanical instability. This approach is illustrated with a specific model of a viscoelastic dielectric elastomer, which is fitted to stress-strain curves of a dielectric elastomer (VHB tape), measured at various strain rates. The model shows that a higher critical voltage can be achieved by applying a constant voltage for a shorter time, or by applying ramping voltage with a higher rate. A viscoelastic dielectric elastomer can attain a larger strain of actuation than an elastic dielectric elastomer. Keywords: Viscoelasticity; dielectric elastomer; actuator; electromechanical instability.

1. Introduction Subject to a voltage across its thickness, a membrane of a dielectric elastomer reduces in thickness and expands in area. This phenomenon is being developed as a mechanism of electromechanical transduction, of large deformation, low cost, light weight, high efficiency, and noise-free operation [Pelrine et al., 2000; Ha et al., 2006; Zhao and Suo, 2010]. Emerging applications include soft robotics [Bar-Cohen, 2001; Pelrine et al., 2002; O’Halloran et al., 2008], artificial limbs [Biddiss and Chau, § Corresponding

author. 203

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X. Zhao, S. J. A. Koh & Z. Suo

2008], energy harvesters [Pelrine et al., 2001; Koh et al., 2009], Braille displays [Bar-Cohen, 2009], bio-stimulation pads [Carpi et al., 2009, 2010], and adaptive optics [Beck et al., 2009; Kofod et al., 2009; Keplinger et al., 2010]. Suo [2010] has recently reviewed the theory of dielectric elastomers. Existing models of dielectric elastomers mostly focus on elastic behavior [Anderson, 1986; Goulbourne et al., 2005; McMeeking and Landis, 2005; Suo et al., 2008; Kofod, 2008], although viscoelastic behavior has also been explored [Christensen, 1980; Drozdov, 1995; Bergström and Boyce, 1998; Lochmatter et al., 2007; Plante and Dubowsky, 2007; Spathis and Kontou, 2008; Wissler and Mazza, 2008]. Experiments have shown that viscoelasticity can significantly affect electromechanical transduction [Palakodeti and Kessler, 2006; Plante and Dubowsky, 2006, 2007; Lochmatter et al., 2007; Jhong et al., 2007; Keplinger et al., 2008; Ha et al., 2007]. This paper uses nonequilibrium thermodynamic to guide the development of models for dielectric elastomers undergoing dissipative processes, such as viscoelastic, dielectric and conductive relaxation. A method is described to calculate the critical condition for electromechanical instability. To illustrate the approach, a specific model is constructed for viscoelastic dielectric elastomers. The model is fitted to existing stress-strain curves for VHB measured at various strain rates [Plante and Dubowsky, 2006]. We show that the electromechanical instability is significantly affected by patterns of the applied voltage. A higher critical voltage can be achieved by applying a constant voltage for a shorter time, or by applying ramping voltage with a higher rate. Furthermore, viscoelastic elastomer can achieve larger deformation than an elastic elastomer. These findings are consistent with experimental observations [Lochmatter et al., 2007; Plante and Dubowsky, 2007; Keplinger et al., 2008]. 2. Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics of a Dielectric Elastomer An elastomer responds to applied loads by time-dependent, dissipative processes. Viscoelastic relaxation may result from slippage between long polymers and rotation of joints between monomers. Dielectric relaxation may result from distortion of electron clouds and rotation of polar groups. Conductive relaxation may result from migration of electrons and ions through the elastomer. This section describes an approach to construct models of dissipative dielectric elastomers, guided by nonequilibrium thermodynamics. Figure 1 illustrates a membrane of a dielectric elastomer, sandwiched between two compliant electrodes. The electrodes have negligible electrical resistance and mechanical stiffness. In the reference state, the elastomer is subjected to no force and voltage, and is of dimensions L1 , L2 and L3 . In the current state, at time t, the elastomer is subjected to forces P1 and P2 , and the two electrodes are connected to a battery of voltage Φ through a conducting wire. In the current state, the dimensions of the elastomer become l1 , l2 , and l3 , the two electrodes accumulate electric charges ±Q, and the Helmholtz free energy of the membrane is F .

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Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics of Dielectric Elastomers

P2

l2

L1 l3

L3

+Q

P1

−Q

P2 (a)

Fig. 1.

