Nutrient management strategies for sustainable ...

Current Advances in Agricultural Sciences 6(2): 103-114 (December 2014) DOI :10.5958/2394-4471.2014.00001.X

Print ISSN 0975-2315 Online ISSN 2394-4471

Nutrient management strategies for sustainable forage production: A review SUNIL KUMAR*, DR PALSANIYA, T KIRAN KUMAR and SUCHIT K RAI Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi–284 003 (Uttar Pradesh), India *Email of corresponding author: [email protected] Received: 21 April 2014; Revised accepted: 30 November 2014

ABSTRACT Adequate supply of quality forage is the basic necessity for sustainable livestock production. In India, supply of forage has always been a limiting factor for enhancing livestock production. The gap in feed and forage supply, however, can effectively be reduced through integrated crop management practices with greater emphasis on nutrient management in forage crops. Due to region, season and specific nature of forages nutrient management is dynamic in nature. The paper reviews different nutrient management aspects in annual and perennial cultivated forage crops, range grasses and legumes, forage-based intercropping and cropping systems and rotations. Downloaded From IP - 14.139.60.34 on dated 5-Apr-2017

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Key words: Cropping systems, Forage crops, Nutrient management, Soil health

The productivity of Indian livestock is very low and the availability of quality forage has been considered as the major bottleneck in harnessing the potential of the livestock sector (Palsaniya et al., 2011; Palsaniya and Dhyani, 2012). At present, the country faces regional and national deficit of green fodder, dry crop residues and feeds and the projections show a further demand increase by 2025 due to changing food habits and more dietary reliance on livestock and its products (IGFRI Vision 2025). One of the critical approaches to bridge this gap is integrated crop management practice which largely focuses on input management, especially nutrients and water (IGFRI Vision 2050; Kumar et al., 2012). Since agriculture is a soil-based production system that extracts nutrients from the soil, efficient approaches for replenishment of mined nutrients to the soil will be required in order to enhance and sustain agricultural productivity (Palsaniya and Ahlawat, 2009). Proper nutrient management strategies for forage crops should be given priority for quality forage producti on to sustain the livestock production and productivity (Kumar and Faruqui, 2010; Kumar et al., 2012). The nutrient management practices in fodder crops are different from that in food and other crops. The end product or economic part in forage crops is foliage which largely affects the nutrient management practices for these crops. Further, nutrient management in forage crops also governed by cutting regimes, soil type, availability of water for irrigation, plant density, etc. Nutrient management research on forage crops has received considerable attention since last two-three decades. The nutrient management strategies in forage crops aim at increasing herbage yield per unit area per unit time and also insure improved quality of forages for healthy and productive livestock (Menhi Lal and Tripathi, 1987). A great deal of work on different aspects of nutrient management in cultivated crops and range grasses and legumes has been

carried out by several workers in individual crops and cropping systems in varied farming situations and across the regions.

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT IN ANNUAL FORAGE CROPS The predominantly grown annual forage crops are sorghum, pearlmillet, maize, cowpea, oat, berseem and lucerne.

Sorghum Sorghum [Sorghum b icolo r (L.) Mo ench] i s predominantly grown for grain as wells as fodder in different parts of the country and is one of the widely grown forage crop with good nutritive value for animals. The nutrient management practices in fodder sorghum has widely been described by various workers (Sharma and Agrawal, 2003; Ammaji and Suryanarayana, 2003; Reddy et al., 2003; Shivadhar et al., 2005; Ganai et al., 2010, Yadav et al., 2010, Meena et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2013). Forage sorghum responded well to applied N in range of 40 – 120 kg ha-1 or producing significantly higher green forage, dry matter and crude protein (Patel et al. 1992; Sood and Sharma 1992; Vashishatha and Dwivedi 1997; Ram and Singh 2001a, 2001b; Reddy et al., 2003; Ammaji and Suryanarayana, 2003; Shivadhar et al., 2005; Meena et al., 2012). Shivadhar et al. (2005) while working at IGFRI, Jhansi reported that green fodder, dry matter yield and crude protein yields of sorghum increased with Nitrogen level from 40 to 80 kg ha-1 . Further, increase in nitrogen levels did not increase the values of these parameters significantly except crude protein yield, which increased significantly Up to 120 kg N ha-1. Taneja et al. (1983) reported significant response of sorghum up to 90 kg N ha-1 for green fodder and dry matter yields while Ammaji and Suryanarayana, 2003 observed significant increase in these parameters up to 120 kg N ha-1. Similarly, application of 120 kg N ha-1 produced significantly higher green forage, dry matter

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Meena et al. (2012) also reported that application of 120 kg N ha-1 recorded 19.7, 7.9 and 20, 8.7 (green and dry fodder) 23.6, 9.1 and 13.9, 4.8 per cent (net return and B:C ratio) higher over 40 and 80 kg N ha-1 , respectively and HCN content was high at 30 days after sowing. Nitrogen is the main constituent of amino acids and proteins in plants and the increase in crude protein content was observed with increase in nitrogen levels (Raju et al., 1997). Crude fibre content was successively decreased by increasing levels of N (Patel et al., 1994). The highest crude protein yield (14.37 q ha-1) and digestible dry matter (63.35 q ha-1) were also recorded with 150 per cent recommended dose of fertilizer which were significantly higher than lower fertility levels (Rana et al., 2012). The statistically highest green forage, dry matter and crude protein yields were obtained with application of nitrogen in three splits ie, 1/3 at basal + 1/3 at 30 DAS + 1/3 after first cut (Bhilare et al., 2002).

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and crude protein yields over 30, 60 and 90 kg N ha-1 in another study at MPKV, Rahuri. Singh et al. (2013) reported that Nitrogen application @ 100 kg ha-1 produced significantly highest green fodder yield (495.11 q ha-1) which was statistically similar to 80 kg kg ha-1 (462 q ha-1). Crude protein content was also increased due to an increase in nitrogen level. However, increase in nitrogen level decreased the crude fibre, total digestible nutrient (TDN) and nitrogen free extract (NFE) percentage (Table 1).

