Nonpoint Source Pollution

Nonpoint Source Pollution Zaki Uddin Ahmad1, Maxim Sanin1, Qiyu Lian1, Mark Zappi2, Daniel Dianchen Gang1*

ABSTRACT:

This

research

article

depicts

Sources of NPS Pollution

a

comprehensive review of scientific research advancement

Two major contributors to nonpoint source

on nonpoint source pollution (NPS) in 2016. The causes,

pollution can be attributed to agricultural runoff and urban

impacts, and methods used to mitigate nonpoint source

stormwater.

pollution were reviewed. In addition, the assessment of

Pollution

from

Agricultural

Runoff.

nonpoint source pollution using different modeling

Agricultural runoff has been attributed to pollution of water

techniques, coupled with evaluation and management tools

bodies in the past years. The nonpoint source pollution

were reviewed. Innovative technologies to reduce nonpoint

caused by agricultural runoff can be due to heavy rainfall-

source pollution were also reviewed in this paper.

runoff and inland soil erosion process. It is known that some agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) pollutants

KEYWORDS: nonpoint source pollution, agricultural

accumulate in the sediments in the outlet of watersheds.

runoff, urban stormwater, modeling and simulation, best

Ouyang et al. (2016) evaluated the historical relations

management practice, innovative technologies.

between watershed NPS loading and sediment properties by collecting the sediment cores from the outlet of an

doi: 10.2175/106143017X15023776270593

agricultural watershed. The rate of sedimentation was defined utilizing the Constant Rate of Supply (CRS) Model and the core age was dated using the

210

Pb method. The

total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), Cd, Cu, Pb, Cr and Ni accumulations in the sediment showed fluctuating increase. The results concluded that Cr and Pb were the _________________________________

most appropriate indexes for assessing long term TP and

1*Department

TN pollution, respectively.

of Civil Engineering, University of Louisiana at

Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504; Tel.337-428-5184; Fax.337-482-

The contribution of NPS pollution to the nitrogen

6688; e-mail: [email protected] 2Environmental

and phosphorus loads on water bodies of the Vltava river

Technology Center, The Energy Institute of

basin was evaluated by Rosendorf et al. (2016). It was Louisiana, P. O. Box 43597, Lafayette, LA 70504.

found that phosphorus input was not an important source of

1580 Water Environment Research, Volume 89, Number 10 - Copyright © 2017 Water Environment Federation

eutrophication of inland waters, but the evaluation of

the entire vadose zone to the water table at 18.5 m depth.

nitrogen load on water bodies showed that 25% of the

The analysis revealed that manure is the major source of

water body might represent a critical load causing an

nitrate in the deep vadose zone and nitrogen alteration

adverse impact on ecological status. The analysis showed

processes have little influence on nitrate isotopic signature.

that the nitrogen load on water bodies ranged from very

The data of nonpoint source losses of phosphorus

low values in areas without livestock to high loads with

and nitrogen were collected in a minor agricultural

livestock. In the sub-basins of the Upper Vltava and Lower

catchment in Fuling District, Chongqing by Chen et al.

Vltava, the annual specific runoff of nitrogen for all water

(2016a). The study showed that there was a noteworthy

bodies were 4.8 and 5.7 kg/ha, respectively.

linear correlation between nitrate (NO 3 -N) in surface

The Bayesian Maximum Entropy Method and

runoff and the mass dosage of TN. It was revealed that

spatial regression models were used by Xu et al. (2016a) to

utilizing a reasonable way to regulate land usage and

discover the spatiotemporal patterns of nonpoint source

spatial arrangement of the whole catchment was an

nitrogen loss. A total of 18 sampling sites were selected

effective

along the river network in the Hujiashan Catchment, China

regulate nonpoint source contamination of

from 2008 to 2012. The results revealed that high

Gorges Region. Xu et al. (2016b) collected data from the

concentration of nitrogen was mainly found in the

inflow and outflow mass loading of TN, TP, suspended

downstream reaches and river segments close to the

sediment and chemical oxygen demand (COD) of a riparian

residential area.

wetland system. The data revealed that nitrate nitrogen and

Peyrard et al. (2016) found that pesticides were

solution

to the

Three

ammonia nitrogen were the major nitrogen species present

the non-point source of pollution in subsurface lateral flow

in the inflow and outflow of each wetland functioning unit.

in catchment areas of Eastern France with shallow bedrock.

The role of phosphorus in an agricultural

An automated trench system was designed to confirm and

watershed near Lake Tana was studied by Moges et al.

quantify the potential role of such process in pesticide

(2016). The outcomes showed that accessible phosphorus

transfer. Studying pesticide concentration dynamics in the

was the highest in the crop fields at mid-slope while

subsurface lateral flow confirmed the experimental design

dissolved phosphorus concentration (DPC) in groundwater

as a suitable method for monitoring subsurface lateral flow.

was mostly elevated in the intermittently saturated valley

The use of a Vadose-Zone Monitoring System

bottoms. The authors concluded that changing the

(VMS) in a commercial crop field was presented by

intermittently saturated areas in the stream corridor to

Turkeltaub et al. (2016). The data were collected for six

buffer zones with reduced phosphorus loads could be an

years which allowed a detailed tracking of water

important tool in decreasing phosphorus concentration.

percolation and nitrate migration from the surface through


Transboundary NPS pollution in the Taihu Valley

and TP in roof surface dust increased with grain size.

agricultural area, China was examined by Peng et al.

