North Korea, Index - Institute for International Economics

Index

abductees, 143 abortions, forced, 28, 29, 40–41, 96 abuse incidence of, 13 of prisoners, 82–83, 87, 97t, 97–98 of women, 19, 35–36, 39 accountability, government, 116, 145 accounting systems, 64 acculturation of refugees, 3, 152 additional clauses (bu-chik), 86 Administrative Penalty Law, 85 age (of refugees), 20 political attitudes and, 111 psychological health and, 41 resettlement preference and, 108–109 Agency for International Development (USAID), 55n age restrictions, on market traders, 10 Agreed Framework, 13 agricultural sector economic reforms and, 63 future changes in, 126 in postreform era, 68, 69t, 70f Amnesty International, 28, 142 an-jeon-bu (People’s Security Agency), 88, 88n, 93 antimarket campaigns, 10 anti-socialist inspection units, 93 anxiety, 36, 37t–39t, 39 apology, after currency reform, 117, 121 The Aquariums of Pyongyang (Kang Cholhwan), 4

arrest fear of, 39, 39t incidence of, 40 likelihood of, 93–94 psychological distress and, 42 Asian Development Bank, 133 Association of Supporters for Defecting North Korean Residents (ASDNKR), 161 attitudes. See political attitudes August 3 Movement, 45–46 private business activities and, 61, 74 authoritarian rule, dynamics of, 12–15 Bill for the Protection of North Korean Defectors and Settlement (South Korea), 152–53 border crossings facilitating, 28, 32 as illegal activity, 3, 27–29, 98 multiple, 35, 42 sentences for, 11, 27, 29, 91 border security Chinese, 28, 29, 149, 151 surveillance activities, 29 borrowing, 136 bo-wi-bu (political police), 31, 87 bribery. See corruption bu-chik (additional clauses), 86 Bush, George W., 14, 65 business environment. See private business activities

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capital flows, 136–37 capital punishment. See executions “cascading” corruption, 124, 130 cash awards, 152 central distribution mechanism. See public distribution system Cheonan (naval vessel), 120, 131, 153 China border security, 28, 29, 149, 151 Great Leap famine, 74 humanitarian assistance from, 130–31 policy on refugees, 147–51 refugees in abused as prisoners, 97t, 97–98 assistance for, 34, 149 on criminalization of economic activity, 84, 84f demographic profile, 20–27, 162–63 on economic reforms, 65–66, 66f, 68, 70f employment status, 33, 43 experiences of, 42–44 on food access, 50–51 food aid perceptions, 56–57, 56t–57t future aspirations, 107–109 information about China before departure, 32, 32n legal risks, 27–29, 149 length of imprisonment, 96, 96t length of time in China, 26–27, 33, 33t, 43–44 mechanics of escape, 32 number of, 2b occupational status, 22–24, 23t on penal system, 82 political attitudes, 106, 107f provincial distribution, 162–63 psychological state, 36, 37t, 38t pull factors, 31–32 push factors, 27, 29–31, 30t repatriation of, 28, 35, 93, 149 resettlement preferences, 34–35, 42–43, 107–109, 108f, 151 surveys (See refugee surveys) vulnerability of, 19–20, 32–36, 44 trade with, 8 “Chollima” movement, 10 Civil and Political Rights Covenant, 87, 87n civil liberties, absence of, 12–13 Clinton, Bill, 65 “collection centers” (jip-kyul-so), 89, 91, 92t abuse in, 97t, 97–98 human rights issues, 142 legal process and, 95

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length of imprisonment in, 95, 96t commercial engagement, of international community, 128f, 134–38 Committee for Human Rights in North Korea (US), 2b, 139, 144, 153, 160 communication, political, 109–12, 116 concentration camps. See political prison camps constructive engagement, 137–38 cooperation projects, 131 core class, 25, 25n, 115 correctional centers (kyo-hwa-so), 88–89. See also penitentiaries corruption border crossing and, 32 “cascading,” 124, 130 food aid and, 7, 46 good forms of, 124, 124n humanitarian assistance and, 129, 130 as pathway to income or status, 75–77, 76f in penal system, 82–83, 95, 99 in postreform era, 68, 68n, 122–24 as safety valve, 122–23 crime(s). See also penal code concept of, 13 economic activity as, 83–86, 84f, 98–99 against humanity, 144 major categories of, 89, 90t in postreform period, 65 standard, incarceration for, 88–89 unauthorized movement as, 7, 86 2004 Criminal Procedure Law, 94 currency reform (2009), 5, 10–11, 50 apology after, 117, 121 political attitudes and, 114, 116–17 as political change, 119, 121, 123 as push factor, 146 Darusman, Marzuki, 139 date of exit, 26–27 political views by, 103–105 Dear Leader (Kim Jong-il), 12, 111 deaths due to beating or torture, 82 famine-related, 6, 120 debts, 136 decentralization, 7, 14 decentralized investment, 134–36 defection, as illegal act, 28 demilitarized zone, 13–14 demographic profile, 20–27, 162–63 detention. See incarceration; prisoners development assistance, 128f, 129–32, 143