Φ

l1

P1 L2

205

(b)

Schematics of a dielectric elastomer at (a) the reference state, and (b) a current state.

When the dimensions of the membrane change by δl1 , δl2 , and δl3 , the mechanical forces do work P1 δl1 + P2 δl2 . When a small quantity of charge δQ flows through the conducting wire, the battery does work ΦδQ. Thermodynamics requires that the increase in the free energy should not exceed the total work done, namely, δF ≤ P1 δl1 + P2 δl2 + ΦδQ.

(1)

For the inequality to be meaningful, the small changes are time-directed: δf means the change of the quantity f from a specific time to a slightly later time. The thermodynamic inequality (1) will guide us to construct a model of the dielectric elastomer. Define stretches of the elastomer in the three directions by λ1 = l1 /L1 , λ2 = l2 /L2 and λ3 = l3 /L3 , the nominal stresses in the plane of the elastomer by s1 = P1 /(L2 L3 ) and s2 = P2 /(L1 L3 ), the nominal electric displacement by ˜ = Q/(L1 L2 ), the nominal electric field E ˜ = Φ/L3 , and the density of the D Helmholtz free energy by W = F/(L1 L2 L3 ). Divide both sides of (1) by the volume of the membrane, L1 L2 L3 , and the thermodynamic inequality becomes ˜ D. ˜ δW ≤ s1 δλ1 + s2 δλ2 + Eδ

(2)

The dielectric elastomer is taken to be incompressible, so that l1 l2 l3 = L1 L2 L3 and λ1 λ2 λ3 = 1. As a model of the dielectric elastomer, the free-energy density is prescribed as a function: ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .). W = W (λ1 , λ2 , D,

(3)

˜ along with We characterize the state of a dielectric elastomer by λ1 , λ2 and D, ˜ are the additional parameters (ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .). Inspecting (2), we note that λ1 , λ2 and D kinematic parameters through which the external loads do work. By contrast, the additional parameters (ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) are not associated with the external loads in this way. These additional parameters describe the degrees of freedom associated with dissipative processes, and are known as internal variables. When the independent

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˜ δξ1 , δξ2 , . . .), the free-energy funcvariables change by small amounts, (δλ1 , δλ2 , δ D, tion changes by ∂W ∂W ˜ ∂W ∂W δλ1 + δλ2 + δξi . (4) δD + δW = ˜ ∂λ1 ∂λ2 ∂ξi ∂D i Inserting (4) into (2), we rewrite the thermodynamic inequality as ∂W ∂W ∂W ∂W ˜ δD ˜+ −E − s1 δλ1 + − s2 δλ2 + δξi ≤ 0. ˜ ∂λ1 ∂λ2 ∂ξi ∂D i

(5)

As time moves forward, this thermodynamic inequality holds for any change in ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .). We next specify a model consistent the independent variables (λ1 , λ2 , D, with this inequality. We assume that the system is in mechanical and electrostatic equilibrium, so ˜ vanish: that in (5) the factors in front of δλ1 , δλ2 and δ D s1 =

˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) ∂W (λ1 , λ2 , D, , ∂λ1

(6)

s2 =

˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) ∂W (λ1 , λ2 , D, , ∂λ2

(7)

˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) ∂W (λ1 , λ2 , D, . (8) E˜ = ˜ ∂D ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) is prescribed, (6)–(8) constiOnce the free-energy function W (λ1 , λ2 , D, tute the equations of state of the dielectric elastomer. Once the elastomer is assumed to be in mechanical and electrostatic equilibrium, the inequality (5) becomes ∂W (λ1 , λ2 , D, ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) i

∂ξi

δξi ≤ 0.

(9)

This thermodynamic inequality may be satisfied by prescribing a suitable relation between (δξ1 , δξ2 , . . .) and (∂W/∂ξ1 , ∂W/∂ξ2 , . . .). For example, we will adopt a kinetic model of the type ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) dξi ∂W (λ1 , λ2 , D, =− Mij . dt ∂ξj j

(10)

Here Mij is a positive-definite matrix, which may depend on the independent vari˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .). ables (λ1 , λ2 , D, Within this approach, the elastomer dissipates energy through the changes in the internal variables (ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .). The energy is dissipated at the rate ∂W dξi ∂W ∂W = − Mij . (11) ∂ξ dt ∂ξi ∂ξj i i i By construction, this rate is positive-definite.