Moreover, noteworthy correlations between the Total

(2016). The COD, TP, and TN loading data were obtained

Suspended Solids (TSS) concentrations in the runoff and

with an Export Coefficient Model (ECM) by separately

the grain-size fractions of surface dust were found.

calculating the loads in the three major contributors of

The Event Mean Concentrations (EMC), the

the contamination: domestic wastewater and household

information on the concrete road-beds on railway bridges,

refuse from the rural population, waste from livestock, and

the runoff characteristics, and the contaminant load per unit

agricultural runoff. It was found that the COD, TP and TN

area were analyzed by Im and Gil (2016). The study

loads decreased in the period from 2010 to 2013.

showed that the nonpoint source contaminants are the

Research and developments on NPS pollution in

major sources of contamination around railway facilities.

2015 were reviewed by Ahmad et al. (2016). Various issues

To reduce the contamination level of the facilities that

related to NPS pollution, such as causes, effects, modeling

generate NPS pollution and to calculate the first flush effect

techniques, as well as innovative technologies were

in the railway bridge area, a study was conducted by Im et

discussed. It was concluded that more research was

al. (2016) in South Korea. The first-flush effect was

required

from

examined utilizing the mass first-flush ratio method, the

atmospheric deposition. Primary nitrate sources, the main

volume ratio technique, and the dynamic event mean

factors affecting its transport, and the methodologies for the

concentration method. The results revealed that the first-

estimation of baseflow nitrate were reviewed by He and Lu

flush effective rainfall depths were found to be 16.5 mm in

(2016). Some of the discussion outlined in the article, such

the gravel roadbed area and 8.4 mm in the concrete roadbed

as the adjustment and validation methods for fundamental

area. These first-flush rainfall depths are greater than the

flow and the integrated methods to control and avoid NPS

best management practices (BMPs) sizing criteria (5 mm)

nitrate pollution efficiently, were found to be beneficial for

for capturing first flush in South Korea. Adoption of

future studies.

rigorous rainfall-runoff management was recommended for

for

the

quantification

of

pollution

the gravel roadbed area.

Pollution from Urban Stormwater. Shen et al. (2016) characterized the runoff water from the First-Flush

Water quality of the exfiltrated runoff through

Effect (FF30) and Event Mean Concentrations (EMCs) of

permeable pavement (PP) systems and their heavy metal

10 common elements and examined spatial difference and

removal effectiveness in the metropolitan area of

particle size distributions of two nutrients and five heavy

Louisville, Kentucky was examined by Javadi et al. (2016).

metals in surface dust. It was found that the dust on road

A series of field samples from exfiltrated runoff and

surfaces with smaller grain sizes had the greater

surface were used during different rainfall events. It was

contaminant concentrations, whereas dosage of Mn, Zn, Fe,

concluded that the concentration of heavy metals in the


runoff was related to the site conditions and rainfall

models revealed that the calibration model had little

characteristics.

influence on nutrients distribution and CSAs locations.

Contaminant deposition

processes

on

Non-calibrated SWAT model could be used when the

road

surfaces was described in a study by Aljazzar and Kosher

objective of the study was less related to model calibration.

(2016). Deposits and runoff were studied for three German

Chen et al. (2016b) compared two common soil

motorways to investigate contaminant load movement into

datasets by utilizing a SWAT model for a typical

the drainage system or into the roadside soil. The

mountainous watershed in the Three Gorges Reservoir

investigation revealed that large amounts of mineral

Area (TGRA), China. The choice of soil data greatly

compounds, as well as heavy metals, moved from the

influences the application of watershed models. The results

driving lanes into the roadside environment. Nearly 90% of

provided information on the impacts of soil data on the

the heavy metals concentrations found in the road runoff

functionality and application of watershed models and

were below or in the range of the test values for seepage

valuable information for the appropriateness of each soil

water as regulated in the German Soil Protection and

database. SWAT model was used by Cho et al. (2016a) to

Contamination Ordinance.

simulate the alterations of future NPS pollutant loads. The Modeling and Estimation of NPS Pollution

model was calibrated and validated using Representative

The influences of variable resampling techniques,

Concentration Pathways (RCP) 8.5 scenarios that utilized

the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) sources on nutrient

eleven climate models as an input. An average increase of

simulations in the Xiangxi River, China were studied by Xu

13.1 to 143%, 13.4 to 49.5%, and 0.4 to 128% was

et al. (2016c). It was found that TP in critical source areas

observed by the rate of change in sediment, TN and TP

(CSAs) were sensitive to source and resampling technique

loads, respectively.

changes, exhibiting two distribution patterns for DEM

In a study carried out by Sommerlot et al. (2016),

resampling techniques. TN in CSAs was more affected by

SWAT and variable source area models were coupled with

resolution changes, exhibiting six distribution patterns in all

the global forecast system model output, statistical model,

DEM resolutions.

short-term weather forecast, and the Climate Forecast

Another study of the Xiangxi River in China was

System Reanalysis model. The study was conducted to

conducted by Liu et al. (2016a). CSAs were identified

design and develop a Hydrologically Sensitive Area (HSA)

using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model,

forecasting tool to support planners, farmers, and

water quality requirements, and population density together

landowners in defining high-risk areas causing pollution

with nutrient

and storm runoff.

loads.

The

relations

between CSAs

identification with uncalibrated and calibrated SWAT


various

contamination load in the Weihe River Valley in China by

approaches to assess the effects of watershed subdivision

utilizing the validated and calibrated SWAT model. The

level on multiple level Priority Management Areas (PMAs)

effects of the measurements on the regulation of Point

identification. The SWAT model was validated and

Source Pollution (PSP) and NPS in the valley were

calibrated for streamflow, nutrient yields, and sediment at

assessed. It was found that NPS control measurements were

the outlet of the Daning river watershed in China. The

worse than comprehensive PSP control measurements.

Wang

et

al.