Witness to Transformation: Refugee Insights into North Korea © Peterson Institute for International Economics | www.piie.com

diplomatic relations, US-North Korea, 156 “direct” engagement policies, 138–45, 140t–141t, 147 dissent. See political attitudes due process, 87 economic activity, criminalization of, 83–86, 84f, 98–99 economic conditions, as push factor, 30, 30t, 146 economic engagement, by international community, 125–38 economic integration, of Korean peninsula, 132 economic migrants, versus refugees, 3, 29, 146–47, 147n economic reform (2002), 5, 8–9, 46–47 components of, 63–64 impact of, 65–75, 79, 121 motivation for, 65, 120–21 national values and, 74–75, 75f perceptions of, 77, 78t political economy of, 46, 62–65, 79 educational attainment, 21t, 21–22 likelihood of arrest and, 93–94 psychological health and, 41 resettlement preference and, 108–109 educational opportunities, international, 144, 155 employment status, of refugees in China, 33, 43 engagement policies constructive, 137–38 “direct,” 138–45, 140t–141t, 147 economic, 125–38 “indirect,” 140t–141t, 145–46 regarding refugees, 146–48 entrepreneurial strategies. See private business activities escape mechanics of, 32 from prisons, 95 executions for economic crimes, 86 incidence of, 13 of prisoners, 97t, 97–98 of repatriated refugees, 82 for trafficking, 11, 29 export-processing zones, 131 external environment. See also international community economic reforms and, 65 extradition, fear of, 39, 39t

facilitating exit, as illegal activity, 28 family background, social classification by, 25–26 family members arrest or disappearance of, 40, 40t famine-related loss of, 40, 42 fear for, 36 incarceration of, 87, 142 separation from, 40 family reunifications, 144 famine coping strategies, 6, 45–46, 48–50 external assistance (See food aid) food rationing during, 48, 49f, 50f marketization in response to (See marketization from below) mortality rate, 6, 120 provincial distribution of, 25, 51–54, 57, 74 psychological trauma of, 20, 40, 42 as push factor, 29 “famine era” group, 26 fear of penal system, 98–99, 115 as push factor, 30, 30t in refugees, 36, 37t, 38t, 39 female refugees food access, 54n forced abortions, 28, 29, 40–41, 96 number of, 20–21, 21n psychological state, 36, 37t–39t, 39 trafficking of, 19, 33–36, 39, 42, 152 vulnerability of, 19–20, 35–36, 39 finance, international, 132–34 fiscal reform, 63–64, 121, 124–25 food access allocation system (See public distribution system) as basic human right, 126 household, 50–55, 52f, 53f in postreform era, 66, 66f food aid, 6, 129 corruption and, 7, 46 as loans, 137 perceptions of, 40, 42, 56t–57t, 56–58 role of, 55–58 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 4n food economy, 47–58 food shortages. See famine forced starvation, 82, 88, 97t, 97–98, 142 foreign direct investment, 132–37 foreign sources of information, access to, 11, 112–14, 114f, 116, 143–45, 154

INDEX 177 © Peterson Institute for International Economics | www.piie.com

Foundation for North Korean Defectors, 161n future aspirations of refugees, 107–109 gender distribution. See also female refugees; male refugees food access, 54n of psychological disorders, 36, 37t–39t, 39, 42 in refugee surveys, 20–21, 21n general markets (jangmadang), 10 global economy, 126–27 Good Friends’ Research Institute on North Korean Society, 4n government accountability, 116, 145 government officials corruption (See corruption) political attitudes of, 111 private business activities of, 58–59, 61, 70, 72t grain as food aid, 129 price of, 63 private trading in, 9–10 Great Leader (Kim Il-sung), 12 Great Leap famine (China), 74 group punishment, 87 Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, 136 habeas corpus, 94 hard labor, 88, 89 household consumption, role of market in, 47–58 household earnings, from private business activities, 58–62, 60f, 62f hukou (residence permit), 33 humanitarian assistance, 127–29, 128f. See also food aid basic principles, 142–43 policy recommendations, 119, 142–43, 155–57 human rights agenda, 119, 138–55 food access, 127 penal system, 142 policy matrix, 140t–141t United States, 153–56 Human Rights Watch, 29, 142 Hyundai Asan corruption trials, 131n Hyun In-taek, 2b ID card (shenfenzheng), 33 ideology, 12, 124–25 incarceration. See also penal system; prisoners