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3. Electromechanical Instability Subject to a voltage, a dielectric elastomer reduces its thickness, so that the same voltage induces a higher true electric field. The positive feedback between the true electric field and the thickness may cause the elastomer to thin down drastically, resulting in electromechanical instability [Stark and Garton, 1955]. Following our recent paper on the electromechanical instability of elastic dielectric elastomers [Zhao and Suo, 2007], this section analyzes electromechanical instability of dissipative dielectric elastomers. Specifically, we consider the following scenario: A loading program is prescribed by giving the forces and the voltage as functions ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) in of time. In response, the elastomer evolves the variables (λ1 , λ2 , D, time. We seek a method to calculate the critical condition for the onset of the electromechanical instability. ˜ be the prescribed program of the external loads. Let s1 (t), s2 (t) and E(t) Differentiating the thermodynamic equations of state (6)–(8) with respect to time, we obtain that  2     2   ∂ W ∂ W ∂2W ∂2W dλ1 ds 1  ∂λ1 ∂ξi   dt   ∂λ21 ˜   dt  ∂λ1 ∂λ2 ∂λ1 ∂ D         2     ds   ∂ 2 W  dξi ∂ W ∂2W ∂2W    dλ2    2    . (12)  = +    ˜     dt   ∂λ2 ∂λ1 dt ∂λ ∂ξ ∂λ22 2 i  dt ∂λ ∂ D  2 i       2   dE ˜   ∂2W ˜  ∂ W  ∂2W ∂ 2 W   dD ˜ 1 ∂ D∂λ ˜ 2 ˜2 ˜ i dt dt ∂ D∂λ ∂D ∂ D∂ξ ˜ Because the functions s1 (t), s2 (t) and E(t) are prescribed, the loading rates ˜ ds 1 /dt , ds 2 /dt and dE/dt are known. Furthermore, the rates of the internal vari˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) by ables, dξ1 /dt, dξ2 /dt, . . . , can be expressed as functions of (λ1 , λ2 , D, using the kinetic model (10). Consequently, (12) is a set of linear algebraic equations ˜ Once solved, the for the rates of the kinematic variables dλ1 /dt, dλ2 /dt and dD/dt. ˜ ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .). rates dλ1 /dt , dλ2 /dt and dD/dt are expressed as functions of (λ1 , λ2 , D, These functions, together with the kinetic model (10), constitute a set of ordinary differential equations that simultaneously evolve in time all the independent vari˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .). ables (λ1 , λ2 , D, The set of linear algebraic equations for the rates of the kinematic variables, (12), identify the Hessian of the free-energy function:   2 ∂ 2W ∂2W ∂ W  ∂λ21 ˜ ∂λ1 ∂λ2 ∂λ1 ∂ D    ∂2W ∂ 2W ∂2W    H= (13) . ˜   ∂λ2 ∂λ1 ∂λ22 ∂λ ∂ D 2    ∂2W ∂ 2W ∂2W  ˜ 1 ∂ D∂λ ˜ 2 ˜2 ∂ D∂λ ∂D The linear algebraic equations are solvable if and only if det H = 0. Consequently, electromechanical instability sets in when the determinant of the Hessian matrix

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vanishes: det H = 0.

(14)