The P application is also essential for maintaining the soil health to sustain the productivity level over a longer period. Placement of P fertilizers in the soil, before sowing or broadcast and incorporation into soil during the land preparation was recommended and the total quantity is applied at a time. Patel and Kotecha (2008) found that application of 40 and 80 kg P ha1 increased dry matter yield of forage sorghum by 8.5 and 12.4%, respectively over the control at Anand (Gujarat). In another study, Shukla et al. (1973) reported that young sorghum crop (30-40 days) developed HCN toxicity to animals. This can be reduced to safer limit of application of P @ 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 50% available soil moisture (ASM) to field capacity. Sharma and Agrawal (2003) while working at Jhansi reported that application of NPK (90:40:30) kg ha-1 under semi-arid conditions significantly increased green fodder (62.1 t ha-1), dry matter (12.74 t ha-1) and crude protein yield (0.8 t ha-1) in forage sorghum (Table 2). Sulfur (S) application increased crude protein, sugars, methionine, S:P ratio, and S:Zn ratio (Tripathi et al., 1992a) and decreased NDF, ADF, N:S ratio and Ca:P ratio up to 40 kg S ha1 (Tripathi et al., 1992b). Ammonium sulphate application @ 40

Table 2. Green and dry fodder yield and crude protein yield of sorghum as affected by primary nutrients (mean of 2 years) Treatment

Green fodder yield ( t ha -1) N0P0K0 30.1 N30P20K10 40.8 N60P30K20 54.6 N90P40K30 62.1 SEm± 1.3 CD (P=0.05) 2.6 Source: Sharma and Agrawal, 2003

Dry fodder yield (t ha-1) 6.51 8.77 11.67 12.74 0.28 0.57

Crude protein yield (kg ha-1) 396.7 542.1 726.6 804.6 18.1 36.9

kg S ha-1 was significantly superior to elemental sulphur and pyrite at 60 kg S ha-1 with respect to forage yield, P and S contents in crop plants and ammonium sulphate was the best source and gave the highest forage yield and uptake of nutrients (Tripathi et al., 1992b). In moisture stress condition, sorghum gro wn o n S defi cient so il was found to have excess concentration of HCN. Application of S @ 30 kg ha-1 is most advantageous in preventing and reducing toxic effect of HCN on animal (Singh, 1992). The optimum N:S ratio for ruminants is considered to be 10:1 or less. No much difference was observed among the sources of S in terms of its effect on sugar content while ammonium sulphate was significantly superior to pyrite and elemental sulphur in methionine content. In general, the NDF and ADF content of fodder sorghum decreased and cellulose content increased with S addition (Tripathi et al., 1992). Application of biofertilizers Azospirillum lipoferum (Pahwa, 1986) or Azotobacter (Patel et al., 1992; Reddy et al., 2003) to sorghum resulted in significant increase in dry matter production than without Azospirillum or Azotobacter. The rhizosphere was enriched with N, and resulted in a saving of 15 kg N ha-1. Seed inoculation with Azospirillum culture recorded 15.5, 16 and 7.7% higher green fodder, dry matter and crude protein yield over uninoculated control. Moreover, the seed inoculation alongwith 100 kg N ha-1 produced as good yield as recorded from 150 kg N ha-1 alone (Agrawal et al., 2005). The green fodder and dry matter yields were increased by 2.9 and 11.2%, respectively, due to Azospirillum bacterization over uninoculated treatments. Similarly, protein and DDM yield increased by 14.9 and 1.9%, respectively due to inoculation over un-inoculated (Gupta et al., 2007). The nutrient requirement of sorghum grown for fodder is quite high which is mainly supplemented through inorganic fertilizers and partially through organic sources. The integration of organic and inorganic sources may help in minimizing the

Table 1. Effect of nitrogen levels on fodder quality parameters of sorghum at harvest Nitrogen levels (kg ha -1) Crude protein (%) 40 6.43 60 7.12 80 7.72 100 8.34 SEm± 0.07 CD (P=0.05) 0.20 Source: Singh et al. (2013)

Crude fibre (%) 32.70 32.29 31.40 30.94 0.24 0.69

Ether extract (%) 1.665 1.715 1.757 1.809 0.019 0.054

Mineral Ash (%) 7.29 7.44 7.80 8.30 0.12 0.36

TDN (%) 57.02 56.90 56.67 56.36 0.08 0.24

NFE (%) 51.91 51.44 51.32 50.61 0.29 0.85

cost of chemical fertilizers, improve crop performance and soil fertility (Swarup, 1998). Exclusive use of chemical fertilizers may lead to stagnation or decline in productivity owing to emerging deficiency of other nutrients and degradation of soil biophysical conditions. Plant height, number of leaves, stem girth, leaf area, dry matter accumulation, green fodder yield of sorghum increased significantly with increasing doses of FYM and N and inoculation with Azospirillum brasilence (Kumar and Sharma, 1999 and Porwal and Singh, 1989). At Anand, Yadav et al. (2007) observed that application of 75 kg N through urea + 25 kg N ha-1 through farm yard manure (FYM) increased drymatter yield and crude-protein yield of sorghum by 18.6 and 20.%, respectively over application of 100 kg N ha-1 through urea. Gangwar and Niranjan (1991) obtained 71.66 and 36.7% increase in dry matter yield of sorghum with of 60kg N+13 kg P205 and 6 t FYM ha-1, respectively, under rainfed condition at Jhansi. Similarly Kumar et al. (2005) reported that application of vermicompost and FYM @ 5 t ha-1 to sorghum recorded higher NP uptake than the other levels with inorganic sources only except the 100% recommended dose of NP. Application of 50% recommended dose of NPK (40 : 20 : 0) + vermicompost 5 t ha-1 + FYM 5 t ha-1 gave significantly higher green fodder, dry matter and crude protein yields and higher benefit cost ratio in sorghum than other treatments (Kumar et al., 2004). Yadav et al. (2010) reported that application of 75 kg N ha-1 through chemical fertilizer + 25 kg N ha-1 through FYM or castor cake along with the combined inoculation with Azotobacter chroococcum (ABA-1) + Azospirillum lipoferum (ASA-1) recorded significantly higher green forage yield and crude protein content of forage sorghum in sandy loam soils under middle Gujarat agro-climatic conditions. Tripathi et al. (2007) while working at Jhansi (Table 3) reported that application of sulphur (40 kg ha-1), Zn (20 kg ha-1) and Mn (10 kg ha-1) along with recommended NPK to sorghum gave significantly higher yield by 16.5% (dry fodder) over NPK alone (32.52 t ha-1 green and 8.48 t ha-1 dry fodder). In most of the Zn deficient situations, the increase ranged from 12-27% with the application Zn. However, the combined application of Zn with gypsum + FYM further added 45% yield over Zn application alone.