(2016a)

proposed

results indicated that the Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient

The extent of nitrogen contamination in an

requirements for all of the subdivision schemes were

ungauged streamflow watershed was assessed by Lee and

satisfied except for the pollutant distribution. The proper

Kim (2016) by utilizing a load duration curve (LDC) with

increase in the number of sub-watersheds could increase

SWAT model. The SWAT 2009 appeared to be more

the accuracy of PMAs identification.

effective in calculating values of Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency

A new model, referred as SWATDRAIN, was

at one of the USGS gauge station compared to the SWAT

developed by Golmohammadi et al. (2016). The authors

2003 Model. The LDC data indicated that the monitored

integrated the DRAINMOD model into the SWAT model.

nitrogen loads in the study watersheds were potentially

The SWATDRAIN model was simulated, calibrated and

associated with both point and nonpoint pollution sources

validated with the data from Green Belt Watershed in

from both urban and rural areas. Mittelstet at el. (2016)

Ontario, Canada. The accuracy of the statistical model for

developed another SWAT model for the watersheds

daily and monthly water table depth over the validation

involved in their study that can provide critical information

period was found to be 0.7 and 0.86, respectively. In

for watershed based plans. The model was utilized to define

addition, the Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) for daily and

a combination of potential land management practices in

monthly water table depth was found to be 0.67 and 0.8,

Oklahoma to meet the water quality standard for TP (0.037

respectively.

mg/L) in three of Oklahoma’s designated Scenic Rivers.

Nonlinear optimization model and deterministic

The

relations

between five

water

quality

scattered watershed SWAT model were used by Ozcan et

parameters (N, NO 2 , total NH 3 -N, TP and dissolved O 2 )

al. (2016) to evaluate nutrient contamination loading

and Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) were assessed by

throughout the wet periods for different classes of land

De Oliveira et al. (2017). The Land Cover Pollution Index

usage in the semi-arid Lake Mogan. The TN (0.46 kg/ha.yr)

(LCPI), which is the ratio between sink and source, was

and TP (0.07 kg/ha.yr) loads generated from the watershed

proposed to replace the individual LULC groups. LCPI

during the wet periods were found to be highly dependent

index was found to have better correlation compared to the

on the variations of rainfall and very close to the minimum

individual LULC classes, especially in riparian zones. The

values of loads. Du et al. (2016a) calculated the

determination coefficients increased from 11 to 155% when


LCPI index was used instead of LULC classes. A modeling

and the runoff events were grouped to assess the model at

framework named Modeled Estimates of Discharges for

different temporal scales. Assessment of AnnAGNPS

Urban Storm Water

model revealed that runoff was assessed by the default

Assessments

(MEDUSA)

was

model with little accuracy at the inspected time.

developed by Fraga et al. (2016) to define and compute loads of heavy metals and TSS in urban waterways. The

On the other hand, a non-calibrated model was

model calculated contaminants by integrating alterations in

used by Abdelwahab et al. (2016). The AnnAGNPS model

contaminant dynamics between rainfall features and surface

was utilized to predict sediment load and runoff for a

categories. The model developed could be used to identify

Mediterranean watershed in Apulia, Southern Italy. On a

the magnitude of pollutant loads, the response of the

yearly scale, the model had good prediction of sediment

catchment as well as changes in specific rainfall

load and runoff with R2 value of 0.5 and 0.8, respectively,

characteristics.

and NSE values of 0.5 and 0.7, respectively.

The Backward Probability Method (BPM) was

A hybrid GIS (Geographic Information System)

utilized by Ghane et al. (2016) to define the contamination

based watershed scale optimization method was developed

release time and source locations in the rivers. The

by Dai et al. (2016) to define the optimal distribution

outcomes showed that all supposed points defined by the

network of created wetlands for NPS contamination

BPM could be a probable contamination source. The

regulation. This method combined Fuzzy-Stochastic Two-

proposed approach was found to be computationally

Stage Programming (FSTP) and the GIS technology into an

efficient and the modification of river geometry and flow

overall optimization framework. It was concluded that the

were not required.

optimization results could help watershed managers to get desired plans of wetland siting and nutrient permit

The Annualized Agricultural Non-Point Source

allocation for sub-basins under various confidence levels.

Model (AnnAGNPS) was used by Villamizar and Brown (2016) to simulate triazine herbicides losses of the River

The influence of diverse land usage types on NPS

Cauca, following application to sorghum, sugarcane, and

contamination was evaluated by Li et al. (2016a) with a

maize in the Cauca Valley of Colombia. Surface runoff

Localized Long-term Hydrologic Impact Assessment (L-

appeared to be the major cause of triazine losses into

THIA) model in Bao'an District in Shenzhen, China. Land

surface water in the catchment. Zema et al. (2016) applied

use alteration maps from 1988 to 2014 were obtained using

the AnnAGNPS model in the watershed covered by olive

remote sensing techniques. It was found that the NPS

groves in Anzur, Spain to predict surface runoff for the

contamination load altered meaningfully in terms of spatial

large watershed in semi-arid conditions. 180 surface runoff

distribution and magnitude. Singh and Chatterjee (2016)

events were modeled by AnnAGNPS and compared with

applied mathematical modeling to inspect solute transport

the corresponding observations through statistical index

in

groundwater.

The

three-dimensional

Advection-


Dispersion Equation (ADE) depicting NPS pollution was

pollution loading of 35.01 tons for TN, 2.4 tons for TP,

solved analytically using the Laplace transformation

244.3 tons for TOC and 322.7 tons for COD.

method. It was suggested that the offered common solution

Agricultural and hydrological data were studied

of the three-dimensional ADE could contribute to the study

by Li et al. (2016b) for Yinma River basin to estimate

of vadose zone hydrology and surface water.

optimum export coefficient and to improve the ECM. The calculations were performed using Mean Concentration

Liu et al. (2016b) assessed the effects of climate and land use change on water quality and hydrology in the

Method

(MCM)

and the improved

ECM

of the

Trail Creek watershed in Northwest Indiana by utilizing the

contamination loads for TN, TP, and COD. The estimations

Long-Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment-Low Impact

suggested that farmland was the major TN contributor in

Development 2.1 (L-THIA-LID 2.1) model. It was found

the Yinma River basin for the last ten years.

that land use change caused an increase in pollutant loads

Kang and Lee (2016) applied a simulation

from 8% to 17.9% while climate change led to the decrease

technique for the reduction facilities of a natural type for

in NPS pollutant loads reducing from 10.2% to 5.6%.