The critical condition (14) has the same form as our previous result for elastic dielectric elastomers [Zhao and Suo, 2007]. However, the free-energy function for ˜ a dissipative dielectric elastomer depends on the kinematic variables (λ1 , λ2 , D), as well as on the internal variables (ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .). Consequently, the critical condition for the instability must be determined by simultaneously evolving in time all ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) according to the coupled ordinary the independent variables (λ1 , λ2 , D, differential Eqs. (10) and (12), up to the time when det H = 0. Once the electromechanical instability sets in, the elastomer film thins down drastically and expands in area [Plante and Dubowsky, 2006]. The electromechanical instability is analogous to the snap-through instability [Zhao et al., 2007]. 4. A Viscoelastic Dielectric Elastomer To represent a dissipative dielectric elastomer using the above approach, we need to specify a set of internal variables (ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .), and then specify the functions ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .) and Mij (λ1 , λ2 , D, ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 , . . .). The approach is illustrated in W (λ1 , λ2 , D, this section by constructing a specific model of viscoelastic dielectric elastomer. In response to an external load, an elastomer evolves toward a new state of equilibrium by various dissipative processes. The time required for each dissipative process to equilibrate is known as the relaxation time of the process. The time it takes from applying an electric field to a dielectric to the polarization of the dielectric is known as the dielectric relaxation time. The characteristic time for a viscoelastic elastomer subject to a force reaches equilibrium state is the viscoelastic relaxation time. The conductive relaxation time is related to the time for discharging a capacitor of a dielectric through the conduction of the dielectric. Experimental observations [Seki and Sato, 1995; Kestelman et al., 2000; Wissler and Mazza, 2007; Johansson and Robertson, 2007; Brosseau et al., 2008; Reffaee et al., 2009] have shown that the dielectric relaxation-time for a dielectric elastomer is less than 0.1 ms, the viscoelastic-relaxation time is on the order of minutes, while the conductive relaxation may take hours. Here, we consider a dielectric elastomer whose various relaxation processes take place over widely different time scales: viscoelastic relaxation is much slower than dielectric relaxation, but is much faster than conductive relaxation. Consequently, to study the elastomer over a time scale in between the dielectric relaxation time and the conductive relaxation time, we may assume that dielectric relaxation has already reached equilibrium, conductive relaxation has yet to occur, and the only active dissipative process is viscoelastic relaxation. Figure 2 illustrates a basic experiment of viscoelastic relaxation. At time zero, the elastomer is subjected to a sudden stretch. Subsequently, the stretch is held constant, while the stress is recorded as a function of time. The stress rises instantaneously, and then relaxes as a function of time. The elastomer approaches a new

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Stretch

Time Stress

Unrelaxed

Relaxed

Relaxation time, τ Fig. 2.

Time

Relaxation of a viscoelastic elastomer.

state of equilibrium, and the stress asymptotes to a lower level. The characteristic time for this process is known as the viscoelastic relaxation time, τ . The elastomer may relax by several viscoelastic molecular processes with distinct relaxation times. In order to focus on the main ideas, we will restrict our analysis to a single viscoelastic relaxation time. Viscoelastic relaxation is commonly pictured with an array of springs and dashpots, known as the rheological models; please refer to Silberstein and Boyce [2010] for a recent review. Figure 3 illustrates one rheological model, including two springs and one dashpot. When this model is subjected to a sudden stretch, the unrelaxed modulus, µU , is represented by the sum of the stiffness of the two parallel springs.

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µR

(µU − µ R) Fig. 3.

η

A rheological model for a viscoelastic elastomer.

Over time, the viscous elongation of the dashpot gradually reduces the stress in the bottom spring. At full relaxation, the relaxed modulus, µR , is represented by the stiffness of the top spring. The relaxation time relates to the viscosity of the dashpot η and the stiffness of the bottom spring as τ = η/(µU − µR ).

(15)

Consistent with the rheological model in Fig. 3, the elastomer may be modeled as two networks of polymers, one represented by the top spring in the model, and the other by the spring and the dashpot at the bottom. The two networks carry mechanical forces in parallel. The net deformation of both the networks are described by in-plane stretches (λ1 , λ2 ). For the network represented by the string at the top, these stretches are produced by the spring. For the network represented by the spring and the dashpot at the bottom, the net stretches (λ1 , λ2 ) are due to both the spring and the dashpot: λ1 = λe1 ξ1 , (λe1 , λe2 )

λ2 = λe2 ξ2 ,

(16)

where are the stretches due to the bottom spring, and (ξ1 , ξ2 ) are stretches due to the dashpot. We represent the elasticity of each network by the neo-Hookean model, and write the free-energy function as ˜ ξ1 , ξ2 ) = µR (λ21 + λ22 + λ−2 λ−2 − 3) W (λ1 , λ2 , D, 1 2 2 µU − µR 2 −2 −2 2 2 (λ1 ξ1 + λ22 ξ2−2 + λ−2 + 1 λ2 ξ1 ξ2 − 3) 2 ˜2 D λ−2 λ−2 . (17) + 2ε 1 2 In this expression, the first line represents the elastic energy of the network represented by the top spring, the second line represents the elastic energy of the network represented by the bottom spring, and the third line represents the electrostatic energy of the elastomer. We adopt the model of ideal dielectric elastomers [Zhao et al., 2007], and assume that the electrostatic energy takes the same form as a dielectric liquid, with a constant permittivity ε.