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after repatriation, 27–28, 82, 91 for economic activity, 99 of family members, 87, 142 incidence of, 40 length of, 95, 96t political attitudes and, 111 psychological distress and, 42 for standard criminal offenses, 88–89 income perceived pathways to, 75–77, 76f from private business activities, 58–62, 60f, 62f “indirect” engagement policies, 140t–141t, 145–46 industrialization, 25 industrial parks, 135 infanticide, 28, 41, 96, 97t, 97–98 inflation, 9 information about China, sources of, 32, 32n access to, 11, 112–14, 114f, 116, 143–45, 154 information cascades, 101, 109 infrastructure development, 134–35 institutional reforms, 127 Inter-Korean Exchange Fund, 153 internal movement, government control of, 7, 86 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 142 international community, 125–38 development assistance, 128f, 129–32 humanitarian assistance, 127–29, 128f (See also food aid) private sector involvement, 128f, 134–38 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 3, 142, 146n International Finance Corporation, 133 International Labor Organization, 142 interviews, 4–5, 17 investment, foreign direct, 132–37 jangmadang (general markets), 10 jip-kyul-so. See “collection centers” Juche (national ideology), 12 Kaesong Industrial Complex, 12, 131, 135, 145 Kang Chol-hwan, 4 Kim Dae-jung, 5, 131, 152 Kim Il-sung, 5, 12 Kim Jong-il, 5, 12, 157 as Dear Leader, 12, 111 on economic reforms, 64n military support for, 14 Kim Jong-un, 11


Kim Kyong-hui, 10 Kim Yong-il, 10n, 10–11 Korea Ex-Im Bank, 132 Korean Institute of National Unification, 89 Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization, 134 Korean unification, attitudes toward, 109, 110f, 116 Korean War, prisoners of war from, 143 Korean Workers’ Party, 9, 13 Korea Trade Investment Promotion Agency, 132 kwan-li-so. See political prison camps kyo-hwa-so. See correctional centers; penitentiaries labor colonies. See political prison camps labor standards, 136, 145–46 labor training centers (ro-dong-dan-ryeondae), 82, 89–91, 92t abuse in, 97t, 97–98 human rights issues, 142 legal process and, 95 length of imprisonment in, 95, 96t labor training sentence, 91 Lee Myung-bak, 131, 152 legal risks of emigration, 3, 27–29, 149 LiNK, 153 living standards, as push factor, 146 loyalty to regime, 117 male refugees food access, 54n number of, 20–21 psychological state, 36, 37t–39t, 39 market creep, 46 marketization from below, 5–8, 45–79. See also private business activities food economy, 47–58, 120 household earnings, 58–62 reforms (See economic reform) social changes and, 75–77, 76f, 79, 102 state response to, 8–12, 81, 102, 120–21 market syndrome, 117, 123 market traders, age restrictions on, 10 marriage brokers, 35 medical experiments, 41n, 97–98 memoirs, 4, 17 Mexico, 148 microeconomic reforms, 63–64 militarization, 13–14 military-first politics (Songun), 14, 77n military personnel food aid to, 57t, 57–58

likelihood of arrest, 94n social advancement of, 77n missile program, 13–14, 130 missionaries, 34 Mt. Kumgang tourism project, 12, 135 Mt. Paekdu tourism venture, 136 multilateral cooperation, 132–34 Muntarbhorn, Vitit, 127, 139 National Defense Commission (NDC), 122 National Endowment for Democracy, 153 national ideology (Juche), 12 National Security Agency (NSA), 29, 87, 91, 93 national values, economic reforms and, 74–75, 75f necessity entrepreneurship, 46 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 127, 143n, 153 Northeast Asian Development Bank, 133 North Korea, lack of data on, 4, 4n North Korean Freedom Act of 2003, 154 North Korean Freedom Coalition, 153 North Korean Human Rights Act (NKHRA), 145, 153–55 North Korean population “direct” engagement policies, 138–45 economic reform and, 74–75, 75f educational attainment, 21t, 21–22 food access, 54–55, 55f income from private business activities, 61–62, 62f political attitudes, 106, 107f political attitudes of, 112, 113f survey inferences about, 162–63 North-South summit (2000), 5, 65 nuclear crisis first (1992-94), 13 second (2002), 5, 8, 121 nuclear tests, 13–14, 130 nullum crimen sine lege (no crime without law), 85n, 94 number of refugees, 2b occupational status assessment of well-being and, 73n generational mobility in, 22–24 likelihood of arrest and, 94n political attitudes by, 111 private business activities and, 58–59, 61, 70, 72t psychological health and, 41–42 in refugees, 22–24, 23t official social status (seong bun), 15