NPS utilizing Stormwater Management Model (SWMM).

Danjiangkou Reservoir was identified as critical

Planned reduction facilities of the manufactured type for

source areas by Zhuang et al. (2016). Load area curve

NPS were evaluated to substitute the facilities of natural

based on the export empirical model was used to

type. Reduction facilities of natural types for nonpoint

quantitatively classify CSAs of NPS pollution as CSAs,

source pollution with artificial wetland could remove

sub-CSAs, and non-CSAs. In CSAs, 45.4% of TN loads

93.6% of the nonpoint source pollutant.

and 48% of TP loads were from 14.5% and 13.3% of the

To apply Water Erosion Prediction Project

basin, respectively; in sub-CSAs, 19.7% of TN loads and

(WEPP) for forest watershed, Brooks et al. (2016)

18.3% of TP loads were from 14.5% and 13.3% of the

established and evaluated new methods for simulating

basin, respectively. Based on the data, the load area curve

sediment transport and stream flow for larger watersheds

was found to be a new way of identification of CSAs of

utilizing the WEPP. The work of the model was examined

NPS pollution.

using 17 years of sediment load, snow water equivalent

Bai et al. (2016a) studied the role of domestic

depth, and stream flow data from various watersheds in the

waste on the contribution of nonpoint source pollution in

Lake Tahoe basin, USA. The model demonstrated accuracy

the Paihe River Valley, China. Loads from various rural

when applied without calibration to multiple watersheds

wastes contributing to the contamination of the Paihe River

across Lake Tahoe basin except for the drier eastern region.

Valley were calculated and evaluated with the NPS-of-

Research was conducted by Shao et al. (2016) to

rural-domestic-waste forecasting model. Shangpai Town

prepare a sponge city urban data integration plan in

was found to be largest contributor of the maximum

accordance with the integration of urban planning data. The


study empirically applied the plan to Hunan province’s

model was used by Ahn et al. (2016) to evaluate the river

Fenghuang County to provide theoretical and technical

basin scale effects on NPS pollution. The HSPF model was

support for the planning, construction and management of

calibrated under tillage conditions utilizing 23 rainfall

sponge cities in China. Another study in China was

events with an average Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency of

conducted by Wang et al. (2016b) to analyze the sequential

0.61 for runoff. The correlation coefficients for TP, TN,

and spatial distribution of TN loads from retention

and sediment were 0.62, 0.61, and 0.58, respectively.

characteristics and hillslope alongside the river network.

Rainfall was studied to reduce NPS water

Geomorphology-Based Nonpoint Source Pollution model

pollution by Son et al. (2016). Vegetative Filter Strip

(GBNP) was used to simulate the transport of sediment,

Modeling System (VFSMOD-W) was applied to numerical

contaminants and the hillslope hydrological procedures in

experiments. The results indicated that the vegetation with

the upper Xin'anjiang catchment. The outcomes showed

similar manning’s roughness coefficient values had the

that TN load ranged from 0.54 to 1.88 ton/km2.yr. The

same removal effectiveness in VFSMOD-W.

average TN load was positively correlated with irrigated Assessment and Evaluation of NPS Pollution

cropland area but negatively correlated with forest area. A distributed, integrated and energetic NPS

An integrated model to study particulate and

pollution model was used by Wu et al. (2016a) to study

dissolved phosphorus loads for the Meiliang Bay watershed

erosion type NPS pollution in Majiagou watershed of Loess

in Taihu Lake, China was developed by Lin et al. (2016).

Plateau in China. Results indicated that TN and TP load

The collected data revealed that NPS phosphorus loads

showed an overall decreasing trend. The average TN and

were up to 15 kg/km2 and particulate phosphorus loads

TP loads in the period of 2009-2012 were 1.23 and 1.63

were up to 13 kg/km2. The highest loads were concentrated

ton/km2, respectively. The spatial variations of NPS

in the southeastern region of the watershed. Soil organic

pollution were found to be closely related to spatial

matter and TN were found to influence dissolved

characteristics of rainfall, topography, and land use type.

phosphorous

loads.

Ten

water

quality

parameters

Jung et al. (2016a) analyzed the NPS pollution

monitored at 75 observation sites throughout 2009 along

utilizing water sensitive urban design in Gimhae, South

the river network of Serbia was used by Dević et al. (2016)

Korea. A watershed model based on Fortran was applied to

to evaluate the environmental impact of heavy metal and

explore the alterations of pollution load and direct runoff.

nutrient

Application of the development plan resulted in the

Analysis/Factor Analysis (PCA/FA) revealed that the

reduction of TP, straight runoff, and BOD 5 contamination

dissolved nutrients and metals in the Serbian rivers varied

load by 0.19%, 2.27%, and 1.16% per year, respectively.

depending on the river and natural environmental

contamination.