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Inserting (17) into (6)–(9), we obtain that −2 −2 −3 −2 2 2 −3 −2 ˜ 2 s1 = µR (λ1 − λ−3 1 λ2 ) + (µU − µR )(λ1 ξ1 − λ1 λ2 ξ1 ξ2 ) − λ1 λ2 D /ε,

s2 = µR (λ2 −

−2 λ−3 2 λ1 )

+ (µU −

µR )(λ2 ξ2−2

−

−2 2 2 λ−3 2 λ1 ξ2 ξ1 )

−2 ˜ E˜ = λ−2 1 λ2 D/ε.

−

−2 ˜ 2 λ−3 2 λ1 D /ε,

(18) (19) (20)

These equations constitute the equations of state of the model specified by the free-energy function (17). We prescribe a kinetic model of the type (10). Specifically, we set dξ1 /dt = −η −1 ∂W/∂ξ1 and dξ2 /dt = −η −1 ∂W/∂ξ2 , where η is the viscosity. Using the freeenergy function (17), we write the kinetic model as 1 dξ1 −2 2 = (λ21 ξ1−3 − λ−2 1 λ2 ξ1 ξ2 ), dt τ dξ2 1 −2 2 = (λ22 ξ2−3 − λ−2 1 λ2 ξ2 ξ1 ). dt τ

(21) (22)

There is considerable flexibility in choosing kinetic models to fulfill the thermodynamic inequality (9). One choice may be deemed more suitable than others for a specific elastomer if it fits experimental data better. Our choice of the kinetic model, as represented by (21) and (22), is intended to illustrate the general approach. A more systematic search for a kinetic model for any specific dielectric elastomer is beyond our intention here. Equations (18)–(22) are fitted to experiment data obtained from a series of uniaxial tension of VHB tested under different rates of stretch [Plante and Dubowsky, 2006]. Figure 4 compares the experimental data and the best fit. The values of fitting parameters are found to be µU = 87.8 kPa, µR = 22.8 kPa, and τ = 200 s.

Fig. 4. The material model is fitted to experimental data of uniaxial tension of a dielectric elastomer tested under various stretching rates.

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These values are consistent with the materials parameters reported in literature for VHB [Wissler and Mazza, 2007; Plante and Dubowsky, 2007; Ha et al., 2007]. 5. Deformation Induced by Applying a Voltage This section applies the above model to a dielectric elastomer that is subjected ˜ = Φ(t)/L3 , to time-dependent voltage Φ(t), but not to forces. Set in (18)–(20) E s1 = s2 = 0, λ1 = λ2 = λ and ξ1 = ξ2 = ξ, giving ˜ 2 = µR (λ−2 − λ−8 ) + (µU − µR )(λ−2 ξ −2 − λ−8 ξ 4 ). εE

(23)

Differentiate (23) with respect to time, and we obtain that ˜ 2) d(εE dλ = [−2λ−3 (µR + (µU − µR )ξ −2 ) + 8λ−9 (µR + (µU − µR )ξ 4 )] dt dt dξ − (µU − µR )(2λ−2 ξ −3 + 4λ−8 ξ 3 ) . (24) dt The critical condition det H = 0 corresponds to setting in (24) the factor in front of dλ/dt to zero, giving