KUMAR et al. - NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE FORAGE PRODUCTION

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Pearlmillet Pearlmillet is a [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] warmseason cereal crop of rainfed region. It is not only important as a grain crop, but is an indispensable source of green and dry fodder/stover in dry tracts of South-West Haryana, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Fodder pearl millet responded positively to the applied N up to 120 kg ha-1 for forage production (Randhawa et al., 1989; Sharma et al., 1996; Yadava and Solanki, 2002). Increase in N application improved the plant height, tillers plant1 and stover production (Singh, 1985). The maximum plant height (239.2 cm), number of tillers (31.7), green fodder yield (376.0 q ha-1) and dry matter yield (108.9 q ha-1) were obtained with 90 kg N ha-1 which were significantly superior over lower levels (0, 30 and 60 kg) of nitrogen (Singh et al., 2012). Application of 100 kg N ha-1 in pearl millet increased the green fodder yield (29.2, 19.5 and 10.9%), dry matter yield (21.5, 16.0 and 8.7%) over 25, 50 and 75 kg N ha-1, respectively (Puri and Tiwana, 2005). Yadava and Solanki (2002) reported that application of nitrogen up to 120 kg ha-1 significantly increased green fodder yield of pearlmillet, representing 174.20, 41.12 and 19.9% increase over control, 40 and 80 kg N ha-1, respectively. In terms of dry matter production, significant increase was recorded only up to 80 kg N ha-1. Tiwana et al. (2003) while working at Ludhiana reported that in multicut fodder pearlmillet, each increment of nitrogen (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 kg N ha-1) increased the green fodder yield up to 100 kg N ha-1 cut-1. The magnitude of increase with 100 kg N ha-1 cut-1 was 105.2, 46.5, 16.4 and 7.8% in green fodder, and 108.4, 55.2, 30.4 and 14.6% in dry matter yield over 0, 25, 50 and 75 kg N ha-1 cut-1, respectively. Crude protein, crude fat, mineral matter and nitrogen free extract increased but crude fibre content decreased with increase in nitrogen levels up to 100 kg N ha-1 cut-1. Nitrate nitrogen content increased with increase in nitrogen levels up to 100 kg N ha-1 cut-1 (1363 ppm) but was within safe limits. Application of nitrogen in three splits recorded highest green fodder yield (262.96 q ha-1) and the dry matter production (57.99 q ha-1). N application also improved the forage quality parameters (Table 4).

Table 3. Effect of S + micronutrients application on forage yield (q ha-1) and some important fodder quality parameters (based on 3 years data) Treatment T1: Control-NPK T2: S T3: S+Zn T4: S+Zn+Mn T5: S+Zn+Mn+Cu T6: S+Zn+Mn+Cu+Mo Mean % increased over control CD (P=0.05)

Green (dry) forage yield (q ha -1) 325.2 (84.7) 345.7 (91.3) 358.8 (95.5) 375.9 (98.7) 379.9 (100.5) 380.1 (99.8) 360.9 (95.1)

Crude protein (%) 8.8 9.3 9.4 9.8 9.8 9.9 9.6 +9.5

NDF (%) 71.9 71.4 70.8 71.1 70.9 70.9 71.0 -2.0

ADF (%) 44.4 44.2 43.6 43.9 43.9 43.7 43.9 -2.0

IVD (%) 45.4 46.9 47.9 47.4 47.8 47.7 47.5 +4.6

N:S ratio 12.0 9.1 8.6 8.3 8.1 8.2 8.5 +29.5

15.2 (3.2)

Table 4. Response of forage pearl millet to N application Nitrogen GFY DFY (kg ha -1 ) (t ha -1) (t ha -1 ) 0 38.3 8.5 50 53.3 12.1 100 63.6 14.0 150 62.4 14.7 CD (P=0.05) 5.1 1.4 Source: Randhawa et al. (1989)