opportunity entrepreneurship, 46 Orascom, 132 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 136, 145 output, composition of, 126 Pak Tok-hun, 139 Park Nam-ki, 9, 10, 10n party officials corruption (See corruption) political attitudes of, 111 private business activities of, 58–59, 61, 70, 72t PDS. See public distribution system penal code on border crossing, 11, 27, 29, 91, 98 crime categories, 89, 90t economic versus political refugees, 29 2004 reforms of, 82, 85n, 86, 94–95 penal system, 13, 86–93. See also incarceration; prisoners; specific type of prison corruption in, 82–83, 95, 99 human rights issues, 142 institutionalization of repression, 98–99, 115 nature of punishment, 94–98 overview of, 91, 92t repatriation, 27–28 penitentiaries (kyo-hwa-so), 91, 92t abuse in, 97t, 97–98 human rights issues, 142 legal process and, 95 length of imprisonment in, 95, 96t People’s Life Bonds, 64, 64n People’s Security Agency (PSA), 88, 88n, 93 People’s Security Ministry, 88n personal aspirations, 107–109 planning system, market opportunities and, 84–85 political attitudes, 16, 101–17 access to information and, 112–14, 116, 145 age and, 111 communication of, 109–12, 116 currency reform and, 123 by date of exit, 103–105 forms of resistance, 112–15 incarceration and, 111 national sample, 112, 113f by occupational status, 111 perceptions of regime performance, 103–106, 104f, 105f political stability and, 124

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private business activities and, 111 provincial distribution of, 106n, 111 by social class, 105–106, 115–16 social surveillance and, 101–102, 115 survey inferences and, 163 by time abroad, 106 political conditions, as push factor, 30t, 30–31, 103–104 political economy, 5–15 of economic reforms, 46, 62–65, 79 future direction of, 120–25 political freedoms, absence of, 12–13 political offenders, classification as, 28 political police (bo-wi-bu), 31, 87 political prison camps (kwan-li-so), 13, 82, 86–87 abuse in, 97t, 97–98 hard labor in, 89 human rights issues, 142 legal process and, 95 length of imprisonment in, 95, 96t overview of, 92t repatriated refugees in, 91 political system, features of, 12–15 postfamine era group, 26, 104–105 postreform group, 16, 26 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 19, 36 preference falsification, 101 pregnant women, forced abortions, 28, 29, 40–41, 96 prereform group, 16, 26 pretrial agent, 94 price levels, economic reforms and, 9, 63 principal-agent relationships, market opportunities and, 84–85 prisoners. See also incarceration; penal system abuse of, 82–83, 87, 97t, 97–98 medical experiments on, 41n, 97–98 political, 13 private business activities, 6. See also marketization from below criminalization of, 83–86, 84f, 98–99 engagement in, 59, 59t household earnings from, 58–62, 60f, 62f income from, 58–62, 59t, 60f, 62f political attitudes and, 111 in postreform era, 66–68, 67f in prereform era, 45–46, 48–50 work unit classification and, 58–59, 61, 70, 72t private lending, 136–37 private sector involvement, from


international community, 128f, 134–38 propaganda, 101–102, 116, 143 prostitution, 35, 39 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 148 provincial distribution food shortages, 25, 51–54, 57, 74 political attitudes, 106n, 111 private business activities, 61, 61n, 74 refugees, 24t, 24–25, 162–63 resettlement preference and, 108n psychological distress, 3, 19–20, 36–41 employment and, 43 family members and, 40, 40t famine-related, 20, 40, 42 gender distribution, 36, 37t–39t, 39, 42 incidence of, 36, 38t indicators of, 36, 37t modeling, 41–42 reasons for, 39, 39t, 41–42 public distribution system (PDS), 6, 47–48, 49f collapse of, 7, 45, 47, 48–54, 50f consumer goods, 58 economic reforms and, 63 reinstatement of, 9–10 public-sector initiatives, from South Korea, 132 pull factors, 27, 31–32 punishment, nature of, 94–98. See also penal system push factors, 27, 29–31, 30t, 103–104, 146 questionnaires, 159 racial purity, 28 rape, 39 rationing system. See public distribution system reeducation centers (kyo-hwa-so), 88–89 reform era group, 26 1951 Refugee Convention, 28, 35, 146n, 146–49, 151 “refugee flood” argument, 150–51 refugees sur place, 35, 146–47 refugee status, 3, 29, 146–47, 147n refugee surveys caveats, 17 China, 160 (See also China, refugees in) demographic profile, 20–27, 162–63 implementation and methods, 159–61 inferences, 162–63 sample characteristics, 15–16