Primary

Component

The Hydrological Simulation Program Fortran (HSPF)


variabilities, such as geological characteristics and the

The results suggested that the groundwater pollution risks

heterogeneity of the anthropogenic activities in the basins.

in the north and east of Daxing district was greater than that

The eco-hydrological SWAT model was applied

in the south and west. The results conformed to the

by Strehmel et al. (2016) to evaluate the effects of fertilizer

observed results of NO 3 -N content found in groundwater.

quantities in the Xiangxi catchment in the TGRA. The

A Bayesian framework utilizing the Markov Chain Monte

results indicated that the reduction in fertilizer quantities

Carlo approach (MCMC) was developed by Ayub et al.

did not decrease phosphorus loads significantly. The

(2016) to evaluate distributions of NPS by combining

relationship

and

hydrologic and geologic uncertainties with groundwater

rural NPS pollution was studied by Zhang et al. (2016a) by

nitrogen concentration data. The purpose of the study was

utilizing the

(EKC)

the characterization of the probability distributions of NPS

hypothesis for TGRA. Five types of pollution indicators

locations and time release history of nitrogen pollution into

were chosen as rural NPS pollutant variables: Livestock

groundwater resources. The study is considered to be

Manure Impact (MI), Fertilizer Input Density (FD),

beneficial to water resources managers and decision makers

Pesticide Input Density (PD), Agricultural Film Input

to define the potential source contaminant areas.

between

economic

Environmental

development

Kuznets

Curve

Density (AD), and Grain Residues Impact (GI). The

A survey by Wu et al. (2016b) was performed to

relation between economic growth and agricultural waste

monitor

outputs (livestock manure and grain residues) were

watershed. A location-weighted Landscape Contrast Index

inconsistent with EKC, reflecting the current trends of

(LCI) was used for the source-sink structures of three

agricultural economic structure in the TGRA.

organic carbon reduction processes. The Pollution Load

organic carbon reduction in a peri-urban

Yang et al. (2016) used the seismic damage index

(PLOAD) model and the sediment delivery distributed

in combination with Soil Conservation Service (SCS) curve

model were integrated to simulate dissolved organic carbon

number approach to compute runoff depth in the single

(DOC), sediment yield, total organic carbon (TOC) loss,

rainfall event and evaluate the extent of NPS pollution in

and adsorbed organic carbon (AOC). It was suggested that

Sichuan, China. The outcomes of the model were important

the major factor in the integrated model was the rainfall

to urban planning commissions and businesses in order to

that covered 80% of the variations in both sediments and

choose factory locations and to minimize the potential risk

organic carbon.

in the event of an earthquake.

Lin and Ma (2016) utilized high resolution

Zhang et al. (2016b) proposed a GIS based

remote sensing data and solid contaminants loss equation to

groundwater pollution risk model. The model included five

define the spatial characteristics of phosphorus loss and

parameters: the impact of the vadose zone, impact of

identify the areas with maximum pollutants concentration.

nitrogen, depth to groundwater, net recharge, and soil type.

Non-eroded region and slightly loss region covered more


than 65% of the entire area, whereas severely eroded region

China was found to be more serious compared to in other

accounted for 12.8% of the area. The forestland displayed

regions.

the lowest loss intensity, while the arable land displayed the

A field-scale plot experiment under natural

highest loss intensity. Tong et al. (2016) evaluated the

rainfall

condition

effects of various hydraulic and soil factors on chemical

phosphorus loss from the sloping land in TGRA, China was

transfer from soil to surface runoff. The factors included

conducted by Ma et al. (2016). The experiment showed that

types of soil, condition of drainage, maximum depth of

the average loss of phosphorous and nitrogen was 1.54%

ponding water on the soil surface, the original volumetric

and 1.9%, respectively. Experimental containers with eight

water content of soil, and depth of soil with low porosity. It

different plant species and two substrates were built and the

was concluded that the increase in maximum depth of

data were collected from seven real rainfall events by Chen

ponding water on the soil surface decreased the KCl

and

concentration in surface runoff water.

characteristics. It was reported that TS, TN, and COD

Kang

(2016)

to

to

understand

analyze

the

the

nitrogen

effluent

and

water

concentrations were higher in the earlier stage and steadily

The data from a fertilization experiment with a

decreased over time.

wheat-soybean rotation in Northern China was analyzed by Hua et al. (2016) from 1982 to 2011. The main goal of the

Zhao et al. (2016) evaluated the effects of

study was to quantify and evaluate the dynamics of soil

alternative nitrogen fertilizer regulation practices on

phosphorous. It was concluded that less phosphorous was

nitrogen loading from paddy fields in Shanghai, China

available in crop straw incorporation compared to the

using a process based biogeochemical model. The data

phosphorous in the soil under long-term farmyard manure.

obtained showed that the existing fertilization rate in the

The component structure of livestock and the

paddy fields of Shanghai (300 kg of N/ha) surpassed the

corresponding effects on contamination in China were

real rice demand and led to a considerable nitrogen loading

analyzed and estimated by Liu et al. (2016c) using

of 1142 ± 276 kg.

statistical data over a twenty years’ period from 1992 to

The relationship between four water quality

2012. The results revealed that the Average Annual Growth

parameters (nitrate, total ammonia nitrogen, dissolved

Rate (AAGR) of China was 1.58% during the study period.

oxygen and total phosphorous) and land use and land cover

The majority of the livestock was concentrated in Eastern

was examined by De Oliveira et al. (2016) for a watershed

and Southwest China. Cattle had the largest proportion in

in Southeast Brazil. The best results were acquired for

almost every province among all the livestock studied and

dissolved oxygen and total ammonia nitrogen utilizing the

the number of heads was over 40% of all the livestock

whole

quantity for most provinces. TN, TP and COD pollution

determination coefficients greater than 0.8. On the other

caused by livestock excretion in Eastern and Southeast

hand, nitrate and total phosphorus did not produce valid

Exclusive

Contribution

Areas

(ECA)


with

models which could be attributed to the transformation

(2016). The study revealed a significant divergence

delay from ammonia nitrogen to nitrate.

between farmers’ conception of the water quality problem and the issues that emerged from policy framing. Luo et al.