Plant height (cm) 230 253 265 266

Number of tillers m-1 19.2 18.1 20 18.6

Leaf to stem ratio 0.69 0.64 0.58 0.55

Crude protein (%) 5.3 6.2 7.1 7.6

Mineral matter (%) 8.7 8.0 9.9 11.5 1.28

Ether extract 1.30 1.31 1.39 1.44

Crude fibre (%) 32.1 30.1 26.4 22.4

NFE (%) 55.4 55.2 55.5 57.2


Pearlmillet responded more to applied P and produced higher green and dry fodder yield than sorghum, maize, cowpea or cluster bean (Ram et al., 1988). Phosphorus application at 50 kg P2O5 ha-1 increased the green fodder and dry matter yield (669.7 and 171.9 q ha-1) significantly over 0 (486.8 and 121.6 q ha-1) and 25 kg P2O5 ha-1 (594 and 151 q ha-1). Phosphorus application also improved the quality parameters (crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, mineral matter and nitrogen free extract) of multicut pearl millet (Tiwana et al., 2003). Phosphorus application up to 50 kg ha-1 significantly increased the crude protein and ash content and their fodder at the three cuts. Whereas, nitrogen free extract in fodder at all the cuts was decreased significantly (Chaurasia et al., 2006). Sheta et al. (2009) reported that the green and dry forage yields of pearl millet were significantly influenced by application of K (40 kg K2O ha-1: 50% as basal and remaining in two equal splits after first and second cuts) and S (40 kg ha-1). Application of FYM @ 10 t ha-1 to pearlmillet significantly enhanced total green forage and dry matter yield. Inoculation of pearl millet seed with biofertilizer significantly increased the yield over without inoculation (Golada et al., 2010). Application of farm yard manure in combination with biofertilizer (Azospirillum + PSB) to pearlmillet showed significant increase in growth parameters in terms of plant height (150.3 and 175.2 cm), number of leaves per plant (455.5 leaves in hybrid and 77.9 leaves in composite), tiller thickness (4.38 in hybrids and 5.16 in composites) and highest green fodder yield of 70.7 t ha-1 in hybrids and 87.2 t ha-1 in composites when compared to control with 54 t ha-1 in hybrids and 67.3 t ha-1 in composites (Basanthi et al., 2012a). Application of 20 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 as basal and 10 kg ZnSO4 as basal + 0.5% as foliar spray at 30 days after sowing of the crop produced significantly superior earhead, grain and fodder yields (fresh and dry) of pearlmillet than without zinc treatment (Kumar et al., 2012).




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Maize Maize (Zea mays L.) responded well to applied N in range of 80 to 160 kg ha-1 for producing significantly higher green forage, dry matter and crude protein (Taneja et al., 1983, Joshi and Kumar, 2007). Application of 80 kg N ha-1 significantly increased the green and dry matter yield of maize (Taneja et al., 1983). In another study at Ludhiana, application of 150 kg N ha1 produced higher seed yield over 90 and 120 kg N ha-1. Protein content in forage maize also significantly increased with each successive dose of nitrogen up to the highest level of 150 kg ha-1 (Singh et al., 2008). Increase in nitrogen level from 0 to 120 kg ha-1 recorded significantly higher green fodder yield than other levels of nitrogen. However, dry matter, crude protein and digestible dry matter yield increased up to 160 kg N ha-1 (Joshi and Kumar, 2007). Application of recommended dose of fertilizer (150:75:50 kg NPK ha-1) coupled with FYM @ 10 t ha-1 increased green and dry fodder yield of maize (Manoharan and Subramanian, 1993; Mishra et al., 1995; Sharma and Singh, 1996; Nanjundappa et al., 2000). In another study at PAU, Ludhiana maize fertilized with 25 t FYM ha-1 and 100 kg N ha-1 produced palatable and nutritious fodder in large quantities (Puri and Tiwana, 2008).

At Srinagar (J&K), Mahdi et al. (2010) reported that soil application of ZnSO4 at 10 kg ha-1 recorded discernible increase in green, dry fodder over no application of ZnSO4. Gross and net returns were realized higher with treatment combination N120 S80 Z10 , whereas benefit: cost ratio was highest with N120S60Z10 and N120S80 Z10 . A pot culture study on balanced fertilization on fodder maize reveled that combined application of 60 mg P kg-1 soil and 30 mg S kg-1 soil recorded the maximum dry matter yield (47.30 g pot-1) clearly depicting the beneficial effect of balanced nutrition. The interactions between P and S were significant on concentration and uptake of P and S. The concentrations of Ni, Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu significantly decreased with increasing levels of applied P and S, whereas their uptake increased significantly up to 60 mg P kg-1 soil and 30 mg S kg-1 soil. The interactions of P x S were significant on uptake of N, Ni, Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu (Khin and Singh, 2007). At Anand, Patel et al. (2007) reported that application of 100% RDF + 10 t FYM ha-1 significantly increased the green forage, dry matter and crude protein yields of forage maize than other fertility levels. The soil application of 25 kg ZnSO4 gave significantly higher green forage, dry matter and crude protein yields than the control and foliar application of 0.5% ZnSO4 at 20 and 40 days after sowing. However, different zinc levels had non-significant effect on the dry matter and crude protein contents of forage maize. Hence, application of 100 per cent RDF alone without FYM and zinc reduced the dry matter and crude protein yields of forage maize grown in zinc deficient soils of middle Gujarat.

Cowpea Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) being leguminous crop, requires only starter dose of 15-25 kg N ha-1 and balance requirement (50-90%) is met through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Fifteen kg P2O5 per hectare was found to be optimum dose for maximum cowpea forage yield in economic sense and the regression equation Y=6.194+0.036X (R2=0.90) described the dependence of forage yield on phosphorus level (Jagadambi et al., 2002). However, Shekara et al. (2010) reported that application of 80 kg P2O5 ha-1 recorded significantly higher green fodder (572.2 q ha-1), dry matter (101.4 q ha-1), crude protein yield (14.1 q ha-1) and net monetary returns (` 27115 ha-1). At Allahabad, Abraham and Lal (2002) reported that organic manure application significantly increased the yield over no manure application and biofertilizer and organic sprayhelped increasing the DMP (dry matter production), over no biofertilizer application. A positive interaction between the different forms of nutrient carriers entails the exploitation of potentials through INM for legume based cropping systems. Phosphorus application along with Rhizobium inoculation increased the nodule number and dry weight of nodules/plant.