1 √ µR + (µU − µR )ξ 4 6 3 λc = 2 . (25) µR + (µU − µR )ξ −2 The kinetic model (19) becomes 1 dξ = (λ2 ξ −3 − λ−4 ξ 3 ). (26) dt τ The voltage is applied at time t = 0. The dashpot does not move instantaneously, so that the initial value of the internal variable is ξ(0) = 1. Both the top and bottom springs deform instantaneously, and λ(0) is determined by solving the nonlinear ˜ = E(0). ˜ algebraic Eq. (23) by setting ξ = ξ(0) and E Equations (24) and (26) evolve the functions λ(t) and ξ(t) up to the time when the stretch reaches the critical value, λ(t) = λc . In calculations, we set µU /µR = 4, which is suggested by fitting the experimental data, as described in Sec. 4. Figure 5(a) illustrates a particular loading program. A voltage Φ is applied to an elastomer at t = 0, and is held at a constant level subsequently. Thus, the nom˜ = Φ/L3 . For an elastic dielectric elastomer, inal electric field is prescribed at E ˜ = 0.69 µ/ε, where µ is the shear electromechanical instability occurs when E modulus of the elastomer [Zhao and Suo, 2007]. For a viscoelastic dielectric elas ˜ < 0.69 µR /ε, but will take tomer, electromechanical instability will not occur if E ˜ ≥ 0.69 µU /ε. If the applied nominal electric field is place instantaneously if E within the range of 0.69 µR /ε ≤ E˜ < 0.69 µU /ε, electromechanical instability will occur after some time. Figure 5(b) shows the evolution of stretch of the dielectric elastomer under ˜c = 0.69 µR /ε, and use it various applied electric fields. We adopt the notation E to normalize the applied electric field. At t = 0, the elastomer is unrelaxed, and the

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Voltage, Φ

Time, t (a)

(b) Fig. 5. Time-dependent electrical actuation of dielectric elastomer under a fixed DC voltage; (a) a voltage is suddenly applied and is subsequently held at constant, (b) the in-plane stretch as a function of time.

voltage induces a small stretch. Over time, the elastomer relaxes, and the stretch ˜ < E ˜c , the elastomer can reach a new state of equilibrium. For increases. For E ˜ ˜ ˜ Ec ≤ E < Ec µU /µR , the elastomer will suffer electromechanical instability, as marked by the crosses. The time needed to reach the instability can be read from Fig. 5(b). As shown in Zhao and Suo [2007], the critical stretch of an elastic dielectric elas√ 3 tomer is 2 ≈ 1.26. For a viscoelastic dielectric elastomer, however, a higher stretch up to 1.85 can be achieved before the electromechanical instability (Fig. 5(b)). This result is consistent with experimental observations on the increase of critical stretch due to the viscoelasticity of dielectric elastomers [Keplinger et al., 2008]. Figure 5(b) also shows that a lower applied field gives a longer time to failure and a higher stretch. This finding is useful in designing more reliable dielectric elastomer actuators with larger deformation of actuation. For example, one may apply a voltage ˜ ≈ 1.2E ˜c and maintain the voltage for τ (e.g., ∼200 s for VHB) to achieve to give E an actuation stretch 1.65. This is much higher than the critical stretch (1.26) of an elastic dielectric elastomer. Figure 6 illustrates another loading program: the voltage ramps up with time. We ˜=E ˜c kt , where k characterizes the rate of the voltage. By solving Eqs. (24) write E

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Voltage, Φ Time, t

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 6. (a) Applied voltage ramps up with time. (b) The critical nominal electric field. (c) The time to failure. (d) The critical stretch.

and (26) with initial conditions ξ(0) = 1 and λ(0) = 1, we get the evolution of λ ˜ and det H with time. As det H reaches 0, we record the nominal electric field E for electromechanical instability [Fig. 6(a)] and corresponding time to failure tfail [Fig. 6(b)] and critical stretch λC [Fig. 6(c)]. It can be seen that voltage applied at a lower rate gives a lower nominal electric field at the electromechanical instability. By selecting an appropriate ramping rate and time for the applied voltage, one can achieve a higher stretch with a viscoelastic dielectric elastomer than with an elastic dielectric elastomer.

6. Conclusions We use nonequilibrium thermodynamics to guide the development of models of dissipative dielectric elastomers. The approach is illustrated by a specific model of a viscoelastic dielectric elastomer, which is fitted to existing experimental data. Viscoelasticity of a dielectric elastomer greatly affects electromechanical stability of the elastomer. By controlling the time-dependence of the applied voltage, one can make a viscoelastic dielectric elastomer achieve larger deformation of actuation than an elastic dielectric elastomer. The approach demonstrated here can easily be adapted to analyze homogeneous deformation of viscoelastic dielectric elastomers under other loading conditions and boundary conditions. While viscoelasticity may be represented by an array of springs and dashpots, dielectric relaxation may be represented by an array of resistors and capacitors. To model electric conduction, however, we will need to combine charge transport and large deformation, in a way similar to the theory of polyelectrolyte gels [Hong et al., 2010]. It is hoped that

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