Management & Control of NPS Pollution

(2016) evaluated the environmentally friendly agricultural survey,

practices and their acceptance by smallholder farmers in

collect

Xinxiang County of Henan Province, China. The farmers’

qualitative and quantitative data to set social indicator

opinions were collected through personal interviews using

scores and to evaluate the attitudes and knowledge

a questionnaire survey. The results showed that cost was

surrounding the fertilizer ordinance in a master planned

the most important factor for farmers to adopt a new

community in Manatee County, Florida. The study

practice.

Persaud participant

et

al.

observations

(2016) and

conducted

interviews

to

indicated that majority of the residents (69%) were not

Petit et al. (2016) utilized a combination of GIS

aware about the constituents of the ordinance. Research

processing, statistical, and comprehensive approaches to

related to BMP efficiency was performed by Cristan et al.

examine

(2016) to define the effectiveness of water quality

Catchment Areas (WCA) identified based on the action

protection guidelines. The research was conducted in the

territories

Coastal Plain and Piedmont physiographic regions. The

authorities and collection companies. The results suggested

results suggested that the BMP efficiency allowed state

that the demarcation of the water catchment areas based on

forestry BMP programs to achieve water quality goals set

biophysical basis was found to be more effective,

under the Clean Water Act (CWA).

especially on the development of organic farming and

and

of

cross-reference

farmers,

the

identified

hydrogeological

Water

base,

local

agricultural practices.

Cho et al. (2016b) examined the reduction of the

Su et al. (2016) developed a NPS-P indicator

Saemangeum River Basin. The study was initiated in 2010.

which: (1) assimilated the key NPS-P loss factors and

In 2016, it was concluded that no economic benefits

compiles them in a simple and physically comprehensive

through BMP application were observed and further study

way; (2) was appropriate for semi-arid and semi-humid

was required to evaluate the effect. However, the tested

watersheds of northern China. It was concluded that this

BMP

tool could provide a better insight on the location and

agricultural

NPS

showed

a

contamination

reduction

of

measured

in

agricultural

NPS

component of NPS-P contamination for policy makers.

contamination in upland and paddy areas. The level of farmers’ knowledge of water quality

Another interesting study was performed by

and their experience with the policy for addressing the

Angradi et al. (2016). The Twenty-Seven Great Lakes

effects of agriculture was studied in two locations of South

coastal systems in the United States and Canada that are

Island region of Canterbury in New Zealand by Duncan

known as Areas of Concern (AOCs) due to the chemical


contamination, degraded habitat and nonpoint source

represent the transport potential of runoff to move

pollution. The authors suggested an approach to assess how

phosphorus from the land surfaces to waters was proposed

local-scale actions can affect the extent and distribution of

by Li et al. (2016). The empirical tool was applied to

coastal ecosystem services in the estuarine portion of St.

Dianchi Lake watershed of China. The results showed that

Louis River of western Lake Superior. Indicators for 23

the total phosphorous reduction was 352.3 tons in 2008.

biophysical services in the estuary (e.g., natural views, wild

The lakeside plain and the terraces of the watershed

rice, parks and trails, beaches, property protection, sacred

produced more than 90% of nonpoint phosphorus which

sites) were mapped and tradeoffs in services related to the

were identified as CSAs.

management actions were examined by quantifying the

The economic effect of green roofs on NPS

changes in the AOC for scenarios based on sediment

management in the Cheonggyecheon watershed in Seoul,

remediation and habitat restoration projects.

Korea was observed by Jung et al. (2016b). Four scenarios

Relationship between utilization of organically

(S-1 > 65 m2, S-2 > 100 m2, S-3 > 200 m2, S-4 > 300 m2)

grown rice varieties and nitrogen uptake was assessed by

were developed to evaluate the benefits by utilizing the

Huang et al. (2016). Three rice varieties, Nanjing 46,

replacement cost approach and analyzing the efficiency of

Nanjing 5055, and Nanjing 9108, were grown under

green roofs in decreasing NPS pollution. Decreased BOD

conventional farming (CF) with common chemical

loading of 817,884 kg/yr, 683,781 kg/yr, 452,758 kg/yr,

fertilizers and organic farming (OF) at three organic

and 356,523 kg/yr in the four scenarios were observed,

fertilizer levels (218.4, 160.8, 103.2 kg N/ha). The

respectively.

assessment revealed that the medium organic fertilizer level

The reduction of pesticide concentration peaks

(160.8 kg N/ha) appeared to be the most appropriate

and the related risk associated on the ecological effects in

fertilizer treatment and Nanjing 46 was found to be the best

headwater streams were studied by Gaillard et al. (2016).

variety for organic rice cultivation.

The impact of extensively regulated barrage fishponds on

Choi et al. (2016) examined the application of

the dissolved concentrations of 100 pesticides in headwater

Vegetative Filter Strip (VFS) for runoff and pollution

streams was examined. It was reported that fishponds

management in the Saemangeum area in Korea. It pursued

would decrease peak exposure levels as high pesticide

a goal to make VFS technique for agricultural NPS

concentrations would be reduced by more than 90%

pollution management in the Korean region. Results

between downstream and upstream sampling sites.

showed that effects of decreased NPS pollution were found

Niu et al. (2016) examined the relationship

to be 24-73.3% for TN, 47.6-80.9% for TP, and 9.8-94.2%

between the ratio of stormwater inflow volume to water

for SS from the VFS plots. A simple empirical tool

quality volume (WQV) and wetland treatment performance

combining ECM and GIS based weighting scheme to

by using free water surface wetland to control. When the


stormwater went through the wetland, the levels of TSS,

poultry farming profession for a long time were late to

TCOD (total chemical oxygen demand), TN and TP were

adopt BMPs and large farms adopted BMPs earlier. Social

reduced by 85%, 57%, 6%, and 68%, respectively.