Oat Oat (Avena sativa L.) is an important winter season crop widely grown for green fodder because of its luxuriant growth, good palatability and highly nutritious nature. The nutrient requirement of oat is comparatively higher over other rabi fodder crops. The importance of N fertilization to maintain higher forage production potential in oats has been documented by


To meet out the fodder demand higher doses of inorganic fertilizers are required which is uneconomical for fodder production and indiscriminate and continuous use of high amount of chemical fertilizers had deleterious effect leading to decline in productivity due to limitation of one or more micronutrients. Godara et al. (2012) reported that higher green herbage, dry matter yield and quality of oat can be obtained with integration of either vermi-compost @ 5 t ha-1 or FYM @ 10 t ha-1 and Azotobacter with 75% of recommended dose of fertilizer (100% RDF – N80 P40) resulted in saving of 25% chemical fertilizer. At Coimbatore, Jayanthi et al. (2002) found that application of 50% recommended NPK (40: 20: 0 kg ha-1) fertilizer + vermicompost + FYM each at 5 t ha-1 recorded significantly higher yield of oats. Similarly, application of N @ 150 kg ha-1 alongwith 40 kg P ha-1 and dual inoculation of seed with Azotobacter chroococcum (N fixer) + Pseudomonas striata (phosphate solubiliser) in multi-cut fodder oat improved the vegetative growth. The positive response of sulphur on forage crops has been reported by Hazra and Tripathi (1998). Kumar and Shivadhar (2006), while a working at Jhansi observed that application of 50% recommended dose of NPK, 5 t ha-1 vermicompost and 5 t FYM ha-1 may be adopted for getting higher, sustainable and quality fodder from single cut oat under irrigated condition (Table 5).




Srivastava and Singh (1996). Oat (var. ‘JHO-822’) applied with 80 kg N ha-1 produced significantly more fodder yield, crude protein content and economics over control and 40 kg N ha-1 at Imphal (Luikham et al., 2012). Shukla and Lal (1994) obtained response of applied nitrogen up to 25 kg N ha-1 to oat grown under rainfed condition. Among sources of N, CAN was found better than Urea and FYM in acid soils (Tripathi and Mannikar, 1985). Neem/mahua coated urea gave better response with combined application of Urea and FYM on 50% N basis along with P application (Tripathi et.al., 1991). At Navasari (Gujarat), Patel et al. (2011) reported that Application of nitrogen in three equal splits (40+40+40) gave significantly higher seed (2.15 t ha-1) and straw (10.04 t ha-1) yields which were at par with three splits (60+30+30), whereas green fodder yield (12.26 t ha-1) was found significantly higher when nitrogen applied in two equal splits. Net returns (` 51,617 ha-1) and benefit: cost ratios (2.26) were increased when N was given in three equal splits.

Berseem Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) provides succulent,

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palatable and energy-rich nutritious forage to livestock. Being a leguminous crop it fulfils its major part of nitrogen requirement through root nodules by biological nitrogen fixation. Hence, adequate supply of phosphorus is necessary for proper root development and functioning of the nodules. Plant height, number of shoots plant-1, number of nodules plant-1, dry-root weight plant-1, N and P uptake, green forage, and the dry-matter and crude-protein yields increased significantly with increase in P level from 0 to 35.2 kg ha-1 (Mani and Singh, 1997). Under different fertilizer levels (50, 75 and 100% of recommended i.e. 25 kg N ha-1 + 75 kg P2O5 ha-1), the magnitude of increase with 100% of recommended fertilizer level was 9.7 and 5% in green fodder yield; and 11.4 and 4.8% in dry matter yield over 50 and 75% of recommended fertilizer levels, respectively. The crude protein content of berseem also increased from 18.1 to 22.3% with increase in fertilizer levels up to 100% of the recommended level (Tiwana and Puri, 2003). Mishra and Mukherjee (2002) reported that application of 50% recommended NPK dose + 2 t poultry manure ha-1 recorded the maximum plant growth, height and number of branches/plant, highest green forage yield in all the cuts and total of all the cuts in berseem followed by 100% recommended NPK dose. Berseem test weight and seed yield increased with each successive increase in the K level (0, 40 and 80 kg K2O ha-1). Potassium applications maintained a higher plant population during reproductive phase in general but application after the last cut was more effective than basal application (Mishra et al., 2012). Interaction studies of applied P and soil moisture indicated maximum response of 139 kg green and 30 kg dry fodder kg-1 P2O5 with application of 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 after 10 days interval of irrigation to berseem crop in medium P black soil (Mundhe and Shelke, 1991). Pahwa (1995) from Jhansi reported the added benefit of combined inoculation of Rhizobium trifolii (BJ 9) + Azospirillum brasilense-2) as well as R. trifolii + Azotobacter. Significantly higher nodule number (46 plant-1), green fodder (724.8 q ha-1), dry fodder (93.1 q ha-1) and crude protein yield (15.5 q ha-1 ) was obtained with Rhizobium + Azospirillum inoculation in presence of 20 kg N ha -1 as compared to uninoculated control. Application of 60 kg P ha-1, phosphate solubilising bacteria (Pseudomonas striata) and 11 t gypsum or 50 t FYM ha-1 or gypsum + FYM to berseem in highly sodic soils realized yields of 9.49, 1.74 and 31.89 t ha-1, respectively (Sharma and Agrawal, 2003). Application of 50% N through FYM and 50% NPK through inorganic fertilizer to berseem

Table 5. Yield, quality and economics of forage oat as influenced by organic and inorganic source of nutrients (pooled mean of three years) Treatment Control Vermicompost 10 t ha-1 FYM 10 t ha -1 100 % NPK 50 % NPK Vermicompost 5 t ha-1 FYM 5 t ha-1 50 % NPK + vermicompost 5 t ha-1 50 % NPK + FYM 5 t ha-1 50 % NPK + vermicompost 5 t ha-1 + FYM 5 t ha -1 CD (P=0.05)

Yield (q ha -1 ) Cost of cultivation Gross return Net return (` ha -1) (` ha -1) (` ha-1) Green fodder Dry matter Crude protein 21.7 4.7 3.8 6110 10850 4740 32.8 7.5 7.1 10096 16400 6304 31.1 7.0 6.4 8015 15550 7535 37.6 8.9 8.6 7225 18800 11575 33.0 7.4 6.6 6530 16650 10120 29.8 6.7 6.1 8270 14900 6630 26.3 5.8 5.3 7375 13150 5775 35.7 8.8 8.4 9279 17850 8571 35 8.6 8.5 7680 17500 9820 40.6 10.2 10.4 9488 20300 10812 4.5 1.1 0.6 1582 560