South Korea, 161 (See also South Korea, refugees in) subsamples, 16, 26 regime performance, perceptions of, 103–106, 104f, 105f regional economic initiatives, 132, 133 religious freedom, as push factor, 30t, 31 repatriation from China, 28, 35, 93, 149 fear of, 39, 39t incarceration after, 27–28, 82, 91 legal prohibition of, 149 motivations for, 35, 42–43 risk of, 93 repression, institutionalization of, 98–99, 115 resettlement preferences, 34–35, 42–43, 107–109, 108f, 151 residence permit (hukou), 33 resistance, forms of, 112–15 “responsibility to protect” doctrine, 144 retrenchment era group, 26, 105 ro-dong-dan-ryeon-dae. See labor training centers Roh Moo-hyun, 152 self-reliance (Juche), 12 songbun (official social status), 15 services sector, 126 shenfenzheng (ID card), 33 Six Party Talks, 14, 133, 155–57 social changes, 75–77, 76f, 79, 102, 122 social classes, 12, 25n, 25–26 assessment of well-being and, 73n food rationing and, 48 perceived pathways to, 75–77, 76f political attitudes by, 105–106, 115–16 socialist social contract, collapse of, 102, 122, 124 Social Safety Agency, 88n social surveillance, 101–102, 115 Songun (military-first politics), 14, 77n South Korea humanitarian assistance from, 131–32, 137 policy on refugees, 152–53 refugees in abused as prisoners, 97t, 97–98 access to foreign media, 112–14, 114f, 116 acculturation of, 3, 152 assistance for, 152 on criminalization of economic activity, 84, 84f


demographic profile, 20–27, 162–63 on economic reforms, 66, 67f, 68, 69f, 70, 71t, 72t, 77, 78t on food access, 50–51, 52f, 53f, 55f food aid perceptions, 56t–57t, 56–58 “four era” periodization, 26 future aspirations, 107–109 household earnings, 58 length of imprisonment, 96t length of time in South Korea, 27 on marketization from below, 47 occupational status, 22n, 22–24, 23t perceptions of socialist system, 47 political attitudes, 105f, 105–106, 107f political communication, 110–11 private business activities, 59t, 59–61, 60f provincial distribution, 162–63 push factors, 29–31, 30t resettlement preferences, 107–109, 108f on social changes, 75–77, 76f surveys (See refugee surveys) trade with, 8 Soviet Union dissolution of, 5, 45, 120 refugee surveys, 17, 17n special economic zones, 135 “speed-battle” mobilization campaigns, 10 state development bank, 130 state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 45, 58–59 economic reforms and, 63, 70, 71t, 74 Sullivan Principles, 145–46 Sunshine Policy (South Korea), 152 Supreme People’s Assembly, 122 surveillance border, 29 social, 101–102, 115 surveys. See refugee surveys taxation, 64, 64n, 132 technical assistance, 133 third countries, on-migration via, 2b, 21, 33, 34–35, 43 time abroad, 26–27, 33, 33t, 43–44, 106 torture, 13, 82, 87, 97t, 97–98 trade with China, 8 international, 126–27 with South Korea, 8 state control of, 11 trafficking executions for, 11, 29 fear of, 39, 39t

182

of women, 19, 33–36, 42, 152 transactions tax, 64, 64n Transparency International, 130–31 transportation sector, 134–35 treatment effect, 16 trust in society, 115, 123 Tumen River project, 134 unification of Korean peninsula, attitudes toward, 109, 110f, 116 United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 133 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 142 Council on Human Rights, 148n Development Program, 133 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 4n High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 28, 147 Human Rights Committee, 148n Security Council, 130, 144 special rapporteur for human rights, 139 special rapporteur on food and hunger, 143 Working Group on Arbitrary Imprisonment, 142 World Food Program (WFP), 4n, 7, 55, 127, 129, 143n United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 55n diplomatic relations with North Korea, 156 food aid from, 129 policy on refugees, 153–56 political relations with, 13–14 resettlement in, 107–109, 108f, 150, 154–55 Universal Periodic Review, 144 wages, 33–34, 63 well-being assessment of, 73–75, 75f perceived pathways to, 75–77, 76f women. See female refugees work unit classification. See occupational status World Bank, 130–31, 133 World Food Program (WFP), 4n, 7, 55, 127, 129, 143n World Health Organization, 133 World Trade Organization, 133