criteria

for

siting

watershed

level

Chi and Shin (2016) conducted surveys to

agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) pollution abatement

analyze the runoff features of NPS pollution in an urban

projects were examined by Babin et al. (2016). The

watershed and to determine the efficiency of a newly

research was concluded with a discussion of the challenges

installed river water treatment system. The study suggested

associated with the comparison and evaluation methods for

that Suspended Solids (SS) and the levels of BOD 5 were

qualitative analysis. A group of indicators and a

greatly affected by the first-flush effect. Besides that, the

methodology to assess those indicators were also described

contaminant loads of those parameters were found to be

in the study.

very high in the urban watershed. Ecological dynamics

A desktop based Load Duration Curve (LDC)

theory was used by Li et al. (2016d) to create the nitrogen

system was developed by Ryu et al. (2016) to offer

cycle ecological dynamics model in a drainage ditch. The

convenience of water quality assessment to the users. The

parameters in the model were calibrated by combining

developed system can produce the LDC by applying water

actual measurements and empirical parameters. It was

quality and streamflow data involved in its database. Wang

reported that the correlation coefficient of NH 3 -N and

and Yu (2016) studied the legal system to prevent and

organic nitrogen model between simulated values and

control agricultural nonpoint source pollution. After a

measured values was 0.98 and 0.94, respectively.

detailed analysis of the causes and status of NPS in

Local responses to natural resource management

Nansihu Lake basin, different measures were offered to

problems within multilevel resource governance systems in

regulate agricultural NPS pollution. It was outlined that

South East Queensland, Australia were examined by

agricultural-ecological

Patterson (2016). Three local catchment areas were

ecological environment.

balance

improves

the

agri-

analyzed by considering the outcomes and adaptation

A collaborative and integrated approach was

needs, contextual factors, and forms of collective action.

proposed by Vernier et al. (2016) to analyze the changes in

The results demonstrated advanced practical responses to

farming systems, practice, land use, and the evaluation of

regional scale problems. The issues on individual

their effects in transferring pesticide to water and

heterogeneity and correlated events in multiple BMPs

agricultural pasture. The integrated assessment of different

adoption were addressed by Paudel et al. (2016) using

scenarios combined with the calculation of environmental

survey data collected from broiler producers in Louisiana,

indicators was performed using SWAT modeling to

USA. It was found that farmers who have been in broiler

evaluate the cost-effectiveness. The assessment revealed that the most cost-effective scenarios at sub-basin and other


aggregated levels could be identified by analyzing the

Innovative

implementation costs borne by the farmers.

Control

Technologies

for

NPS

Pollution

Interesting payment methods for watershed

Park et al. (2016) conducted a three year study on

services scheme were suggested by Webb and Martin

Paddy fields in Korea. A conventional practice and the

(2016). It was shown that it had a chance to benefit in

treatment of System of Rice Intensification (SRI) were

addressing issues of NPS pollution in fair and more

compared during that study. The study reported that the

effective ways than the current governance model. Based

average reduction of TN, BOD, and SS by SRI treatment

on that scheme, Sydney Catchment Authority (SCA) could

method was 23.8%, 44.4%, 38.6%, respectively. SRI

count on negotiated service arrangements to ensure the

treatment was suggested as a beneficial system for

cheapest supply for a desired water quality output.

reduction of agricultural NPS pollution from paddy fields. Shin

Ryu and Yong Seok (2016) performed a study to

et

al.

(2016)

performed

24-month

find the best management practices for pollution sources

experimental plot research in Korea to measure the

and offer suitable reduction practices by using LDC and

influence of variable surface treatments on agricultural

field monitoring data. The study reported that agricultural

NPS and runoff. The treatment methods used were Plastic

NPS loads from garlic and onion culture were causing most

Sheet Mulches (PM), Straw Mat conjunctive with

of the contamination. Based on the results, it was

Polyacrylamide and Gypsum (SPG), and Straw Mat (SM).

concluded that low impact farming through reducing

Four plots on a slightly sloped (2 to 8.4%), sandy loam,

fertilizer usage, controlling the height of drainage outlet

soybean field were evaluated with respect to runoff and

and agricultural recycling of effluent, was effective for

water quality. The study showed that the PM treatment

water quality management for the watershed.

produced more runoff compared to SM treatment.

Lu et al. (2016) used an isotopic approach (δC-13,

The effects of soil amendments and straw mat

N-15, and C/N ratios) to detect carbon and nitrogen cycle

cover on runoff, agricultural NPS pollution, and crop yield

processes and potential sources occurring in the Abujiao

on sloped alpine fields in Korea were studied by Won et al.

River watershed in the Sanjiang Plain, China. A Stable

(2016). The experimental plot indicated 29.4% less runoff

Isotope Analysis in R (SIAR) model was utilized to

and 34.7%, 39.1% and 86.6% reduction in the pollution

apportion the effects of potential sources. Assessment of

load for TN, TP and SS, respectively. The results suggested

the sources and behaviors could affect the implementation

that the treatment used in the experimental plot could

of management practices for protection of water quality and

reduce agricultural NPS pollution.

δ

The first straight examination of the correlation

effective NPS pollution reduction strategies.

between the bacterial anaerobic ammonium oxidation (ANAMMOX) activity and denitrification in ravine paddy


fields was carried out by Zhou et al. (2016). Denitrification

were found to be 90.6% and 95.2%, respectively. In

activity and ANAMMOX were determined utilizing

addition, the removal rates of dissolved nitrogen were 92%

nitrogen Isotope Pairing Technique (IPT) in fallow ravine

and 90.7%, the removal rates of TP were 94.2% and 92.9%,

paddy soil. It was observed that denitrification activity

and the removal rates of dissolved phosphorus were 94.4%

diminished with increase in paddy soil depth. The results

and 95%, respectively.

showed that when nitrate reduction to nitrite was inhibited,

Omondi et al. (2016) introduced a technique to

anammox activity exponentially decreased due to a

alleviate NPS water pollution for both inorganic and

reduction in the intermediate NO 2 −.

organic

contaminants.