Benefit: cost ratio 0.78 0.62 0.94 1.60 1.55 0.80 0.78 0.92 1.28 1.14 0.04


proved economically viable as compared to 25% N through FYM and 50% NPK through inorganic fertilizer inoculated with Rhizobium (Kumar et al., 2007). Application of 20 kg N + 60 kg P + mixture of Rhizobium trifolii and phosphate solubilising bacteria (PSB) recorded highest green fodder (65.45 t ha-1), dry matter yield (16.98 t ha-1) and protein content (19.7%) of berseem (Meena and Mann, 2006). At Jhansi, considering the yield and economics, application of 50% N through FYM and rest 50% NPK through inorganic fertilizer to berseem proved to be economically viable as compared to 100% NPK through fertilizer (Kumar et al., 2007). Basanthi et al. (2012b) reported that farm yard manure + Rhizobium + phosphate solubilizing bacteria + Azospirillium resulted in maximum fresh forage yield (16780 kg ha-1), maximum length of head (2.7 cm), maximum number of flowers per head (83 flowers/ head) and maximum seed yield (387.2 kg ha-1). Plant growth parameters and green forage yield of berseem was significantly enhanced with increase in the dose of sulphur up to 40 kg ha-1. The economic optimum level of S was found at 59.19 kg ha-1 (Mishra and Mukherjee, 2002). Slightly higher green fodder and dry matter yield was recorded with increase in sulphur up to 60 kg S ha-1 and application of sulphur improved the crude protein content of berseem (Tiwana and Puri, 2003). Boron application @ 2 and 4 kg ha-1 enhanced the seed and stover yield of berseem significantly over the control (Agrawal et al., 2009). Application of Mo to first crop of berseem is sufficient for next crop of maize.




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Lucerne Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) gives highly palatable nutritious fodder rich in protein and mineral constituents having high yield and quality potential, versatility in utilization, soil improvement and symbiotic nitrogen fixation are among the most important factors in favour of its wider use in agricultural production systems (Shivadhar et al., 2005). Plant height, crude protein content, green fodder and dry matter yields also increased significantly due to combined inoculation with rhizobium and PSB and with their combined application with recommended doses of nitrogen and phosphorus (20 kg N and 40 kg P ha-1) suggesting complementary effects of each other, which was evident from 29% increase in green fodder yield over recommended do ses of nitro gen and phosphorus (Sammauria and Yadav, 2008). Menhi Lal and Tripathi (1987) elucidated the beneficial effect of K in holding higher concentration of nonstructural carbohydrates (soluble carbohydrates) in root, which is essential for regeneration of lucerne crop following cuttings. At Palampur, in soil of pH 55.2, application of 5 t ha-1 of lime with 40 kg S ha-1 and 1 kg MoO4 ha-1 helped in seed production of red clover and lucerne (Kumar and Faruqui, 2010). In acid soils of Jharkhand, application of lime @ 5 t ha-1 once in three years and Boron @ 3 kg ha-1 and 1 kg MoO4 ha-1 annually help in increased lucerne seed production by about 10 times (Prasad, 2002).

PERENNIAL FORAGE CROPS Perennial forage crops like napier bajra hybrid, tri specific hybrid and guinea grass responds to added nutrients in terms of productivity and quality (Tiwana et al., 2004; Velayudam et

al., 2011; Pathan et al., 2012; Ram and Trivedi, 2012). The nitrogen application increased the fodder yield of napier bajra hybrid significantly up to 75 kg N ha-1 cut-1. The application of 75 kg N ha-1 cut-1 recorded 24.1 and 12.8% higher green fodder yield; and 22.1 and 11.7% higher dry matter yield over 25 and 50 kg N ha-1 cut-1, respectively. The mortality of stumps also decreased with increase in nitrogen dose (Tiwana et al., 2004). Similarly nitrogen application increased GFY, DMY, plant height, number of tillers/bunch, number of leaves bunch-1, LAI and dry matter accumulation through leaves and stem at all the cuts (Singh et al., 2002). Green fodder, dry matter and crude protein yield increased with the increased levels of N (30, 60 and 90 kg N ha-1 cut-1), phosphorus (0, 15 and 30 kg P2O5 ha-1 cut-1) and potash (0, 30 and 60 kg K2O ha-1 cut-1). Considering cost of cultivation and benefit: cost ratio, it was recommended to apply 90 kg nitrogen + 30 kg P2O5 + 30 kg K2O ha-1 per cut for maximum benefit (B:C ratio 1.26) under the lateritic soils of Konkan region of Maharashtra (Kajale et al., 2001). Effect of inorganic and biofertiliser on napier bajra hybrid grass at Coimbatore revealed that highest green (323.9 t ha-1) and dry fodder (79 t ha-1) were obtained with the application of biofertiliser mixture (Azospirillium + Phosphobacterium) alongwtih 100% recommended dose of N and P fertilizer together (Chellamuthu et al., 2000). Application of 62:50:50:25 kg NPK + 25 kg N after each cut showed better proposition for achieving higher green forage (708.6 q ha-1), dry matter yield (168.2 q ha-1) and crude protein yield (15.8 q ha-1) of hybrid napier (Pathan and Bhilare, 2008). Pathan et al. (2012) reported that application of 150% RDF (225:90:90 kg N, P2O5, K2O ha-1) registered significantly higher values of most of the forage quality parameters like dry matter yield (DMY), crude protein content (CPC) (6.84%), crude fibre content (CFC) (29.02%), crude fibre yield (CFY) (185.89 q ha-1), IVDMD, oxalic acid, ash, cellulose, hemi-cellulose and chlorophyll content as compared to rest of the fertilizer levels. However, the maximum values of CFC, neutral detergent fibre (NDF) 67.32%, Acid detergent fibre (ADF) 42.49 and silica content (2.90%). Perennial grass like napier bajra hybrid and guinea grass in association with Leucaena leucocephala under agroforestry system depleted available K content of the soil considerably and the K fertilization was recommended (Rawat and Hazra, 1990). Velayudam et al. (2011) reported that application of 200+70+60 kg of N+P+K ha-1 had enhanced the green fodder yield of 260.52 t ha-1 year-1 and dry matter yield (6.59 t ha-1). At Dharwad, inoculation of TSH with Azospirillium improved the leaf: stem ratio and yield by 25%. The strain ACD-20 proved most suitable strain for the region and could save up to 25 kg N (Murthy, 2002). Application of 80 kg N ha-1 recorded significantly higher height (162.5 cm), number of tillers plant-1 (18.3 cm) and leaf to stem ratio (0.64) of guinea grass as compared to control treatment. 80 kg N ha-1 also recorded higher green forage yield (20.54 t ha-1) crude protein content (6.67%) and dry forage yield (8.17 t ha-1) (Ram and Trivedi, 2012). In high rainfall area of Kerala, fairly high response to 473-874 kg green and 115-214 kg dry fodder kg-1 K2O to K fertilization of 30-90 kg ha-1 in case of


guinea grass was observed (Sumabai and Laksmi, 2003).

The application of fertilizer plays important role in improving herbage productivity of range grasses and legumes. Nitrogen application in Sehima, Heteropogon and Iseilema grasslands significantly increased herbage production. The economically optimum dose was found to be in the range of 40 to 60 kg N ha-1; the lower dose during periods of subnormal rainfall and the higher dose when more soil moisture is available. Singh (1999) from Sikkim reported that Guatemala and guinea grass cv. Hamil, Gatton and Makueni responded up to 200 kg N ha-1, while broom grass, palm grass and thin napier produced maximum dry matter at 100 kg N ha-1. Application of N increased the specific root length and root length density in most of the grasses. Earlier workers reported that response to applied phosphorus was of lower order while potassium did not play any ro le i n increasing forage producti on i n pastures (Dabadghao et al., 1965; Rai, 1990; Kanodia, 1995). Rathore et al. (1998) at Barmer (Rajasthan) reported that application of N: P (40:20) kg ha-1 to C. ciliaris resulted in significantly high forage yield (4.66 t ha-1) and crude protein (0.22 t ha-1). In a natural grassland at Palampur, Premi and Sood (1999) observed that the application of 80 kg N + 60 kg P ha-1 to Setaria produced 18.38 t ha-1 green fodder and 3.32 t ha-1 dry matter yield, which was 114.9 and 115% higher over no fertilization. Kumar et al. (2007) also reported that application of 60 kg N + 40 kg P ha-1 to Sehima resulted in higher green fodder (21.3 t ha-1), dry matter (8.2 t ha-1) and crude protein yield (0.4 t ha-1) registering an increase of 22.25% over the control. Niranjan et al. (2004) while working at Jhansi reported that application of 90 kg N and 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 to both TSH (Trispecific Hybrid) and Stylo recorded maximum green and dry fodder and protein yield (Table 6).




RANGE GRASSES AND LEGUMES

The study conducted by Tripathi et al. (2006-07) on soil fertility improvement and dry matter production under different pastures in relation to fertilization showed the maximum grass productivity in mixed pasture of C. ciliaris + S. hamata + L. Table 6. Biomass and crude protein yields of grass and legumes as influenced by N and P2O5 Treatment

Biomass yields (t ha-1 ) Green Dry

Crops TSH 38.7 Stylo 23.4 TSH+Stylo 33.5 CD (P=0.05) 1.8 Nitrogen level (kg ha-1) 0 26.4 30 30.3 60 33.4 90 37.5 CD (P=0.05) 1.50 Phosphate level (kg ha-1) 0 29.2 30 31.8 60 34.7 CD = (P=0.05) 1.0 Source: Niranjan et al. (2004)

Crude protein yields (kg ha-1)

9.58 6.62 8.37 0.31

717 654 794 27

6.69 7.76 8.71 9.61 0.26

602 683 561 842 23

7.30 8.27 9.00 0.28

659 724 783 19

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leucocephala and it was 2.65 times more compared to natural pasture (2.98 t ha-1). Application of fertilizer in both the natural and sown pastures showed an improvement in nutrients’ removal (N, P & K) over no fertilizer application. Green and dry forage yields were higher with L. Sindicus + cowpea and C.ciliaris + cowpea system as compared to sole strip of C. ciliaris/L. Sindicus. Application of 40 kg N ha-1 increased green and dry fodder yields by 10-20% over the control. Crude protein yield of grasses was also increased (61%) with inclusion of cowpea and fertilizer application (Patidar et al., 2008). Split application of N was superior in coarse textured soil while single basal application proved better in fine textured soil (Verma et. al., 2005). In pasture grasses, the soil application of Zn, Fe, Cu, Mo and B along with nitrogen proved better in C. ciliaris (Hazra, 1992). Application of 40 kg N ha-1 in introduced velvet bean of a natural grassland of Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh recorded 5.8 t ha-1 green forage herbage (Sood et al., 1994).The yield of range legumes like Siratro and Stylo were improved by 34-40 % respectively with NPK fertilizer along with 20 kg S ha1 over fertilizer NPK without S addition (Gill et al., 1986). In another study by Pahwa and Yadav (2000) at Jhansi found that application of 10 kg Zn ha-1 to S. hamata in the presence of culture (Bradyrhizobium- JSR-6) improved forage yield (3.8 DM t ha-1) significantly and 40 kg S ha-1 with inoculation was significantly superior (5.1 DM t ha-1). In Sehima Heteropogon grassland, the dry matter yield and organic carbon content increased to 40 kg N equivalent ha-1 with the inclusion of range legumes (Singh and Yadav, 1987).