A

hydrogel

adsorbent

for

The differences in the interception of nutrients in

simultaneous adsorption of heavy metals ions and benzene

agricultural NPS pollution for eco-soil reactors were

contaminants was synthesized by incorporating functional

examined by Du et al. (2016b). Three filling schemes were

groups into the hydrogel using polymerization and

used in the studies: blend-sized filling (B-filling), increase-

chemical cross-linking methods. This research created the

sized filling (I-filling), and decrease-sized filling (D-

possibility of synthesizing customized adsorbent for

filling). Highest removal amounts of NH 4 +-N, TN, and TP

simultaneous removal of organic and inorganic pollutants

obtained in B-filling were 57.74-70.52%, 43.7- 54.5%, and

in multi-type polluted water sources.

42.5-55%, respectively. The B-filling reactor showed ideal

Pak et al. (2016) performed lab scale experiments

concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO) for partial

with synthetic rainfall to improve the removal effectiveness

nitrification-denitrification across the eco-soil.

of TN and TP and to observe the features of rainfall

Bai et al. (2016b) modified and utilized SWAT to

pollutants. It was reported that as high loading of

simulate the fecal coliform in Chao River of Miyun

contaminants was introduced to the rainfall treatment

Reservoir Watershed, China. The efficiency of VFS to

system, its removal effectiveness increased with the

reduce fecal coliform throughout the watershed was also

increase of contaminant concentrations. The reduction of

studied. The results showed that calibration and validation

NPS pollution by a berm and silt fence through field

results for fecal coliform and flow can be accepted.

monitoring was evaluated by Jang et al. (2016). Flumes

Li et al. (2016e) used buffer strips in field trials

were used to monitor plot runoff and experimental plots

for decreasing contaminants in agricultural runoff water.

were divided into two sizes with three different slopes (225

For reusing and optimizing agricultural runoff water in

m2 on 6% slope and 110 m2 on 3% and 9% slopes). Using

China, a treatment system combining soil-retention wall,

berm, COD, BOD, SS, TN and TP were decreased by 30%,

vegetation buffer, plant filter, and water collection area was

34.1%, 59.9%, 30.8%, and 68.9%, respectively.

designed. The subtraction rates of TN by the soil vegetation

losses were compared to those from the control plot. SS

buffer strips and regulated irrigation drainage treatment

load reduction was statistically substantial (5% level).


These

AOC: Adsorbed Organic Carbon Future research work

AOCs: Areas of Concern B-filling: Blend-Sized Filling

Most of the research works were done mainly focusing on the identification of potential sources of NPS

BMPs: Best Management Practices

pollution, such as agricultural runoff, highway stormwater,

BPM: Backward Probability Method

railway runoff, modeling and simulation of NPS pollution,

CF: Conventional Farming

as well as monitoring and assessment of NPS pollution.

COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand

Researchers have been collecting field data over a longer

CRS: Constant Rate of Supply

span of time to validate their developed model for better

CSA: Critical Source Area

understanding

CWA: Clean Water Act

of

occurrence,

progression

and

the

movement of pollutants. A considerable number of

DEM: Digital Elevation Model

researches focused on the innovative technology to

D-filling: Decreasing-Sized Filling

alleviate NPS pollution have also been performed.

DO: Dissolved Oxygen

Interdisciplinary

research

work

should

DOC: Dissolved Organic Carbon

be

promoted. Public awareness on nonpoint source reduction

DPC: Dissolved Phosphorus Concentration

should be encouraged through best management practices

ECA: Exclusive Contribution Areas

and

ECM: Export Coefficient Model

corresponding

policy

framework.

Legal

and

institutional framework should also be established to

EKC: Environmental Kuznets Curve

reduce the NPS pollution load. More attention should be

EMCs: Event Mean Concentrations

focused on monitoring the implementation plans. Although,

FD: Fertilizer Input Density

there are a lot to explore, nonpoint source pollution should

FF30: First-Flush Effect

be regarded as an important source of pollution that poses

FSTP: Fuzzy-Stochastic Two-Stage Programming

threat to the environment and society.

GBNP: Geomorphology-Based Nonpoint Source Pollution GI: Grain Residues Impact

Glossary of Acronyms

GIS: Geographic Information System

AAGR: Average Annual Growth Rate

HSA: Hydrologically Sensitive Area

AD: Agricultural Film Input Density

HSPF: Hydrological Simulation Program Fortran

ADE: Advection-Dispersion Equation

IPT: Isotope Pairing Technique

ANAMMOX: Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation

LCI: Landscape Contrast Index

AnnAGNPS: Annualized Agricultural Non-Point source

LCPI: Land Cover Pollution index

pollution Model

LDC: Load Duration Curve


L-THIA:

Localized

Long-term

Hydrologic

TOC: Total Organic Carbon

Impact

TP: Total Phosphorus

Assessment L-THIA-LID

2.1:

Long-Term

Hydrologic

TSS: Total Suspended Solids

Impact

Assessment-Low Impact Development 2.1

VFS: Vegetative Filter Strip

LULC: Land Use and Land Cover

VFSMOD-W: Vegetative Filter Strip Modeling System

MCM: Mean Concentration Method

VMS: Vadose-Zone Monitoring System

MCMC: Markov Chain Monte Carlo

WCA: Water Catchment Areas

MEDUSA: Modeled Estimates of Discharges for Urban

WEPP: Water Erosion Prediction Project

Storm Water Assessments

WQV: Water Quality Volume

MI: Manure Impact OF: Organic Farming

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