FORAGE-BASED INTERCROPPING SYSTEMS Nitrogen application @ 80 kg ha-1 significantly increased green forage and dry matter yields of sole sorghum and sorghum + legumes intercropping compared with the control and 40 kg N ha-1 (Ram and Bhagwan Singh, 2001a). Tripathi et al. (2004) reported that combined application of 40 kg N ha-1 half as urea and the rest half a FYM slurry along with 80 kg K2O ha-1 produced significantly higher forage yield of Cenchrus ciliaris + Stylosanthes hamata grass (11.40 t ha-1) with highest K (116%) and N use efficiency (260%). At Ranchi, Chaubey and Prasad (2001) found that in oat + berseem intercropping, oat fertilized with 75% recommended dose of NPK + berseem at 100% NPK produced 41.2 and 58.6% higher green herbage over sole stand (100% NPK) of oat and berseem, respectively. The same also accounted for the highest net return per rupee investment (‘ 3.19) and land-equivalent ratio (LER 1.69). With the inter cropping of Stylosanthes in Dinanath grass, saving of additional 40 kg N ha-1 was achieved (Prasad and Mukherjee, 1987). The integration of forage bushes/ perennial grasses in a fixed geometry successfully supplied the green fodder round the year from rainfed fields. The cultivation of sorghum (fodder) + pigeon pea (grain) in 3 m wide alleys formed with planting two rows each of subabul + TSH yielded 53.27 tonnes green and 13.28 tonnes dry matter ha-1, respectively. The nutrient supplementation to the system as 75% organic + 25% inorganic sources was better as compared to other combinations of

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The application of 60 kg S ha-1 and 10 kg Zn ha-1 to pearl millet and its intercropping with cowpea (3:1) increased the green and dry fodder yields significantly compared with the control and lower levels. Application of 40 kg S ha-1 significantly increased crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract and ash content over the control and remained at par with 60 kg S ha-1. Increasing levels of zinc up to 10 kg ha-1 significantly increased crude protein and crude fibre over the control but ether extract and ash content increased significantly only up to 5 kg Zn ha1 (Dadhich and Gupta, 2005). At IGFRI, Jhansi Intercropping of guinea grass with S. hamata in paired row gave significantly higher green forage (20.35 t ha-1), dry forage (5.01 t ha-1) and crude protein yields (438.8 kg ha-1) compared with the sole stand of both grass and legume and alternate row and it was at par with 3:3 and 4:4 row ratios during all the four years. Among fertility levels, combined application of 75% of the recommended dose of fertilizer and 5 t FYM ha-1 gave significantly higher total green and dry forage yields as compared to RDF and 50 percent of the RDF + 5 t FYM ha-1. The highest net returns (‘ 5276 ha-1) and net return per ‘ invested (0.55) were achieved with application of 75% of the RDF in combination with 5 t FYM ha-1. Fly ash application @ 50 t ha-1 in sorghum + cowpea (2:2)-oat (red soils) and sorghum + cowpea (2:2) – berseem (black soil) in combination with manure, fertilizer and biofertilizer registered significant increase in yield than no fly ash (Das et al., 2007). Combined application of 75% RDF and 5 t FYM ha-1 gave significantly higher total green and dry forage yield, crude protein content and yield (Ram, 2010). The maximum net returns were obtained in paired row of grass-legume intercropping and application of 75% of the recommended dose of fertilizer + FYM 5 t ha-1 (Ram, 2009). Lentil + oat intercropping in 2:1 row ratio and application of P @ 17.2 kg ha-1 resulted in better land utilization, high yields as well as profitability under rainfed silty clay loam soil of Kashmir valley (Singh et al., 2011).




organics and in organics (Agrawal et al., 2007). Application of 50% recommended N through inorganic sources alongwith 25% vermicompost and 25% through sheep manure in cowpea + Cenchrus in 2:1 ratio and in aonla based intercropping under semi arid conditions improved the dry matter yield by 122.35% over 100% organic inorganic supplementation. Organic C (0.401%) increased by 39.72% over initial status (Meena et al., 2011).

FORAGE-BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS Application of FYM as a source of nutrients in sorghum caused phenomenal increase in growth parameters in wheat based cropping system. Delayed application of phosphorus in preceding wheat crop caused higher green forage yield along with more crude protein in sorghum (Ganai et al., 2010). Forage pearl millet preceding berseem (required less N application than pearl millet following wheat, oat or turnip (Brassica rapa), resulting in a saving of 50% N (Harika et al., 1986). In cowpeasorghum-oat sequence the yield of fodder oat was higher when N and P were applied to cowpea and sorghum than without N and P to cowpea and sorghum (Sinha and Rai, 1995). Under the sorghum + cowpea – lucerne forage cropping system,

significantly higher green forage, dry matter and crude protein yield of sorghum (527.35, 110.50, 9.36 q ha-1), cowpea (286.27, 40.28, 7.13 q ha-1) and lucerne (724.33, 154.02, 29.15 q ha-1), respectively was reported due to 25 % N through FYM + 50% N and 100% P, K through inorganic fertilizer + biofertilizer (Azotobacter/Rhizobium) (Pathan and Kamble, 2012). Application of SSP with rock phosphate + phosphoric acid (partially acidulated) in the ratio of 60:40 was found beneficial for direct effect on berseem and for the residual effect on maize (Marwah et.al., 1981). In acid soils, residual effect of P was observed in berseem – maize and oat – dinanath grass sequence (Tripathi et al., 1989). Maize after berseem produced 5.2 and 10.9% higher green fodder yield; and 6.4 and 9.7% higher dry matter yield than maize succeeding ryegrass and wheat, respectively. Similarly, pearl millet after berseem gave 15.0 and 20.9% higher green fodder; and 11.7 and 17.3% higher dry matter yield over pearl millet succeeding ryegrass and wheat, respectively. The cropping systems having berseem resulted in higher wheat equivalent yield, production efficiency and B:C ratio. Berseempearl millet cropping sequence proved to be the most remunerative followed by berseem-maize, whereas lowest productivity was observed with wheat-maize and wheat-pearl millet. Maize fodder succeeding berseem responded up to 100 kg N ha-1, whereas after wheat and ryegrass response was observed up to 125 kg N ha-1. Pearl millet responded up to 75, 100 and 125 kg N ha-1 succeeding berseem, ryegrass and wheat respectively (Tiwana et al., 2006).

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